This document discusses income inequality and poverty. It provides data on the distribution of income in the United States from 1998 to 1935, showing that income inequality has increased in recent decades. Factors that have contributed to rising inequality include increases in international trade, changes in technology, and the falling wages of unskilled workers relative to skilled workers. The document also examines poverty rates in the US and issues with measuring inequality, such as accounting for in-kind transfers, economic life cycles, and transitory versus permanent income. It concludes by discussing different political philosophies around redistributing income.
The document discusses key concepts and principles of economic development. It defines development as a multi-dimensional process involving not just economic growth but also social, institutional and cultural changes that improve living standards. Several metrics are used to measure development, including GDP per capita, human development index, health and education indicators. Common characteristics of developing countries are identified such as low living standards, income inequality, poverty, dependence on agriculture and lack of industrialization. Theories of development and classifications of countries by institutions like the UN and World Bank are also outlined.
A brief study on the measures of income distribution for both analytic and quantitative purposes in terms of size distribution and functional distribution.
The study includes discussion on following concepts-
Lorenz Curve
Gini Coefficient
Absolute Poverty
Foster Greer Thorbecke Measure
This document provides an overview of economic development concepts and issues. It defines development as a multi-dimensional process involving social and economic reorganization to improve quality of life. Traditional views saw development as economic growth, while newer views emphasize reducing poverty and inequality. Sen's capabilities approach sees development as expanding freedoms. The document also discusses objectives of development, characteristics of developing nations, differences between growth and development, and indices like HDI and MDGs that measure development progress.
This document provides an overview of the history of economic development theories from World War 2 to modern times. It discusses how development economics emerged as a field in response to the needs of developing countries after the war. Early theories focused on modernization, industrialization, and linear stages of growth. Later, structuralism and dependency theory argued external factors influenced underdevelopment. Neoclassical theories emphasized free markets. Contemporary theories include endogenous growth theory examining knowledge-driven growth.
Karl Marx was a German philosopher and economist who developed the theory of scientific socialism. He viewed society and history through the lens of class struggle and economic determinism. Some key aspects of Marx's theory include: (1) his materialist interpretation of history that views economic and class conflict as the driving forces of social change, (2) his theory of surplus value which argues that capitalists exploit workers by appropriating the surplus created by labor, and (3) his belief that capitalism would inevitably lead to its own downfall due to internal contradictions such as falling profit rates, which would be replaced by socialism. Marx's theories were aimed at critically analyzing and explaining the dynamics of capitalism and class relations.
Autocorrelation- Concept, Causes and ConsequencesShilpa Chaudhary
Autocorrelation occurs when errors in a time series model are correlated across time periods, violating the assumption of independent errors. This can be caused by inertia in the data, omitted variables, incorrect functional form, or data manipulation. Consequences of ignoring autocorrelation in OLS models include inefficient estimators, biased error variances, and unreliable t-tests, F-tests, and R-squared values. Autocorrelation can be identified through patterns in the error terms and estimated using measures like sample autocorrelation.
This document discusses factors affecting economic growth and development and the vicious circle of poverty. It defines economic growth as an increase in real GDP per capita over time, while economic development brings both quantitative and qualitative changes through initiatives like infrastructure, health, education, etc. Key factors influencing growth are discussed as capital formation, natural resources, trade, and economic systems. Non-economic factors include human capital, technology, political freedom, social organization, and corruption. The vicious circle of poverty is then examined in terms of how low capital, labor, and technology can perpetuate poverty through mechanisms like low savings, child labor, and lack of infrastructure and innovation.
This document discusses income inequality and poverty. It provides data on the distribution of income in the United States from 1998 to 1935, showing that income inequality has increased in recent decades. Factors that have contributed to rising inequality include increases in international trade, changes in technology, and the falling wages of unskilled workers relative to skilled workers. The document also examines poverty rates in the US and issues with measuring inequality, such as accounting for in-kind transfers, economic life cycles, and transitory versus permanent income. It concludes by discussing different political philosophies around redistributing income.
The document discusses key concepts and principles of economic development. It defines development as a multi-dimensional process involving not just economic growth but also social, institutional and cultural changes that improve living standards. Several metrics are used to measure development, including GDP per capita, human development index, health and education indicators. Common characteristics of developing countries are identified such as low living standards, income inequality, poverty, dependence on agriculture and lack of industrialization. Theories of development and classifications of countries by institutions like the UN and World Bank are also outlined.
A brief study on the measures of income distribution for both analytic and quantitative purposes in terms of size distribution and functional distribution.
The study includes discussion on following concepts-
Lorenz Curve
Gini Coefficient
Absolute Poverty
Foster Greer Thorbecke Measure
This document provides an overview of economic development concepts and issues. It defines development as a multi-dimensional process involving social and economic reorganization to improve quality of life. Traditional views saw development as economic growth, while newer views emphasize reducing poverty and inequality. Sen's capabilities approach sees development as expanding freedoms. The document also discusses objectives of development, characteristics of developing nations, differences between growth and development, and indices like HDI and MDGs that measure development progress.
This document provides an overview of the history of economic development theories from World War 2 to modern times. It discusses how development economics emerged as a field in response to the needs of developing countries after the war. Early theories focused on modernization, industrialization, and linear stages of growth. Later, structuralism and dependency theory argued external factors influenced underdevelopment. Neoclassical theories emphasized free markets. Contemporary theories include endogenous growth theory examining knowledge-driven growth.
Karl Marx was a German philosopher and economist who developed the theory of scientific socialism. He viewed society and history through the lens of class struggle and economic determinism. Some key aspects of Marx's theory include: (1) his materialist interpretation of history that views economic and class conflict as the driving forces of social change, (2) his theory of surplus value which argues that capitalists exploit workers by appropriating the surplus created by labor, and (3) his belief that capitalism would inevitably lead to its own downfall due to internal contradictions such as falling profit rates, which would be replaced by socialism. Marx's theories were aimed at critically analyzing and explaining the dynamics of capitalism and class relations.
Autocorrelation- Concept, Causes and ConsequencesShilpa Chaudhary
Autocorrelation occurs when errors in a time series model are correlated across time periods, violating the assumption of independent errors. This can be caused by inertia in the data, omitted variables, incorrect functional form, or data manipulation. Consequences of ignoring autocorrelation in OLS models include inefficient estimators, biased error variances, and unreliable t-tests, F-tests, and R-squared values. Autocorrelation can be identified through patterns in the error terms and estimated using measures like sample autocorrelation.
This document discusses factors affecting economic growth and development and the vicious circle of poverty. It defines economic growth as an increase in real GDP per capita over time, while economic development brings both quantitative and qualitative changes through initiatives like infrastructure, health, education, etc. Key factors influencing growth are discussed as capital formation, natural resources, trade, and economic systems. Non-economic factors include human capital, technology, political freedom, social organization, and corruption. The vicious circle of poverty is then examined in terms of how low capital, labor, and technology can perpetuate poverty through mechanisms like low savings, child labor, and lack of infrastructure and innovation.
Economic growth and economic development and the differencesAquatix Pharma
Economic growth refers to an increase in a country's real GDP or output, measured quantitatively. It does not necessarily improve living standards. Economic development is a broader concept that involves qualitative progress such as improved literacy, life expectancy, and standards of living. Development measures progress using indexes like the Human Development Index that account for social and environmental factors beyond just GDP. True economic development leads to sustainable gains for society as a whole, while growth can sometimes only benefit a small group.
The classical theory of employment and output assumed full employment, perfect competition, and wage-price flexibility. It was based on Say's Law that supply creates its own demand and the quantity theory of money that money only impacts prices, not output. Under these assumptions, the economy would always attain general equilibrium with full employment determined by the intersection of labor demand and supply curves. However, the Great Depression showed the flaws in these assumptions and need for government intervention.
- The document discusses hypothesis testing using regression analysis, focusing on the confidence interval approach and test of significance approach.
- It provides an example using wage and education data to test the hypothesis that the slope coefficient is equal to 0.5. Both the confidence interval approach and t-test approach are used to reject the null hypothesis.
- One-tailed and two-tailed hypothesis tests are explained. Additional topics covered include choosing the significance level, statistical versus practical significance, and reporting the results of regression analysis.
Difference Between Economic Growth and Developmentzaryab anwar
The document discusses economic growth and economic development. It defines economic growth as a steady increase in a nation's productive capacity and output over decades that leads to rising income levels. Economic development is defined as a process that increases a society's total goods and services supply and improves living standards. It involves structural changes including a shift away from agriculture and toward industry and services, changes in technology use, and improvements to social and institutional sectors. While economic growth focuses only on raising income, economic development also aims to enhance human well-being through both increased income and structural transformations of an economy and society.
Barriers to Economic Growth and Developmenttutor2u
This is a revision presentation covering examples of barriers ti economic growth and development in emerging and developing countries. In their revision students should consider factors such as:
Poor infrastructure
Human capital inadequacies
Primary product dependency
Declining terms of trade
Savings gap; inadequate capital accumulation
Foreign currency gap and capital flight
Corruption, poor governance, impact of civil war
Population issues
This is showing the developing countries' situation. Compiled to teach Japanese high school students about developing countries. It was also made for those interested in attending university is Development related courses.
The document outlines a presentation on economic development. It discusses key concepts like economic growth, economic development, sustainable development, and the differences between them. It also examines the main elements, features, conditions and significance of sustainable development. Finally, it identifies the economic and non-economic determinants of economic development, such as natural resources, human resources, physical capital, technology, markets, social factors, political stability, and corruption.
This document discusses various measures used to assess economic development. It defines Gross National Product (GNP) as the value of goods and services produced in a country plus those produced abroad. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the value of all goods and services produced locally or by foreign companies within a country. The Human Development Index (HDI) measures life expectancy, education levels, and income to assess overall human development. The document also outlines characteristics of developed, newly industrialized, and least developed countries.
The document is an introductory chapter about economic development that discusses key concepts. It begins by providing quotes from poor individuals around the world that illustrate the multidimensional nature of poverty. It then discusses how development economics differs from traditional economics by considering non-economic factors. The chapter also examines definitions of development, including measures like GNI but also Amartya Sen's capability approach. It outlines the Millennium Development Goals and provides tables listing the goals and targets. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of development economics and achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
Characteristics of underdeveloped economiesGeorgi Mathew
Underdeveloped economies are characterized by low per capita incomes, underutilized resources, inefficient production techniques, and potential for growth. They have incomes of $1025 or less and rely on agriculture, suffering from poverty, unemployment, and low levels of living. Population growth outpaces economic growth, exacerbating unemployment and poverty. Development requires improving infrastructure, education, health, and industrialization to increase productivity and standards of living.
1. The document summarizes several classic theories of economic growth and development, including linear stages of growth, structural change models, dependency theory, and neoclassical counterrevolution theories.
2. It outlines Rostow's stages of growth model and the Harrod-Domar growth model, describing their key assumptions and equations.
3. Lewis' two-sector model of labor transferring from subsistence agriculture to higher productivity industry is also introduced, along with its limitations.
The document summarizes Kuznets' hypothesis that income inequality within countries initially rises and then falls with economic development. It provides evidence from Kuznets' 1955 study showing higher inequality in less developed countries (LDCs) like India compared to developed countries (DCs) like the UK and US. Kuznets attributed the inverted-U shape relationship between development and inequality to structural changes in early industrialization benefiting high-income groups before policies and social changes in later stages reduced the gap. The document also discusses measures of inequality like the Gini coefficient and debates around Kuznets' hypothesis.
Gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard unit of currency is a fixed quantity of gold or is kept at the value of a fixed quantity of gold.
The document discusses measuring development between less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and more economically developed countries (MEDC). It defines development as encompassing both economic and social factors like wealth, quality of life, health, literacy, and housing. The most widely used indicator is gross national product (GNP) per capita, which is a country's total output divided by population. However, GNP is a more reliable indicator for MEDCs than LEDCs because LEDC statistics are less available and accurate, and GNP does not account for subsistence farming common in LEDCs. Other development indicators include birth rate, energy consumption, doctors per person, and literacy rates.
Economics: Poverty, Inequality & Development Lilliene Alleje
The document discusses various methods for measuring poverty and inequality, including Lorenz curves, Gini coefficients, and the Multidimensional Poverty Index. It also examines the relationship between economic growth, inequality, and poverty reduction. Key growth typologies include traditional sector enrichment, modern sector enrichment, and modern sector enlargement. While growth may initially worsen inequality according to Kuznet's hypothesis, policies like progressive taxation, asset redistribution, and direct transfers can help address poverty and inequality.
The document provides an overview of Pakistan's tax structure, including direct and indirect taxes. It discusses income tax, sales tax, corporate tax rates, and the proposed goods and services tax (RGST) which would replace existing sales tax and excise regimes. The RGST is essentially a value-added tax with a 15% rate that would be applied incrementally at each stage of production and distribution. It is aimed at simplifying the tax system and reducing evasion, but may increase costs to consumers.
National income accounting involves calculating the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a year. It can be measured using the expenditure approach, income approach, or product approach. There are several challenges to accurate national income calculation including non-monetized sectors, illiteracy, lack of expertise, less sophisticated tools, double counting, false reporting, and multi-occupations. National income data is used to measure economic growth, real income, per capita income, and growth rates.
This study examined the determinants of investment and behavior of investors in Gwalior, India. It found that liquidity, capital, past price fluctuations, expert advice, and risk involvement were the top five factors considered when making investment decisions. Gender and age were found to influence attitudes towards liquidity, risk tolerance, and time horizon of investments. Specifically, females were more impacted by liquidity and past price fluctuations, while younger investors aged 18-25 were more willing to take risks and invest long-term compared to older age groups. The top priority for most investors was liquidity of investments over potential higher returns from high-risk options.
This document discusses measuring poverty and inequality. It outlines four criteria for measuring inequality: anonymity, population, relative income, and Dalton principles. It also describes the Lorenz curve and five measures of inequality: range, Kuznets ratio, mean absolute deviation, coefficient of variation, and Gini coefficient. For poverty measurement, it defines the poverty line and discusses headcount ratio, poverty gap ratio, income gap ratio, and Foster-Greer-Thorbecke class measures.
Poverty and inequality in a changing contextLindsey Cottle
This document outlines poverty, inequality, and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It defines poverty in monetary, capability, and participatory terms. It discusses measuring poverty through monetary indicators like consumption, capability indicators like health and education, and inequality indicators like income distribution. It notes most of the world's poor now live in middle-income countries rather than low-income countries. The document then outlines the MDGs on eradicating poverty, improving health, education, gender equality, and the environment. It discusses options for a post-2015 framework, including both macroeconomic approaches like foreign aid and microeconomic approaches like employment creation and public services. It proposes evaluating the MDGs from different perspectives and discourses.
Economic growth and economic development and the differencesAquatix Pharma
Economic growth refers to an increase in a country's real GDP or output, measured quantitatively. It does not necessarily improve living standards. Economic development is a broader concept that involves qualitative progress such as improved literacy, life expectancy, and standards of living. Development measures progress using indexes like the Human Development Index that account for social and environmental factors beyond just GDP. True economic development leads to sustainable gains for society as a whole, while growth can sometimes only benefit a small group.
The classical theory of employment and output assumed full employment, perfect competition, and wage-price flexibility. It was based on Say's Law that supply creates its own demand and the quantity theory of money that money only impacts prices, not output. Under these assumptions, the economy would always attain general equilibrium with full employment determined by the intersection of labor demand and supply curves. However, the Great Depression showed the flaws in these assumptions and need for government intervention.
- The document discusses hypothesis testing using regression analysis, focusing on the confidence interval approach and test of significance approach.
- It provides an example using wage and education data to test the hypothesis that the slope coefficient is equal to 0.5. Both the confidence interval approach and t-test approach are used to reject the null hypothesis.
- One-tailed and two-tailed hypothesis tests are explained. Additional topics covered include choosing the significance level, statistical versus practical significance, and reporting the results of regression analysis.
Difference Between Economic Growth and Developmentzaryab anwar
The document discusses economic growth and economic development. It defines economic growth as a steady increase in a nation's productive capacity and output over decades that leads to rising income levels. Economic development is defined as a process that increases a society's total goods and services supply and improves living standards. It involves structural changes including a shift away from agriculture and toward industry and services, changes in technology use, and improvements to social and institutional sectors. While economic growth focuses only on raising income, economic development also aims to enhance human well-being through both increased income and structural transformations of an economy and society.
Barriers to Economic Growth and Developmenttutor2u
This is a revision presentation covering examples of barriers ti economic growth and development in emerging and developing countries. In their revision students should consider factors such as:
Poor infrastructure
Human capital inadequacies
Primary product dependency
Declining terms of trade
Savings gap; inadequate capital accumulation
Foreign currency gap and capital flight
Corruption, poor governance, impact of civil war
Population issues
This is showing the developing countries' situation. Compiled to teach Japanese high school students about developing countries. It was also made for those interested in attending university is Development related courses.
The document outlines a presentation on economic development. It discusses key concepts like economic growth, economic development, sustainable development, and the differences between them. It also examines the main elements, features, conditions and significance of sustainable development. Finally, it identifies the economic and non-economic determinants of economic development, such as natural resources, human resources, physical capital, technology, markets, social factors, political stability, and corruption.
This document discusses various measures used to assess economic development. It defines Gross National Product (GNP) as the value of goods and services produced in a country plus those produced abroad. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the value of all goods and services produced locally or by foreign companies within a country. The Human Development Index (HDI) measures life expectancy, education levels, and income to assess overall human development. The document also outlines characteristics of developed, newly industrialized, and least developed countries.
The document is an introductory chapter about economic development that discusses key concepts. It begins by providing quotes from poor individuals around the world that illustrate the multidimensional nature of poverty. It then discusses how development economics differs from traditional economics by considering non-economic factors. The chapter also examines definitions of development, including measures like GNI but also Amartya Sen's capability approach. It outlines the Millennium Development Goals and provides tables listing the goals and targets. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of development economics and achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
Characteristics of underdeveloped economiesGeorgi Mathew
Underdeveloped economies are characterized by low per capita incomes, underutilized resources, inefficient production techniques, and potential for growth. They have incomes of $1025 or less and rely on agriculture, suffering from poverty, unemployment, and low levels of living. Population growth outpaces economic growth, exacerbating unemployment and poverty. Development requires improving infrastructure, education, health, and industrialization to increase productivity and standards of living.
1. The document summarizes several classic theories of economic growth and development, including linear stages of growth, structural change models, dependency theory, and neoclassical counterrevolution theories.
2. It outlines Rostow's stages of growth model and the Harrod-Domar growth model, describing their key assumptions and equations.
3. Lewis' two-sector model of labor transferring from subsistence agriculture to higher productivity industry is also introduced, along with its limitations.
The document summarizes Kuznets' hypothesis that income inequality within countries initially rises and then falls with economic development. It provides evidence from Kuznets' 1955 study showing higher inequality in less developed countries (LDCs) like India compared to developed countries (DCs) like the UK and US. Kuznets attributed the inverted-U shape relationship between development and inequality to structural changes in early industrialization benefiting high-income groups before policies and social changes in later stages reduced the gap. The document also discusses measures of inequality like the Gini coefficient and debates around Kuznets' hypothesis.
Gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard unit of currency is a fixed quantity of gold or is kept at the value of a fixed quantity of gold.
The document discusses measuring development between less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and more economically developed countries (MEDC). It defines development as encompassing both economic and social factors like wealth, quality of life, health, literacy, and housing. The most widely used indicator is gross national product (GNP) per capita, which is a country's total output divided by population. However, GNP is a more reliable indicator for MEDCs than LEDCs because LEDC statistics are less available and accurate, and GNP does not account for subsistence farming common in LEDCs. Other development indicators include birth rate, energy consumption, doctors per person, and literacy rates.
Economics: Poverty, Inequality & Development Lilliene Alleje
The document discusses various methods for measuring poverty and inequality, including Lorenz curves, Gini coefficients, and the Multidimensional Poverty Index. It also examines the relationship between economic growth, inequality, and poverty reduction. Key growth typologies include traditional sector enrichment, modern sector enrichment, and modern sector enlargement. While growth may initially worsen inequality according to Kuznet's hypothesis, policies like progressive taxation, asset redistribution, and direct transfers can help address poverty and inequality.
The document provides an overview of Pakistan's tax structure, including direct and indirect taxes. It discusses income tax, sales tax, corporate tax rates, and the proposed goods and services tax (RGST) which would replace existing sales tax and excise regimes. The RGST is essentially a value-added tax with a 15% rate that would be applied incrementally at each stage of production and distribution. It is aimed at simplifying the tax system and reducing evasion, but may increase costs to consumers.
National income accounting involves calculating the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a year. It can be measured using the expenditure approach, income approach, or product approach. There are several challenges to accurate national income calculation including non-monetized sectors, illiteracy, lack of expertise, less sophisticated tools, double counting, false reporting, and multi-occupations. National income data is used to measure economic growth, real income, per capita income, and growth rates.
This study examined the determinants of investment and behavior of investors in Gwalior, India. It found that liquidity, capital, past price fluctuations, expert advice, and risk involvement were the top five factors considered when making investment decisions. Gender and age were found to influence attitudes towards liquidity, risk tolerance, and time horizon of investments. Specifically, females were more impacted by liquidity and past price fluctuations, while younger investors aged 18-25 were more willing to take risks and invest long-term compared to older age groups. The top priority for most investors was liquidity of investments over potential higher returns from high-risk options.
This document discusses measuring poverty and inequality. It outlines four criteria for measuring inequality: anonymity, population, relative income, and Dalton principles. It also describes the Lorenz curve and five measures of inequality: range, Kuznets ratio, mean absolute deviation, coefficient of variation, and Gini coefficient. For poverty measurement, it defines the poverty line and discusses headcount ratio, poverty gap ratio, income gap ratio, and Foster-Greer-Thorbecke class measures.
Poverty and inequality in a changing contextLindsey Cottle
This document outlines poverty, inequality, and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It defines poverty in monetary, capability, and participatory terms. It discusses measuring poverty through monetary indicators like consumption, capability indicators like health and education, and inequality indicators like income distribution. It notes most of the world's poor now live in middle-income countries rather than low-income countries. The document then outlines the MDGs on eradicating poverty, improving health, education, gender equality, and the environment. It discusses options for a post-2015 framework, including both macroeconomic approaches like foreign aid and microeconomic approaches like employment creation and public services. It proposes evaluating the MDGs from different perspectives and discourses.
The document discusses income inequality and poverty in the United States. It measures inequality using data that shows the richest 20% earn about 10 times as much as the poorest 20%. It also examines political philosophies around redistributing income, including utilitarianism supporting it, liberalism allowing for it as social insurance, and libertarianism opposing it. The document also analyzes policies to reduce poverty like minimum wage laws, welfare, negative income taxes, and in-kind transfers, noting each have unintended effects on work incentives.
Inequality, Economic Growth and Developmenttutor2u
The document discusses inequality, economic growth, and development. It covers several topics: Kuznets and income inequality; real income growth in the USA and top income shares; a global perspective on inequality between 1988-2008 showing rising incomes for the middle class in China and India. It also discusses the root causes of inequality like less progressive tax systems and market failures in education and housing. Strategies to reduce inequality include investing in education, pursuing inclusive pro-poor growth policies, and microfinance. Overall, the document examines inequality from various economic perspectives and proposes approaches to promote shared prosperity across populations.
The document discusses income inequality, which is the gap between rich and poor in terms of wealth and income distribution. It provides data on income inequality ratios between the richest and poorest 10% of populations in various countries. Income inequality varies between societies, economic systems, and over time. There are various ways to measure economic inequality numerically, including Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients. The document then discusses some of the key causes of income inequality like changes in labor markets, globalization, technology, and tax policies. It also discusses some of the impacts and trade-offs of income inequality.
At 179.9 million hectares, India holds the second largest agricultural land in the world. A majority of the Indian population relies on agriculture for employment and livelihood. Steady investments in technology development, irrigation infrastructure, emphasis on modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies are the major factors contributing to agriculture growth.
The country has today emerged as a major player in the global agriculture market. Agriculture accounts for 14 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) and about 11 per cent of India’s total exports; it is also an essential link in the supply chain of the manufacturing sector and at the same time constitutes a big market for industrial products. Currently, India is the world's largest rice exporter and second in terms of wheat exports. Horticulture exports have also seen good growth. India's agro exports during 2013–14 touched US$ 45 billion as against US$ 25 billion in 2011–12.
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal organisation responsible for development of the agriculture sector in India. The organisation is responsible for formulation and implementation of national policies and programmes aimed at achieving rapid agricultural growth through optimum utilisation of land, water, soil and plant resources of the country.
Poverty, Inequality and Social Policies in Brazil: Social Productive Keynesia...UNDP Policy Centre
Presentation by Senator Cristovam Buarque from Brazil on 27 April 2012 at IPC-IG. Cristovam Buarque has been a Senator for two consecutive terms (2003-2019) and a Professor at the University of Brasilia since 1979, where he was also Dean (1985-1989). He graduated in Mechanical Engineering at the Federal University of Pernambuco (1966) and earned a PhD in Economics from Sorbonne (1973). He worked as Advisor for the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) from 1973-1979. He has also presided the UN University for Peace Council and is a member of UNESCO’s Institute of Education, having published over ten books. During his mandate as Governor of the Brazilian Federal District (1995-1998), he was recognized by his commitment with social inclusion and as an administrator able to turn the ideas previously exposed in his books into laws. Among the several creative solutions conceived by the Professor and implemented by the Governor, the most renowned in Brazil and abroad is the Bolsa-Escola, a revolutionary approach for education and against poverty. He was Minister of Education in 2003. At the Senate he was Chairman of the Senate's External Relations Committee (2004), headed the Senate Human Rights Committee (2005-06), and was Chairman of the Education, Sports and Culture Committee (2007). Presently, Senator Buarque is Vice-Chairman of the Senate External Relations Committee and Chairman of the Special Subcommittee for the 2012 Summit Rio+20.
Factors of production include land, labor, and capital. In the short run, firms can vary labor but capital is fixed. In the long run, all factors are variable. Production functions relate inputs to outputs. The law of diminishing returns applies in the short run. Isoquants and isocosts determine least-cost production combinations. Total costs include fixed and variable costs. Average and marginal costs are calculated. Economies of scale occur when long-run average costs fall as output increases due to experience effects. Diseconomies arise from coordination problems at large scales.
This document provides information about Western Asia, including:
1) Western Asia describes the westernmost portion of Asia and is partly synonymous with the Middle East.
2) The region includes countries like Turkey, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Cyprus, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, and Egypt.
3) Brief descriptions are given for Bahrain and Iraq, including geography, topography, climate, culture, and borders.
Culture can be summarized as follows:
1. Culture includes knowledge, beliefs, customs, and habits that are learned as part of society. It encompasses both general capacities shared by humans and specific traditions of individual societies.
2. Key aspects of culture include that it is learned, symbolic, patterned, and shared among members of a group. Culture shapes human behavior through norms, institutions, and values.
3. Cultural norms include folkways, mores, institutions, and laws. Folkways are customary behaviors, mores define right and wrong, institutions formalize key relationships and roles, and laws are formal rules backed by the state.
India has done well since independence in Agriculture. But the potential for further growth is immense . By adopting the strategies in the paper , the growth can be taken to 6% p.a.
The document discusses supply, including the law of supply, how profits influence production levels and market entry, supply schedules and graphs, elasticity of supply in the short and long run, costs of production including fixed, variable, and marginal costs, and how firms determine output levels. It also covers shifts in supply from factors like input costs, technology, government influences, and expectations about future prices.
The document defines and discusses different aspects of poverty. It defines absolute and relative poverty, with absolute poverty referring to lack of means to meet basic needs and relative poverty considering social and economic status compared to others. It discusses the poverty line as the minimum income level required to afford life's necessities, and how the World Bank adjusted the international poverty line over time. It provides statistics on global and regional poverty rates. For India, it details how the poverty line was originally calculated and varies between states, with some below 10% and others above 40%. It also discusses inequality, the Gini coefficient measure of inequality, and how India's Gini index and inequality has risen in recent decades.
The document discusses various scenarios for key infrastructure sectors in India by 2030. It outlines best, worst, and average case scenarios for transportation, energy, health, security, and other areas. Transportation could see an advanced, well-connected road network or inadequate growth. Railways may become highly advanced or unable to meet travel demands. Airports may have improved safety and facilities or outdated systems.
Agriculture is the oldest occupation in the world and nearly two-thirds of the world's population depends on it. Agriculture involves cultivating crops and rearing livestock. Agriculture is very important for the Indian economy - it provides employment and livelihood to about 65% of Indians, contributes about 18% to India's GDP, and supplies raw materials to industries. Soil erosion due to factors like floods, winds, deforestation, and overgrazing is a major problem affecting Indian agriculture. Methods to control soil erosion include afforestation, crop rotation, terracing, and building dams.
This document discusses various methods used to measure poverty, including absolute and relative poverty. It defines absolute poverty as the minimal requirements for food, clothing, shelter, etc., while relative poverty compares standard of living to the average in a society. Absolute measures discussed include poverty lines for food and non-food costs, as well as the national poverty line. The document also examines the human poverty index and criticisms of poverty lines. Relative poverty is measured using Lorenz curves and the Gini coefficient, which indicate inequality in household income distribution. Other indexes used by the World Bank to measure poverty are also listed.
The document discusses various definitions and conceptualizations of poverty. It contrasts narrow definitions focused on subsistence needs with broader definitions incorporating lack of participation, dignity, and power. It also compares definitions based on income and resources versus actual living standards and activities. Finally, it examines the differences between absolute poverty focused on basic physical needs and relative poverty linked to a society's overall living standards.
Agriculture is a major part of India's economy, contributing 25% to GDP. However, agricultural production has stagnated in recent years due to small landholdings, dependence on monsoons, lack of infrastructure and technology. The government has implemented various policies and programs to support the agricultural sector, including providing subsidies, developing new crop varieties, expanding irrigation and credit, and creating support systems like agriculture extension services and crop insurance. The Targeted Public Distribution System aims to ensure food security for poor families across India.
2. This chapter takes up the question of growth
versus income distribution.
The chapter examines five questions:
1. What is the extent of relative inequality
and poverty in Least Develop Countries
(LDCs)?
2. What are the economic characteristics of
the poor?
3. Who benefits from economic growth?
4. Are economic growth and more equitable
income distributions compatible
objectives?
5. What policies will reduce absolute
poverty?
3. The concepts of size and functional income
distribution are defined as common
measures of income distribution.
The following topics are covered in this section:
1. 1. A review of Lorenz Curves and measures of
inequality
2. 2. A discussion of functional income distributions and
the role of labor supply and demand in determining
wages
4. S i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s
• P e r s o n a l o r s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n c o m e i s
t h e m e a s u r e m o s t c o m m o n l y
u s e d m y e c o n o m i s t .
• D e a l s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l
p e r s o n o r h o u s e h o l d s a n d
t h e t o t a l i n c o m e t h e y
r e c e i v e .
• A r r a n g e a l l i n d i v i d u a l s b y
a s c e n d i n g p e r s o n a l i n c o m e s
a n d t h e n d i v i d e t h e t o t a l
p o p u l a t i o n i n t o d i s t i n c t
g r o u p s o r s i z e s .
• T h e c o m m o n m e t h o d i s t o
5. Table-size distribution
T a b l e 1-T y p i c a l s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l
i n c o m e i n a d e v e l o p i n g
c o u n t r y b y i n c o m e s h a r e d -
Q u i n t i l e s a n d d e c i l e s
6. Lorenz Curve
• S h o w s t h e
a c t u a l
q u a n t i t a t i v
e
r e l a t i o n s h i
p b e t w e e n
t h e
p e r c e n t a g e
o f i n c o m e
r e c i p i e n t s
a n d t h e
p e r c e n t a g e
o f t h e t o t a l
i n c o m e .
• N o c o u n t r y
e x h i b i t s
e i t h e r
p e r f e c t
e q u a l i t y o r
p e r f e c t
i n e q u a l i t y
i n i t s
d i s t r i b u t i o
n o f i n c o m e .
• T h e g r e a t e r
t h e d e g r e e
o f
i n e q u a l i t y ,
8. Lorenz
Curve
- A
r e l a t
i v e l y
e q u a l
d i s t r
i b u t i
o n o f
i n c o m
9. u n e q u a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
i n c o m e
10. a n d A g g r e g a t e
m e a s u r e s o f
i n e q u a l i t y
• is a summary numerical measure of how unequally one
variable is related to another. The G i n i
c o e f f i c i e n t i s a n u m b e r
b e t w e e n 0 a n d 1, w h e r e
p e r f e c t e q u a l i t y h a s a G i n i
c o e f f i c i n t o f z e r o , a n d
a b s o l u t e i n e q u a l i t y y i e l d s
a G i n i c o e f f i c i n t o f 1.
11. m e a s u r e m e n t t h a t
s a t i s f y f o u r h i g h l y
d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s :
• A n o n y m i t y -
m e a s u r e o f
i n e q u a l i t y
s h o u l d n o t
d e p e n d o n
w h o h a s t h e
h i g h e r
i n c o m e
• S c a l e
i n d e p e n d e n
c e - m e a s u r e
o f
i n e q u a l i t y
s h o u l d n o t
• P o p u l a t i o n
i n d e p e n d e n c e -
m e a s u r e o f
i n e q u a l i t y
s h o u l d n o t b e
b a s e d o n t h e
n u m b e r
r e c i p i e n t s .
• T r a n s f e r
p r i n c i p l e
(P i g o u -D a l t o n
p r i n c i p l e )-
h o l d i n g a l l
i n c o m e s
c o n s t a n t , i f
w e t r a n s f e r
s o m e i n c o m e
12. F u n c t i o n a l
D i s t r i b u t i o n s
• F a c t o r s h a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f i n c o m e
• A t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n t h e
s h a r e o f t o t a l n a t i o n a l
i n c o m e t h a t e a c h o f t h e
f a c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n
(l a n d , l a b o r , a n d c a p i t a l )
r e c e i v e s .
• L a b o r r e c e i v e s a s a w h o l e
a n d c o m p a r e s t h i s w i t h t h e
p e r c e n t a g e s o f t o t a l
i n c o m e d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e
f o r m o f r e n t , i n t e r e s t a n d
p r o f i t s .
13. M e a s u r i n g A b s o l u t e
P o v e r t y
A b s o l u t e
P o v e r t y
n u mb e r o f
p e o p l e w h o
a r e u n a b l e t o
c o mma n d
s u f f i c i e n t
r e s o u r c e s t o
s a t i s f y b a s i c
n e e d s
ma y b e
me a s u r e d b y
t h e n u mb e r o r
“h e a d c o u n t ”
H e a d c o u n t
I n d e x
s e t a t a l e v e l
t h a t r e ma i n s
c o n s t a n t i n
r e a l t e r ms s o
t h a t w e c a n
c h a r t
p r o g r e s s o n
a n a b s o l u t e
l e v e l o v e r
t i me .
14. Poverty line
• is set at a level that
remains constant in
real terms so that we
chart our progress on
an absolute level over
time.
15. d e t e r m i n i n g a l o c a l
a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y
l i n e
• d e f i n i n g a n
a d e q u a t e
b a s k e t o f
f o o d s b a s e d
o n t h e
n u t r i t i o n a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s
f r o m m e d i c a l
s t u d i e s o f
r e q u i r e d
c a l o r i e s ,
p r o t e i n a n d
m i c r o n u t r i e n
t s .
• T h e n , u s i n g
l o c a l
• T h e n a d d
t h e
e x p e n d i t
u r e s o f
t h i s
h o u s e h o l
d s u c h a s
c l o t h i n g
, s h e l t e r
a n d
m e d i c a l
t o
16. T o t a l
p o v e r t
y g a p
A v e r a g e i n c o m e
s h o r t f a l l
• a n o t h e r
i m p o r t a n t
p o v e r t y g a p
m e a s u r e m e n t
• t h e t o t a l
p o v e r t y g a p
d i v i d e d b y
t h e
h e a d c o u n t o f
t h e p o o r .
• I t t e l l s t h e
a v e r a g e
a m o u n t b y
m e a s u r
e s t h e
t o t a l
a m o u n t
o f
i n c o m e
n e c e s s
a r y t o
r a i s e
e v e r y o
17. T h e F o s t e r -G r e e r -
T h o r b e c k e (F G T ) I n d e x
• S a t i s f i e s a l l t h e f o u r
c r i t e r i a f o r a d e s i r a b l e
p o v e r t y m e a s u r e t h a t a r e
w i d e l y a c c e p t e d b y
d e v e l o p m e n t e c o n o m i s t .
T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e :
• A n o n y m i t y
• P o p u l a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n c e
• M o n o t o n i c i t y - i f y o u a d d
i n c o m e t o s o m e o n e b e l o w
p o v e r t y l i n e , a l l o t h e r
i n c o m e s h e l d
c o n s t a n t , p o v e r t y c a n b e n o
g r e a t e r t h a n i t w a s
18. T h e H u m a n P o v e r t y
I n d e x (H P I )
• H u m a n p o v e r t y s h o u l d b e
m e a s u r e d i n t e r m s o f
t h r e e k e y d e p r i v a t i o n :
1. O f l i f e - f r a c t i o n o f
p e o p l e u n l i k e l y t o
l i v e b e y o n d 40 y e a r s
o f a g e
2. O f b a s i c e d u c a t i o n -
m e a s u r e d b y t h e
p e r c e n t a g e o f a d u l t s
w h o a r e i l l i t e r a t e
3. E c o n o m i c
19. T h e H u m a n P o v e r t y
I n d e x (H P I )
• A l o w H P I i s g o o d
• S m a l l e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n i s d e p r i v e d
• A h i g h e r H P I i s
r e f l e c t i v e o f g r e a t e r
d e p r i v a t i o n
20. b e t w e e n
p o v e r t y , i n e q u a l i t y
a n d s o c i a l w e l f a r e
Wh a t ’s s o b a d a b o u t
h i g h i n e q u a l i t y ?
1. E x t r e m e i n c o m e
i n e q u a l i t y l e a d s t o
e c o n o m i c
i n e f f i c i e n c y
• T h e h i g h e r t h e
i n e q u a l i t y t h e
s m a l l e r t h e
f r a c t i o n o f t h e
21. Wh a t ’s s o b a d a b o u t
h i g h i n e q u a l i t y ?
2. E x t r e m e i n c o m e d i s p a r i t i e s
u n d e r m i n e s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y a n d
s o l i d a r i t y .
• H i g h i n c o m e i n e q u a l i t y
s t r e n g t h e n s t h e p o l i t i c a l
p o w e r o f t h e r i c h a n d a l s o
t h e i r e c o n o m i c b a r g a i n i n g
p o w e r .
• T h i s f a c i l i t a t e s r e n t s e e k i n g
i n c l u d i n g a c t i o n s s u c h a s
e x c e s s i v e l o b b y i n g , l a r g e
p o l i t i c a l d o n a t i o n s , b r i b e r y
a n d c r o n y i s m .
• M a k e s p o o r i n s t i t u t i o n s v e r y
d i f f i c u l t t o i m p r o v e b e c a u s e
t h o s e f e w w i t h m o n e y a n d p o w e r
22. T h r e e S t y l i z e d
T y p o l o g i e s :
• M o d e r n s e c t o r e n l a r g e m e n t -
t h e t w o s e c t o r e c o n o m y
d e v e l o p s b y e n l a r g i n g t h e
s i z e o f i t s m o d e r n s e c t o r
w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g c o n s t a n t
w a g e s i n b o t h s e c t o r s .
• M o d e r n s e c t o r e n r i c h m e n t -
t h e e c o n o m y g r o w s b u t s u c h
g r o w t h i s l i m i t e d t o a f i x e d
n u m b e r o f p e o p l e i n t h e
m o d e r n s e c t o r s w i t h b o t h
t h e n u m b e r o f w o r k e r s a n d
t h e i r w a g e s h e l d c o n s t a n t
i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e c t o r .
• T r a d i t i o n a l -s e c t o r
23. f o c u s e d t o w a r d
r e d u c i n g p o v e r t y
l e v e l s :
1. Wi d e s p r e a d
p o v e r t y
c r e a t e s
c o n d i t i o n s i n
w h i c h t h e p o o r
h a v e n o a c c e s s
t o c r e d i t
2. T h e r i c h i n m a n y
c o n t e m p o r a r y
p o o r c o u n t r i e s
a r e g e n e r a l l y
n o t n o t e d f o r
t h e i r f r u g a l i t y
f o r t h e i r d e s i r e
t o s a v e a n d
i n v e s t
3. L o w i n c o m e s a n d
4. R a i s i n g t h e
i n c o m e l e v e l s
o f t h e p o o r
w i l l s t i m u l a t e
a n o v e r a l l
i n c r e a s e i n
d e m a n d f o r
l o c a l l y
p r o d u c e d
n e c e s s i t y
p r o d u c t s .
5. A r e d u c t i o n o f
m a s s p o v e r t y
c a n s t i m u l a t e
h e a l t h y
e c o n o m i c
e x p a n s i o n b y
24. E c o n o m i c
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
P o v e r t y G r o u p s
1. R u r a l P o v e r t y
• P o o r a r e l o c a t e d i n
r u r a l a r e a s
•e n g a g e d i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d
a s s o c i a t e d
a c t i v i t i e s
•w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n
t h a n a d u l t m a l e s
•c o n c e n t r a t e d
25. 2. Wo m e n a n d P o v e r t y
• Wo m e n m a k e u p a
s u b s t a n t i a l m a j o r i t y
o f t h e w o r l d ’s p o o r .
• Wo m e n a n d c h i l d r e n
e x p e r i e n c e t h e
h a r s h e s t d e p r i v a t i o n
• Wo m e n h a v e l e s s a c c e s s
t o e d u c a t i o n , f o r m a l
s e c t o r e m p l o y m e n t ,
s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , a n d
g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y m e n t
p r o g r a m s .
• T h e l o w s t a t u s o f w o m e n
26. I n d i g e n o u s
P o p u l a t i o n s a n d
P o v e r t y
• F a c e s s e r i o u s
e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l
a n d s o c i a l
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
• D o m e s t i c c o n f l i c t s
a n d c i v i l w a r s
r e s u l t s i n l o s i n g
o u t i n t h e
c o m p e t i t i o n f o r
l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s
27. O p t i o n s :
S o me B a s i c
C o n s i d e r a t i o n
s
A r e a s o f I n t e r v e n t i o n
F o u r b r o a d a r e a s o f
p o s s i b l e g o v e r n m e n t
p o l i c y i n t e r v e n t i o n
A l t e r i n g t h e
f u n c t i o n a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n -t h e
r e t u r n s t o l a b o r , l a n d
a n d c a p i t a l a s
d e t e r m i n e d b y f a c t o r
p r o c e s s , u t i l i z a t i o n
l e v e l s a n d t h e
c o n s e q u e n t s h a r e s o f
n a t i o n a l i n c o m e t h a t
a c c r u e t o t h e o w n e r s
o f e a c h f a c t o r .
M i t i g a t i n g t h e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n
M o d e r a t i n g (r e d u c i n g )
t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
D e v e l o p
i n g
c o u n t r i
e s t h a t
a i m t o
r e d u c e
p o v e r t y
a n d
e x c e s s i
v e
i n e q u a l
i t i e s i n
t h e i r
28. P o l i c y O p t i o n s
1. A l t e r i n g t h e
f u n c t i o n a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
i n c o m e t h r o u g h
p o l i c i e s
d e s i g n e d t o
c h a n g e r e l a t i v e
f a c t o r p r i c e s
29. P o l i c y O p t i o n s
• M o d i f y i n g t h e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h
p r o g r e s s i v e
r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
a s s e t o w n e r s h i p
• R e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a s s e t
o w n e r s h i p , s u c h a s l a n d
r e f o r m
• T r a n s f e r o f a c e r t a i n
p r o p o r t i o n o f a n n u a l
s a v i n g s a n d i n v e s t m e n t s
t o l o w i n c o m e g r o u p
• P r o m o t e w i d e r a c c e s s t o
30. P o l i c y O p t i o n s
• R e d u c i n g t h e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e
u p p e r l e v e l s t h r o u g h
p r o g r e s s i v e i n c o m e a n d
w e a l t h t a x e s
• P r o g r e s s i v e i n c o m e a n d
w e a l t h t a x e s t o r e d u c e
i n c o m e i n e q u a l i t y
• R i c h r e q u i r e d t o p a y a
p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r
p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l
i n c o m e i n t a x e s t h a n p o o r
• I n m a n y d e v e l o p i n g
31. Policy Options
• Direct transfer payments and the public
provision of goods and services
• This refer to public health projects in rural
villages and urban fringe areas, school
lunches and preschool nutritional
supplementation programs and the provision
of clean water and electrification to remote
rural areas.
32. A l t h o u g h t h e t a s k o f
e n d i n g e x t r e m e
p o v e r t y w i l l b e
d i f f i c u l t , i t i s
p o s s i b l e , i f w e c a n
o n l y m u s t e r t h e w i l l .
A s n o t e d b y J a m e s
S p e t h , t h e e x e c u t i v e
d i r e c t o r o f t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s
D e v e l o p m e n t
P r o g r a m , “P o v e r t y i s
n o l o n g e r i n e v i t a b l e .
T h e w o r l d h a s t h e
