The document summarizes key concepts in epistemology: 1. It outlines the three stages of human cognition - perception, abstraction, and judgment. Perception involves the five senses while abstraction allows us to form concepts and make judgments by combining concepts. 2. It distinguishes formal knowledge in sciences like math from empirical knowledge based on experience and observation, noting the latter can be falsified. 3. Examples are provided to illustrate different types of statements - analytic vs. empirical, formal vs. empirical knowledge. Sentences are also classified by their communicative function.

1. Prepared by: Lester Anthony A. Gaoiran

2. Stage 1: Perception
 Involves an activity that does not make us
different from animals.
Two Types of Perception:
1. External – happens when we perceive things using our 5
senses.
- The result of external perception is percept
2. Internal – happens when you use your imagination or
memory
- From these perceps, you could close your
eyes and use your imagination and memory to recreate
the percept into an image.

3. Stage 2: Abstraction
 Stage that distinguishes us from animals.
 Simple apprehension or conception
Example: you would be able to abstract what is
universal or essential for something to be
called chair. Upon perceiving different kinds of
chairs in the world, you would be able to grasp
the concept of chair. You would now be able to
apply the concept of chair and identify other
chairs in the world.

4. Stage 2: Abstraction
Concepts – building blocks of knowledge.
You have the concept or the blocks, but you
need to put together those concepts to form
knowledge.

5. Stage 3:Judgment
 The stage in order to complete the act of
mind.
 The stage making a knowledge
Example: You take the concept “blue” and
another concept “sky” to make a statement:
“The sky is blue”.

6. Sentences- we express the concepts that we
put together in these forms.
Types of Sentences:
1. Declarative – mean to express statement
2. Interrogative – meant to ask a question
3. Imperative – means to express a command
4. Expletive – meant to issue a wish
5. Exclamatory – meant to express surprise.

7. Sentences- verbal means of communicating or
expressing commands, questions, emotions
like surprise or pleasure and wishes.

8. 1. Analytic – The truth or falsity of the
knowledge could be found within the
statement itself.
- also known as: truths of language,
truths of reason, a priori, matters of logic, or
formal statements
Example: “A bachelor is an unmarried male of
marriageable age.” One would know right away
that the statement is true upon examination of
key terms.

9. 1. Empirical – their truth or falsity depend on
the state of affairs being claimed.
-also known as: truths of fact,
synthetic, matters of fact, or a
posteriori statements
Example: “The sky is blue” is an empirical
statement. The truth and falsity of the
statement depends if the statement is TRUE
right now.

10. 1. Formal Knowledge –corresponds to
knowledge in the formal sciences.
-characterized by the consistency of the
system to be used.
Example: a mathematical calculation be done
precisely without having to rely on actual
empirical data. In other words, you can
perform mathematical operation of adding 2
and 3 apples as equivalent to 5 without having
the actual empirical objects at hand

11. 1. Empirical Knowledge
-the general term used to describe the
different disciplines in the empirical sciences.
-makes use of data or content from experience
and its correspondence with the state of affairs
to establish the truth or falsity of their
knowledge

12. 1. Empirical Knowledge
Example: You went on a pond and saw swan
no. 1 which is white. Then, another pond and
swan no. 2is again white, and another swan no.
3 white again, and others. You would then
conclude that all swans are white. This could
prove you wrong when the scientists
discovered black swans in Australia.

13. 1. The puppy is on the bed.
2. A puppy is a young dog.
3. A sheep is a wool-bearing
mammal
4. Stealing is wrong.
5. Water is composed of 2 atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen

14. 6. In logic, any statement (P) will
always imply itself such that: P implies
P
7. Honesty is the best policy.
8. There are 485 potholes on the
other side of the moon
9. As a student, it is your obligation to
study your lesson
10. My sheep does not bear wool