This chapter discusses strategic and tactical operations for aircraft rescue and firefighting. It covers incident management using NIMS-ICS, types of in-flight and ground emergencies, low and high impact crashes, response procedures, and considerations for responding to military aircraft accidents. The key aspects of NIMS-ICS including common terminology, modular organization, and unified command structure are described. Response priorities, size-up procedures, positioning apparatus based on wind and terrain are also outlined.

1. Aircraft Rescue and Fire
Fighting,
5th
Edition
Chapter 11 — Strategic and
Tactical Operations

2. ARFF
11–2
Chapter 11 Lesson Goal
• After completing this lesson, the student
shall be able to describe incident
management considerations, types of
emergencies and crashes, and
response procedures for aircraft
emergencies, including those involving
military aircraft.

3. ARFF
11–3
Objectives
1. Explain incident management
considerations.
2. Describe types of in-flight and
ground emergencies.
3. Discuss low- and high-impact
crashes.
(Continued)

4. ARFF
11–4
Objectives
4. Describe response procedures
for aircraft emergencies.
5. Explain considerations of
responding to accidents involving
military aircraft.

5. ARFF
11–5
Incident Management
• Airport fire departments — required to
adopt and use an incident management
system
– Strategic operations
– Tactical operations
(Continued)

6. ARFF
11–6
Incident Management
• Homeland Security Presidential
Directive/HSPD-5
– ICS adopted as part of NIMS
– All federal agencies/agencies receiving
federal funds must use NIMS-ICS
• NIMS-ICS — applicable to all incidents

7. ARFF
11–7
Components of NIMS-ICS
• Common terminology
• Modular organization
• Integrated communications
• Unified command structure
(Continued)

8. ARFF
11–8
Components of NIMS-ICS
• Consolidated action plans
• Manageable span of control
• Pre-designated incident facilities
• Comprehensible resource management

9. ARFF
11–9
NIMS-ICS Organizational
Positions
• Five major positions — Command,
Operations, Planning, Logistics,
Finance/Administration
• Intelligence
• IC retains responsibility until delegated

10. ARFF
11–10
NIMS-ICS Training
• All ARFF personnel
• Offered through online resources
• Scenario-based training allows
– IC and other personnel to work through
decision-making process
– IC to make mistakes and learn through trial
and error

11. ARFF
11–11
In-Flight Emergencies
• Include fires and other problems —may
lead to accident/incident
• Aircraft develop minor problems
• Hydraulic failure or inoperative landing
gear — may cause serious problems
• Interior fire aboard an aircraft — true
emergency

12. ARFF
11–12
Ground Emergencies: Types
• Overheated wheel assemblies
• Tire/wheel failures
• Combustible metal fires
• Fuel leaks and spills
(Continued)

13. ARFF
11–13
Ground Emergencies: Types
• Engine fires or APU
fires
• Uncontained
engine failures
• Aircraft interior fires Courtesy of SSgt Michael Z.
Moore (USAF), Defense Visual
Information Center (DVIC).

14. ARFF
11–14
Wheel Assemblies
• Aircraft wheels — commonly equipped
with fusible plugs incorporated into the
rims
– Designed to melt, automatically deflating
tires
– Reduces possibility of wheel collapse and
fragmentation
(Continued)

15. ARFF
11–15
Wheel Assemblies
• WARNING! When responding to a hot
brake incident or wheel fire, always
approach from forward or aft of the
wheel assembly while exercising
extreme caution. Never approach from
the sides in-line with the axle. In
addition, always wear full protective
gear including SCBA.

16. ARFF
11–16
Hot Brakes
• Brakes/wheel assemblies frequently
overheat
• Several methods to determine wheel
temperature
• Prepare for a hot brake situation in
certain cases
(Continued)

17. ARFF
11–17
Hot Brakes
• Brown colored smoke coming from
wheel assemblies
• Peak wheel temperatures — 30 to 45
minutes after aircraft has come to a
complete stop

18. ARFF
11–18
Cooling Hot Brakes
• Continue taxiing
• Normal cooling
• Water mist or fog pattern
• Fans

19. ARFF
11–19
Wheel Fires
• Safest approach — use large amounts
of water from a distance using turrets
• Wear full protective clothing and SCBA

20. ARFF
11–20
Combustible Metal Fires
• Variety of metals are used in aircraft
– Magnesium
– Titanium
• Initial fire control — water through turret
application in heavy, coarse streams
(Continued)

21. ARFF
11–21
Combustible Metal Fires
• Combustible metals around a high
impact crash
– Allowed to burn out
– Buried
• Wear SCBA
• Specialized Class D extinguishing
agents — magnesium and titanium fires

22. ARFF
11–22
Fuel Leaks and Spills:
Precautions
• Attempt to shut off the fuel
• Avoid providing an ignition source
• Evacuate aircraft if needed
• Keep nonessential personnel clear
• Wear full protective clothing
(Continued)

23. ARFF
11–23
Fuel Leaks and Spills:
Precautions
• Blanket exposed fuel surfaces
• Contain spilled fuel to a small area
• Prevent leaking/spilled fuel from
entering certain areas
• Keep apparatus and equipment ready
• Position upwind and uphill

24. ARFF
11–24
Fuel Spill Variables
• Size of the spill
• Terrain
• Weather conditions
• Type of flammable liquid
• Aircraft occupancy
• Emergency equipment and personnel
available

25. ARFF
11–25
Fuel Leaks and Spills During
Aircraft Servicing
• Stop the fueling operation
• Nonessential personnel should leave
the area
• Notify safety personnel from the airline
and airport

26. ARFF
11–26
Fuel Leaks and Spills
• Severity of the hazard created by a fuel
spill — how volatile the fuel is and
proximity to sources of ignition
• Avoid actions that could provide ignition
sources for fuel vapors
• Maintenance personnel — check
aircraft for damage/flammable vapors
(Continued)

27. ARFF
11–27
Fuel Leaks and Spills
• Keep maintenance records
• May need to evacuate aircraft
• Never start spark-producing equipment
• If fuel has entered sanitary sewers or
storm drains — dam inlets to prevent
additional fuel from entering
(Continued)

28. ARFF
11–28
Fuel Leaks and Spills
• If sewer or storm drain contamination is
extensive — keep sources of ignition
away from manholes or storm drain
inlets
• Thoroughly inspect aircraft onto which
fuel has been spilled
(Continued)

29. ARFF
11–29
Fuel Leaks and Spills
• WARNING! Unless ordered to do so
by a responsible local official, never
flush fuel or other contaminants into
sewers or storm drains nor introduce
water into these conduits in an attempt
to dilute the contaminant.

30. ARFF
11–30
Engine/APU Fires
• Crew may attempt to extinguish an
engine or APU fire
• Unoccupied aircraft — be familiar with
aircraft shutdown procedures
• Clean, gaseous extinguishing agents
are the agents of choice
(Continued)

31. ARFF
11–31
Engine/APU Fires
• Safest method of
extinguishment —
operate the engine or
APU fire shutdown
system
Courtesy of Doddy Photography.

32. ARFF
11–32
Uncontained Engine Failures
• “Uncontained engine failure or
disintegration” versus “Contained
engine failure or disintegration”
• Worst-case scenario — fragments
pierce the fuselage/wing structure
• Uncontained engine failure — usually
handled like a normal engine fire

33. ARFF
11–33
Aircraft Interior Fires
• Occur for many reasons
• Obtain information from ATC
• Activate mutual/automatic aid
• Pilot/firefighters communicate
• Assign RIT team
• Flight crew initiate evacuation
(Continued)

34. ARFF
11–34
Aircraft Interior Fires
• Many common sources and areas of
smoke/odor of something burning
• Smoke detection systems/extinguishing
systems provided in aircraft

35. ARFF
11–35
Aircraft Interior Fires: Methods
of Detection
• Use portable infrared
heat detectors or
thermal imagers
• Remove sections of
flooring, wall panels,
and ceilings
(Continued)

36. ARFF
11–36
Aircraft Interior Fires: Methods
of Detection
• Exterior signs — paint blistering and
discoloration
• Apply a light water mist and watch for
steam areas

37. ARFF
11–37
Aircraft Interior Fires: Gaining
Entry and Evacuation
• Gain access if no sign of evacuation
• Do not impede exit of occupants
• Over-wing exit size — entry may be
difficult
• If entry can be safely made — fought in
the same manner as structural fires
(Continued)

38. ARFF
11–38
Aircraft Interior Fires: Gaining
Entry and Evacuation
• WARNING! Exercise extreme caution
when gaining entry into the aircraft due
to the emergency escape slide systems
attached to each door and, depending
on the aircraft, to over-wing exits as
well. If opened from outside, the
escape slide may deploy and can
seriously injure or kill unsuspecting
emergency personnel.

39. ARFF
11–39
Aircraft Ventilation
• Establish as soon as it is safe
– Initial ventilation
– Positive pressure ventilation
– Hydraulic ventilation
• Vertical ventilation openings — made in
the top of the aircraft
(Continued)

40. ARFF
11–40
Aircraft Ventilation
• WARNING! Never discharge hoseline
or turret streams into a hole burned or
cut into the top of an aircraft. This will
interrupt the vertical ventilation process
and push the fire and products of
combustion horizontally through the
aircraft.
(Continued)

41. ARFF
11–41
Aircraft Ventilation
• Early ventilation is
important
• Once ventilation is
started
– Gain entry
– Initiate search
– Begin fire attack and
rescue (Continued)
Courtesy of Doddy Photography.

42. ARFF
11–42
Aircraft Ventilation
• Deploy the first interior attack hoseline
— at an upwind overwing hatch or door
• Fire may spread in the belly of an
aircraft — check areas
• All areas of fire involvement —
accessed, extinguished, overhauled

43. ARFF
11–43
Cargo Aircraft Interior Fires
• Differ from fires in passenger aircraft
• Flight crew is usually able to exit
• Once crew are out, focus on fire attack
• Skin-penetrating nozzles may be the
best tactic to use
• May need to take other actions
(Continued)

44. ARFF
11–44
Cargo Aircraft
• Often impossible to
move through the
cargo hold
• Determine dangerous
goods
• Request a hazardous
materials response
team
Courtesy of Doddy Photography.

45. ARFF
11–45
Low-impact Crashes
• Do not severely damage or break up the
fuselage
• Likely to have a large percentage of
survivors
• First priority — ensure the safety of
occupants and crew
(Continued)

46. ARFF
11–46
Low-impact Crashes
• Initiate extrication operations only after
donning full protective clothing and
SCBA
• Handlines teams — support rescue
personnel

47. ARFF
11–47
Low-impact Crashes: Wheels-
up or Belly Landings
• May result from a hydraulic system
failure or other cause
• Fire is not uncommon
• Aircraft scraping the ground — may
rupture fuel tanks/generate an ignition
source
(Continued)

48. ARFF
11–48
Low-impact Crashes: Wheels-
up or Belly Landings
• Wheels-up landings
– Nose gear up with the main gear down
– Single main gear up
– Landing gear down but not locked
• Almost impossible for pilot to maintain
control
(Continued)

49. ARFF
11–49
Low-impact Crashes: Wheels-
up or Belly Landings
• Upon touchdown aircraft — break apart
or veer off runway
• May remain substantially intact
• Occupants may leave on their own
• Aggressive attack is critical if fire occurs
• Final attitude of the aircraft — may
hamper egress operations

50. ARFF
11–50
Ditching
• A wheels-up landing on water
• Water may be covered with fuel
• Survivors and rescue personnel most
likely contaminated
(Continued)

51. ARFF
11–51
Ditching
• Making an opening at a point above the
water level
– May permit air to escape
– Cause the wreckage to submerge
• Will require specialized equipment
• Use surface rescue techniques and
equipment

52. ARFF
11–52
Rejected Takeoff with Runway
Overrun
• Aircraft often intact, in large pieces
• Crash is usually survivable
• Quick response/protecting the egress
route is vital
• Many reasons for this type of crash

53. ARFF
11–53
Helicopters
• Do not withstand the violent forces
encountered in vertical impact
• Avoid approaching aircraft while rotors
are spinning
(Continued)

54. ARFF
11–54
Helicopters
• Hazards
associated with
fuel tanks and fuel
fires — the same
for helicopters as
for all other aircraft
Courtesy of Scott Ramey, S.D.
Ramey Photography.

55. ARFF
11–55
High-impact Crashes
• Crashes with severe damage to the
fuselage and with a significantly reduced
likelihood of occupant survival
– Usually high speed, high angle impacts
– Little or no control of the aircraft
– Tend to occur in off-airport areas
(Continued)

56. ARFF
11–56
High-impact Crashes
• Firefighters — scene security, protection
of evidence, protection of exposures
• Characteristics of high-impact crashes
– Fuselage is substantially damaged
– G-forces exceed human tolerance levels
– Seats and safety belts fail to restrain
passengers
(Continued)

57. ARFF
11–57
High-impact Crashes
• Aircraft often break apart upon impact
• Hitting obstructions — aircraft may
cartwheel
• May encounter burning items
• Wind — spread the fire
• Airport/department — determine
response criteria

58. ARFF
11–58
Controlled Flight Into Terrain
• Pilots can often control where a plane
will crash
• Controlled flight into terrain — guiding a
crashing aircraft to its destination

59. ARFF
11–59
Crashes Involving Structures
• More complex problem
• First-arriving officer take action
• Aircraft may break open upon impact
• Rescue personnel — search and
evacuate area
(Continued)

60. ARFF
11–60
Crashes Involving Structures
• Take steps to
prevent fuel from
spreading
• Take precautions
to eliminate
sources of ignition Courtesy of JO1 Mark D. Faram
(US Navy), Defense Visual
Information Center (DVIC).

61. ARFF
11–61
Standard Emergency Response
• Runway standby positions for ARFF
vehicles
• Go directly to these positions, unless
directed elsewhere
• Need information on accident
(Continued)

62. ARFF
11–62
Standard Emergency Response
• Promptness and safety — equally
important response considerations.
• AEP should include response routes
• Driver/operator — use extreme caution
should vision become obscured
(Continued)

63. ARFF
11–63
Standard Emergency Response
• Avoid damaging the
apparatus and
equipment in
response
• Make every effort to
preserve the accident
scene and safeguard
evidence (Continued)

64. ARFF
11–64
Standard Emergency Response
• Notice certain items about the scene
• AHJ — require specific response times

65. ARFF
11–65
Establish Incident Command
and Scene Management
• Individual in charge — must
communicate to all responders the fact
that command has been established
• Establish operations/logistics section as
soon as possible

66. ARFF
11–66
Size-up
• Examine from four different positions
– IC’s perspective
– Driver/operator’s perspective
– Officer/firefighter’s perspective
– EMS perspective
• IC/ first unit on the scene — establish
command
(Continued)

67. ARFF
11–67
Size-up
• IC check-off list
• Driver/operator’s perspective
• Officer/firefighter’s focus
• EMS focus
(Continued)

68. ARFF
11–68
Size-up
• Later-arriving units — turn off
emergency lights and audible devices
• Common size up considerations should
be addressed

69. ARFF
11–69
Priorities
• Priorities
– Life safety
– Incident stabilization
– Property conservation
• Life safety is always the first and
highest priority

70. ARFF
11–70
Positioning Apparatus
• First-arriving crews and the IC — follow
guidelines in positioning apparatus
• Consider other factors when
determining final apparatus placement

71. ARFF
11–71
Wind
• Conducting operations against the wind
— difficult and hazardous
• Attack from downwind — only when
conditions preclude any other approach
• Operations conducted upwind
– Safer
– More efficient

72. ARFF
11–72
Terrain
• Ground features
– May be readily apparent
– May not be as obvious
• Consider terrain when establishing
areas

73. ARFF
11–73
Wreckage
• Evaluate wreckage and hazards it
creates
• Different methods of attack may be
required
• Confirm initial fire fighting efforts are
aimed at a portion of the fuselage

74. ARFF
11–74
Survivors
• Occupants help determine the point at
which rescue efforts should begin
• May need to decide upon the rescue
entrance
• If evacuation has begun perform certain
actions

75. ARFF
11–75
Hazardous Areas
• Aircraft propellers
• Jet and gas
turbine engines
• Line of fire
• Wings
• Jagged metal
(Continued)
• Advanced
aerospace
materials
• Biohazards
• Radar systems

76. ARFF
11–76
Hazardous Areas
• WARNING! Bumping or turning a prop
may cause the magneto to fire,
resulting in the engine trying to start
and the prop rotating.

77. ARFF
11–77
Initial Attack/Fire control
• Fire and crash conditions — govern
placement of apparatus for initial attack
• Main objective — rescue of occupants
trapped within the aircraft
• Take certain actions — accidents with
fire/high likelihood of fire
(Continued)

78. ARFF
11–78
Initial Attack/Fire control
• Be familiar with the cabin length of the
aircraft prior to entry
• In nonfire accidents, follow the same
basic procedures
• Assist evacuation if started
• Extending booms assist in extinguishing
fires
(Continued)

79. ARFF
11–79
Initial Attack/Fire control
• Involves initial mass application of an
extinguishing agent
• Begins during the approach of the fire
fighting vehicles
• Structural apparatus — can be effective
on aircraft fires by using AFFF
(Continued)

80. ARFF
11–80
Initial Attack/Fire control
• If fire is confined to the engine nacelles
or wings — stop the fire at the wing root
or engines
• If fuel is leaking from fuel tanks and
spreading on the ground — keep the
fire from the fuselage and egress areas

81. ARFF
11–81
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• High-impact crash — EMS role may be
limited to treating rescuers
• Low-impact crash — presents rescuers
with the greatest challenge in treating
and transporting victims
• Ensure personal protection against
bloodborne pathogens
(Continued)

82. ARFF
11–82
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• Initiate a triage system that
can be performed quickly
– A colored ribbon or triage
tag
– Level of urgency indicated
by color
(Continued)
Courtesy of SSgt Shelley Gill
(USAF), Defense Visual
Information Center (DVIC)

83. ARFF
11–83
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• First action taken by EMS personnel —
clear the impact area of the ambulatory
injured and noninjured
• Cover patients to maintain their core
body temperature
• Clear the impact area of certain
individuals
(Continued)

84. ARFF
11–84
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• Enter the impact area with litters,
backboards, or similar devices
• Know basic rescue carries
• Once triaged and tagged with their level
of priority, move victims to a treatment
area
(Continued)

85. ARFF
11–85
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• Three treatment areas — Immediate,
Delayed, Minor/Non-injured
• Set up upwind of the wreckage
• Follow guidelines
• Each patient should be reevaluated
(Continued)

86. ARFF
11–86
Aircraft Accident Victim
Management
• Once stabilized, transport patients to
medical facilities
• Means of transporting victims —
specified in the AEP
• Temporary morgue — may be
established for deceased victims

87. ARFF
11–87
Extinguishment
• Involves elimination of all surface fire
• An extension of the fire control phase
• Final effort prior to overhaul
• Complete fire extinguishment
• Reserve apparatus and equipment
• Wreckers and heavy equipment

88. ARFF
11–88
Overhaul
• Overhaul inspection must be conducted
• On-scene investigating authority —
consulted before overhaul operations
• Make sure fire is extinguished
• Wear SCBA
• Keep a charged handline close at hand
(Continued)

89. ARFF
11–89
Overhaul
• May need to remove aircraft interior
components
• Preserve as much of the interior in its
original configuration as possible
• Before overhaul is conducted, point of
origin needs to be identified and
protected
(Continued)

90. ARFF
11–90
Overhaul
• Consider potential hazards of cutting
into hazardous parts on an aircraft
• Avoid disturbing any evidence that may
aid investigators
• Only authorized personnel should
remove bodies

91. ARFF
11–91
Incident Termination
• Once emergency operations are
complete, IC will terminate emergency
• Timely release of mutual aid
equipment/personnel is important
• Termination has various components

92. ARFF
11–92
Post Incident Responsibilities
• Personnel have both short-term and
long-term post incident responsibilities
• Most critical element of incident
termination and post-incident activities
— involve the mental health of the
responders

93. ARFF
11–93
Military Aircraft Actions
• Approach the accident scene with
caution
• Rescue aircraft personnel
• Provide emergency medical care
• Search wreckage for survivors
• Protect survivors from further injury
(Continued)

94. ARFF
11–94
Military Aircraft Actions
• Protect civilian personnel and property
• Notify the nearest military authorities
• Be prepared to contact local agencies
• Guard the wreckage
• Refer photographer and news media
requests

95. ARFF
11–95
Information Reported to
Military
• Caller’s name and location
• Time at which the aircraft crashed
• Whether the aircraft was/is on fire
• How to reach the crash site
• Whether or not the crew landed with the
aircraft or parachuted
(Continued)

96. ARFF
11–96
Information Reported to
Military
• If medical help is needed
• Number of fatalities
• Civilian injuries or private property
damage
• Aircraft tail number and type or model
• Where someone can meet rescue team
• Suitable helicopter landing areas

97. ARFF
11–97
Military Dispatch Teams
• Base fire department personnel
• Explosive ordnance (EOD) personnel
• Military police
• Medical personnel
• Bioenvironmental personnel
• Mortuary personnel
(Continued)

98. ARFF
11–98
Military Dispatch Teams
• Information officer
• Accident Investigation Board
• Legal officer
• Heavy-equipment personnel

99. ARFF
11–99
Information Obtained from
Witnesses
• Time of the accident
• Direction aircraft was traveling
• Weather conditions
• Whether anyone was seen parachuting
• Whether there was an explosion

100. ARFF
11–100
Approaching a Military Aircraft
Crash
• Somewhat more hazardous than civilian
aircraft
• Follow basic safety precautions
• Use a varied mixture of jet fuel
• May use hypergolic fuels
(Continued)

101. ARFF
11–101
Approaching a Military Aircraft
Crash
• WARNING! Always wear full
protective clothing to include SCBA
when dealing with hydrazine
emergencies as it may be absorbed
through the skin. Even short exposures
may have serious effects on the
nervous and respiratory systems.

102. ARFF
11–102
Conventional
Weapons/Munitions
• Do not approach the front or rear of any
externally carried tanks or pods that can
contain rockets or missiles
• Do not touch or otherwise disturb any
armament
(Continued)

103. ARFF
11–103
Conventional
Weapons/Munitions
• Avoid positioning personnel and
vehicles in the line of fire
• Position vehicles at a 45 degree angle
to the centerline of the aircraft

104. ARFF
11–104
Summary
• ARFF personnel should never be
hesitant, uninformed, or unprepared for
emergency responses.
• Airport fire departments must implement
NIMS-ICS as an organizational tool for
emergency response.
(Continued)

105. ARFF
11–105
Summary
• ARFF personnel must understand the
difference between accidents and
incidents as well as understanding in-
flight emergencies, ground
emergencies, low-impact crashes, and
high-impact crashes.
(Continued)

106. ARFF
11–106
Summary
• Properly understanding and following
response procedures is key to
successful operations. Firefighters must
understand their respective roles.
• They must work within a chain of
command and be able to size-up or aid
in sizing-up an accident scene
(Continued)

107. ARFF
11–107
Summary
• ARFF personnel should know how to
properly respond to an emergency
involving military aircraft even if they are
not firefighters at a military installation.

108. ARFF
11–108
Review Questions
1. What are the five major
organizational positions involved in
NIMS-ICS?
2. What type of protective gear
should be worn when responding to a
hot brake incident?
(Continued)

109. ARFF
11–109
Review Questions
3. What is the safest method of
extinguishment when dealing with an
engine or auxiliary power unit (APU)
fire?
4. What are some common
sources of smoke and burning odors
on aircraft?
(Continued)

110. ARFF
11–110
Review Questions
5. Where can information
regarding dangerous goods on an
aircraft be located?
6. Who should determine how far
off the airport ARFF equipment will
respond?
(Continued)

111. ARFF
11–111
Review Questions
7. What are the three priorities of
any emergency situation?
8. What guidelines should be
followed when establishing a
Treatment Area?
(Continued)

112. ARFF
11–112
Review Questions
9. Who should remove bodies that
remain in wreckage after a fire has
been extinguished?
10. What are several immediate post
incident responsibilities that ARFF
personnel must accomplish or assist
with?