Switching Basics and Intermediate Routing - CLASSLESS ROUTING
More details : http://ouo.io/2Bt7X
Melt with the clip "Welcome to Vietnam 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Clip "Welcome to Vietnam" is introduced in nine languages: Vietnamese, English, French, Chinese, Russian, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, Arabic, is a non-profit project to bring the images of Vietnam to with international friends.
Play on music symphony "Hello Vietnam!", Clip introduces beautiful scenes of the famous scenic spots of the country stretching from North to South, the unique culture of the region, and people of Vietnam, the city achievements in all aspects of 30 years of innovation, in order to send a message to everyone in a country of Vietnam peace, stability, development, ancient culture, rich in humanity, has strong vitality and is constantly evolving.
Let's share, everyone
- Vietnam Pride -
Welcome to Vietnam
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) allows efficient allocation of IP addresses by using subnets of different sizes based on network needs. This example shows how VLSM can fulfill the address requirements of different departments within a company using a single Class C IP address, whereas FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask) would waste many addresses. The tutorial outlines the steps to perform VLSM subnetting to allocate specific subnet sizes and addresses to each department and network based on their requirements in a way that minimizes wasted addresses.
This document provides an overview of IP routing and routing protocols. It begins with a high-level explanation of how routing works on the internet through IP addressing and packet forwarding. It then discusses the history of routing, from static routing in early networks to the development of dynamic routing protocols. The rest of the document outlines key interior gateway protocols like OSPF and IS-IS, exterior gateway protocols like BGP, and concepts like autonomous systems and routing policy.
The document discusses subnetting and CIDR notation. It provides information on the benefits of subnetting such as reduced network traffic, optimized performance, simplified management, and facilitating large geographical distances. It defines subnet masks and CIDR notation. It also discusses how to calculate the number of subnets and hosts in a subnet for a given subnet mask in CIDR notation. Finally, it provides an example of how to subnet the Class C network 192.168.10.0/25 into two subnets.
The document discusses IP subnetting, including:
1. IP classes and why subnetting is used to preserve public IPv4 addresses.
2. An example of subnetting a Class C IP address to create 5 networks, including reserving bits in the subnet mask and determining the resulting network ranges.
3. Another example of subnetting a Class C IP address to create network ranges for 50 hosts, again reserving bits in the subnet mask and determining the network ranges.
The document discusses subnetting and provides an example of how to subnet the IP network address 192.168.1.128 into 6 subnets. It explains that subnetting allows a single network number to be shared among multiple physical networks. Each host is configured with an IP address and subnet mask, where the subnet is calculated by performing a bitwise AND of the IP address and subnet mask. The example shows how to determine the subnet mask is 255.255.255.224 when creating 6 subnets, and that each subnet can support up to 30 hosts.
The document discusses Cisco routers and routing concepts. It provides details about Cisco router components, configuration, interfaces, routing protocols like RIP and IGRP, and autonomous systems. Cisco routers range from small access layer routers like the 700 series to large core routers like the 12000 series. Configuration is done through the console port initially and involves tasks like setting the hostname, passwords, interfaces and routing.
This is Powerpoint Presentation on IP addressing & Subnet masking. This presentation describes how IP address works, what its classes and how the subnet masking works and more.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) allows efficient allocation of IP addresses by using subnets of different sizes based on network needs. This example shows how VLSM can fulfill the address requirements of different departments within a company using a single Class C IP address, whereas FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask) would waste many addresses. The tutorial outlines the steps to perform VLSM subnetting to allocate specific subnet sizes and addresses to each department and network based on their requirements in a way that minimizes wasted addresses.
This document provides an overview of IP routing and routing protocols. It begins with a high-level explanation of how routing works on the internet through IP addressing and packet forwarding. It then discusses the history of routing, from static routing in early networks to the development of dynamic routing protocols. The rest of the document outlines key interior gateway protocols like OSPF and IS-IS, exterior gateway protocols like BGP, and concepts like autonomous systems and routing policy.
The document discusses subnetting and CIDR notation. It provides information on the benefits of subnetting such as reduced network traffic, optimized performance, simplified management, and facilitating large geographical distances. It defines subnet masks and CIDR notation. It also discusses how to calculate the number of subnets and hosts in a subnet for a given subnet mask in CIDR notation. Finally, it provides an example of how to subnet the Class C network 192.168.10.0/25 into two subnets.
The document discusses IP subnetting, including:
1. IP classes and why subnetting is used to preserve public IPv4 addresses.
2. An example of subnetting a Class C IP address to create 5 networks, including reserving bits in the subnet mask and determining the resulting network ranges.
3. Another example of subnetting a Class C IP address to create network ranges for 50 hosts, again reserving bits in the subnet mask and determining the network ranges.
The document discusses subnetting and provides an example of how to subnet the IP network address 192.168.1.128 into 6 subnets. It explains that subnetting allows a single network number to be shared among multiple physical networks. Each host is configured with an IP address and subnet mask, where the subnet is calculated by performing a bitwise AND of the IP address and subnet mask. The example shows how to determine the subnet mask is 255.255.255.224 when creating 6 subnets, and that each subnet can support up to 30 hosts.
The document discusses Cisco routers and routing concepts. It provides details about Cisco router components, configuration, interfaces, routing protocols like RIP and IGRP, and autonomous systems. Cisco routers range from small access layer routers like the 700 series to large core routers like the 12000 series. Configuration is done through the console port initially and involves tasks like setting the hostname, passwords, interfaces and routing.
This is Powerpoint Presentation on IP addressing & Subnet masking. This presentation describes how IP address works, what its classes and how the subnet masking works and more.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
This document provides a 3-sentence summary of the key points:
The document discusses VLAN configuration on Supermicro switches, including the basics of VLANs, supported VLAN types (port-based, MAC-based, and protocol-based), and how VLAN identification works when a packet is received. Port-based VLANs are configured by assigning ports as access, trunk, or hybrid ports and setting the acceptable frame types. The document also provides instructions for creating, modifying, and removing VLANs.
This document discusses Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification and networking concepts. It includes:
- An overview of the CCNA certification and what skills it demonstrates in networking areas like LANs, WANs, routing protocols, and network access.
- Explanations of common networking devices, topologies, protocols like IP addressing and routing, and models like the OSI model.
- Descriptions of static and dynamic routing, protocols like RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and commands used to configure routers.
The document presents on VLSM and supernetting. It contains introductions to VLSM and supernetting, their histories, basic concepts and processes. It provides examples of implementing VLSM by applying variable length subnet masks to divide networks into differently sized subnets. It also demonstrates how to create larger networks through supernetting by combining multiple IP addresses or networks and setting their common bits. The document aims to explain the techniques of VLSM and supernetting.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
The document discusses subnet masks and how they are used to separate the network and host portions of an IP address. A subnet mask contains a binary pattern of ones and zeros that is applied using Boolean algebra to determine if an IP address is on the local network or needs to be routed externally. Default subnet masks exist for each address class, and their function is to filter out bits and identify the network address portion of a destination IP.
IP addressing and subnetting allows networks to be logically organized and divided. The key objectives covered include explaining IP address classes, configuring addresses, subnetting networks, and advanced concepts like CIDR, summarization, and VLSM. Transitioning to IPv6 is also discussed as a way to address the depletion of IPv4 addresses and improve security.
This document discusses subnetting and IP addressing. It introduces subnet masks and how they are used to divide networks into subnets. Specific examples are provided on subnetting Class A, B, and C networks using subnet masks like /28, 255.255.255.192, and 255.255.240.0. The document also discusses calculating the number of subnets and valid hosts for different subnet masks. Multiple practice questions are provided at the end to help understand subnetting.
The document discusses Ethernet networking technologies. It describes how Ethernet was developed in the 1970s and standardized. It outlines the evolution of Ethernet speeds from 2Mbps to 1Gbps. It discusses the physical layer standards for 10BaseT, 100BaseT, 1000BaseT, and 10GBase networking. It also provides an overview of Token Ring and FDDI technologies, including their operation, standards, and key features.
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol designed to prevent layer 2 loops. It is standardized as IEEE 802.D protocol. STP blocks some ports on switches with redundant links to prevent broadcast storms and ensure loop-free topology. With STP in place, you can have redundant links between switches in order to provide redundancy.
The document discusses static routing and key concepts related to router configuration and operation. It defines static routes as manually configured paths that specify how a router will transmit packets to certain networks. The summary describes how to configure static routes, default routes, and route summarization. It also outlines tools for troubleshooting routing issues like missing routes.
CCNA 1 Routing and Switching v5.0 Chapter 1Nil Menon
This document summarizes key points from Chapter 1 of a Cisco networking textbook. It introduces networking concepts like LANs, WANs and the Internet. It discusses how networks are used in daily life for communication, work and entertainment. It also outlines trends that will impact networks, such as BYOD, online collaboration, video and cloud computing. The chapter objectives are to explain network topologies, devices and characteristics used in small to medium businesses.
The document discusses IP addresses and the differences between IPv4 and IPv6. It defines what an IP address is and explains the classes of IPv4 addresses including Class A, B, C, D and E. It also defines IPv6, noting it uses 128-bit addresses represented by 8 groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are that IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses in dot-decimal notation while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses in hexadecimal colon-separated notation and has a much larger address space.
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit addresses used to identify nodes in an IPv6 network. They are conventionally written in hexadecimal colon notation, divided into eight sections of four hexadecimal digits each. IPv6 addresses have a hierarchical structure, with the type prefix in the first bits indicating the address category such as unicast, multicast, anycast, reserved, or local. Unicast addresses are used to identify a single interface, multicast for groups of interfaces, and anycast to select the nearest available node in a group.
The document provides examples of subnetting IP address ranges to meet specific requirements for number of subnets and hosts. It demonstrates converting host bits in an IP address to network bits to create subnets, and calculating the resulting number of subnets, hosts per subnet, and subnet ranges. Custom subnet masks are provided based on the number of bits converted from host to network.
This document discusses subnetting and provides examples. It describes subnetting as breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Subnetting allows creating multiple networks from a single address block and maximizes addressing efficiency. The document then provides examples of subnetting a network using CIDR notation and calculating the number of subnets, hosts per subnet, valid IP ranges, and broadcast addresses. It also discusses an example of optimally subnetting the IP addresses needed across different departments within a university based on their host requirements.
Subnet Calculation from a given IP range, using the classless Subnet mask. Calculating number of hosts in a subnet and number of subnets possible to create in a given IP range.
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document provides an overview and technical details regarding beamforming and sounding reference signal optimization for LTE. It discusses sector beamforming for common channels using weighted factors. It compares RL15 single-stream beamforming (TM7) to RL25 dual-stream beamforming (TM8), describing their implementations. The document also covers sounding reference signal configurations, including hopping patterns and parameters. Performance results and configuration parameters for beamforming are presented.
EUMETCast system & DVB-S2 migration - EUMETCast User Forum 2014EUMETSAT
EUMETSAT's Dissemination Operations Team Leader Klaus-Peter Renner gives an overview of the current EUMETCast satellite data dissemination system. He also explains how and why EUMETSAT is moving to the DVB-S2 broadcast format. The presentation was given at the EUMETCast User Forum 2014 in Darmstadt, Germany on 17 September.
This document provides a 3-sentence summary of the key points:
The document discusses VLAN configuration on Supermicro switches, including the basics of VLANs, supported VLAN types (port-based, MAC-based, and protocol-based), and how VLAN identification works when a packet is received. Port-based VLANs are configured by assigning ports as access, trunk, or hybrid ports and setting the acceptable frame types. The document also provides instructions for creating, modifying, and removing VLANs.
This document discusses Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification and networking concepts. It includes:
- An overview of the CCNA certification and what skills it demonstrates in networking areas like LANs, WANs, routing protocols, and network access.
- Explanations of common networking devices, topologies, protocols like IP addressing and routing, and models like the OSI model.
- Descriptions of static and dynamic routing, protocols like RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and commands used to configure routers.
The document presents on VLSM and supernetting. It contains introductions to VLSM and supernetting, their histories, basic concepts and processes. It provides examples of implementing VLSM by applying variable length subnet masks to divide networks into differently sized subnets. It also demonstrates how to create larger networks through supernetting by combining multiple IP addresses or networks and setting their common bits. The document aims to explain the techniques of VLSM and supernetting.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
The document discusses subnet masks and how they are used to separate the network and host portions of an IP address. A subnet mask contains a binary pattern of ones and zeros that is applied using Boolean algebra to determine if an IP address is on the local network or needs to be routed externally. Default subnet masks exist for each address class, and their function is to filter out bits and identify the network address portion of a destination IP.
IP addressing and subnetting allows networks to be logically organized and divided. The key objectives covered include explaining IP address classes, configuring addresses, subnetting networks, and advanced concepts like CIDR, summarization, and VLSM. Transitioning to IPv6 is also discussed as a way to address the depletion of IPv4 addresses and improve security.
This document discusses subnetting and IP addressing. It introduces subnet masks and how they are used to divide networks into subnets. Specific examples are provided on subnetting Class A, B, and C networks using subnet masks like /28, 255.255.255.192, and 255.255.240.0. The document also discusses calculating the number of subnets and valid hosts for different subnet masks. Multiple practice questions are provided at the end to help understand subnetting.
The document discusses Ethernet networking technologies. It describes how Ethernet was developed in the 1970s and standardized. It outlines the evolution of Ethernet speeds from 2Mbps to 1Gbps. It discusses the physical layer standards for 10BaseT, 100BaseT, 1000BaseT, and 10GBase networking. It also provides an overview of Token Ring and FDDI technologies, including their operation, standards, and key features.
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol designed to prevent layer 2 loops. It is standardized as IEEE 802.D protocol. STP blocks some ports on switches with redundant links to prevent broadcast storms and ensure loop-free topology. With STP in place, you can have redundant links between switches in order to provide redundancy.
The document discusses static routing and key concepts related to router configuration and operation. It defines static routes as manually configured paths that specify how a router will transmit packets to certain networks. The summary describes how to configure static routes, default routes, and route summarization. It also outlines tools for troubleshooting routing issues like missing routes.
CCNA 1 Routing and Switching v5.0 Chapter 1Nil Menon
This document summarizes key points from Chapter 1 of a Cisco networking textbook. It introduces networking concepts like LANs, WANs and the Internet. It discusses how networks are used in daily life for communication, work and entertainment. It also outlines trends that will impact networks, such as BYOD, online collaboration, video and cloud computing. The chapter objectives are to explain network topologies, devices and characteristics used in small to medium businesses.
The document discusses IP addresses and the differences between IPv4 and IPv6. It defines what an IP address is and explains the classes of IPv4 addresses including Class A, B, C, D and E. It also defines IPv6, noting it uses 128-bit addresses represented by 8 groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are that IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses in dot-decimal notation while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses in hexadecimal colon-separated notation and has a much larger address space.
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit addresses used to identify nodes in an IPv6 network. They are conventionally written in hexadecimal colon notation, divided into eight sections of four hexadecimal digits each. IPv6 addresses have a hierarchical structure, with the type prefix in the first bits indicating the address category such as unicast, multicast, anycast, reserved, or local. Unicast addresses are used to identify a single interface, multicast for groups of interfaces, and anycast to select the nearest available node in a group.
The document provides examples of subnetting IP address ranges to meet specific requirements for number of subnets and hosts. It demonstrates converting host bits in an IP address to network bits to create subnets, and calculating the resulting number of subnets, hosts per subnet, and subnet ranges. Custom subnet masks are provided based on the number of bits converted from host to network.
This document discusses subnetting and provides examples. It describes subnetting as breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Subnetting allows creating multiple networks from a single address block and maximizes addressing efficiency. The document then provides examples of subnetting a network using CIDR notation and calculating the number of subnets, hosts per subnet, valid IP ranges, and broadcast addresses. It also discusses an example of optimally subnetting the IP addresses needed across different departments within a university based on their host requirements.
Subnet Calculation from a given IP range, using the classless Subnet mask. Calculating number of hosts in a subnet and number of subnets possible to create in a given IP range.
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document provides an overview and technical details regarding beamforming and sounding reference signal optimization for LTE. It discusses sector beamforming for common channels using weighted factors. It compares RL15 single-stream beamforming (TM7) to RL25 dual-stream beamforming (TM8), describing their implementations. The document also covers sounding reference signal configurations, including hopping patterns and parameters. Performance results and configuration parameters for beamforming are presented.
EUMETCast system & DVB-S2 migration - EUMETCast User Forum 2014EUMETSAT
EUMETSAT's Dissemination Operations Team Leader Klaus-Peter Renner gives an overview of the current EUMETCast satellite data dissemination system. He also explains how and why EUMETSAT is moving to the DVB-S2 broadcast format. The presentation was given at the EUMETCast User Forum 2014 in Darmstadt, Germany on 17 September.
This document provides study material for railway staff on General Rules (GRS) and Block Working Manual (BWM) notes. It covers key topics such as safety rules, classification of stations, systems of working including absolute block and automatic block systems, signaling, train operations, shunting and block working. The summary is:
1. The document outlines the basic rules and regulations for railway staff including general rules, subsidiary rules, special instructions and station working rules. It describes classification of stations and minimum signaling requirements.
2. Systems of working covered include absolute block, automatic block and other systems. Absolute block system uses line clear tokens or instruments while automatic block uses axle counters and track circuits for train detection.
This document provides an overview of UMTS basics including standards, network architecture, interfaces, domains, UTRAN components, mobility management, security, radio interface concepts, protocols, and codecs. It serves as an introduction to analyzing UMTS UTRAN signaling procedures which are described in detail later in the document.
FYP - An Evaluation of MANET Performance Using AODV By Varying Mobility Speed...Hidayah101
AODV is a reactive routing protocol where it is based on distance vector. It uses the destination number to determine the freshness of routes. AODV minimizes the broadcasts by creating routes on-demand. Due to on-demand manner in AODV, AODV won't check the route in the periodic interval. It just checks the route whenever it has any request to the destination path. Link failure can happen if the node or destination nodes move to the other random position with a random speed. It is important to get an optimum speed interval so that the node cannot move too fast or too slow in the network and cause a link failure to the destination.
Cisco discovery drs ent module 3 - v.4 in english.igede tirtanata
The document contains questions and answers about networking concepts like VLANs, trunking, VTP, and STP.
Some key points:
- A router can connect VLANs on a switch using a trunk port and subinterfaces for each VLAN.
- VTP is used to maintain VLAN configuration consistency across switches in the same management domain and mode.
- STP elects a root bridge and puts switch ports into blocking, listening, learning, or forwarding states to prevent loops.
This document provides an introduction to LTE/E-UTRA technology, including both FDD and TDD modes of operation. It describes the key requirements for UMTS Long Term Evolution such as high data rates, low latency, and improved spectrum efficiency compared to previous standards. The document then covers various aspects of the LTE standard, including the OFDMA downlink and SC-FDMA uplink transmission schemes, MIMO concepts, protocol architecture, UE capabilities, and testing considerations. Abbreviations used and additional references are also provided.
LTE specifications support the use of multiple antennas at both transmitter (tx) and receiver (rx). MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output) uses this antenna configuration.
LTE specifications support up to 4 antennas at the tx side and up to 4 antennas at the rx side (here referred to as 4x4 MIMO
configuration).
In the first release of LTE it is likely that the UE only has 1 tx antenna, even if it uses 2 rx antennas. This leads to that so called
Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO) will be supported only in DL (and maximum 2x2 configuration).
This document provides an overview of UMTS network architecture and protocols. It describes the standards, domains, interfaces, and components that make up UMTS networks. It also covers topics like security, radio basics, mobility management, quality of service, and signaling procedures.
The document is divided into multiple chapters. Chapter 1 provides background information on UMTS standards, architecture, interfaces, security, radio basics, and core network protocols. Subsequent chapters describe monitoring, troubleshooting, optimization techniques and example signaling procedures for various network elements and scenarios.
This lesson describes the concept of VPN and introduces some VPN terminology.
Importance
This lesson is the foundation lesson for the MPLS VPN Curriculum.
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, the learner will be able to perform the following
tasks:
■ Describe the concept of VPN
■ Explain VPN terminology as defined by MPLS VPN architecture
This document discusses spanning tree protocols (STP) and how they are implemented to prevent loops in switched networks. It covers how STP works by electing a root bridge and designating port roles and states. STP uses BPDU frames and a three step process to converge on a loop-free topology. The document also describes rapid per VLAN spanning tree (rapid PVST+), a variant of STP that provides faster convergence time and VLAN support compared to older STP standards. Rapid PVST+ is recommended for use on Cisco switched networks to prevent loops.
1. Frame tagging adds the VLAN ID to each frame to allow delivery across a switched trunk.
2. Switch1 is not participating in VTP management with the other switches because it is in a different management domain than Switch2.
3. When a packet is received on a router trunk port from VLAN 10 with a destination of 192.168.1.120, the router will forward it out the trunk tagged for VLAN 60.
The document provides an overview of track installation for Lines 1 and 2 of the Riyadh Metro Project. It discusses the different types of tracks used, including ballasted, ballastless, and tracks inside depots. The presentation then goes through the typical 20 step process for installing plain line tracks, from preliminary surveys to final track installation and recording of data. It also covers other track installation details like turnouts and crossings, derailment containment, welding procedures, and noise and vibration mitigation. Finally, it discusses tracks at depots and the handover process from the contractor to the transit systems and operations teams.
A New MultiChannel MAC Protocol With On-Demand Channel Assignment For Multi-H...Wendy Hager
The document presents a multi-channel MAC protocol called SM that uses static channel assignment. Each mobile host is assigned a single channel and uses that channel for all transmissions following the IEEE 802.11 standard. However, several issues are identified when directly applying a single-channel protocol to a multi-channel system, including missing control packets, exposed terminals, and channel deadlocks. To address these issues, the document proposes a new dynamic multi-channel MAC protocol called DCA that flexibly assigns channels based on demand and requires only two transceivers per host.
This document proposes optimizations to reduce latency for circuit switched fallback (CSFB) from LTE to 1xRTT networks. It identifies several areas in the existing 1xRTT procedures where latency can be reduced, including skipping the timing change and update overhead information substates if the UE already has the necessary timing and configuration information. It also proposes techniques like pre-hashing or disabling hashing temporarily to reduce the latency from carrier and paging channel hashing when the UE switches from LTE to 1xRTT. The optimizations aim to improve CSFB call setup latency without requiring changes to 3GPP standards.
This document provides an introduction to LTE/E-UTRA technology. It outlines the key requirements for LTE, which include high peak data rates of 100 Mbps downlink and 50 Mbps uplink, improved spectrum efficiency and latency compared to prior UMTS standards, and support for scalable bandwidths from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz. The document then describes the OFDMA and SC-FDMA based transmission schemes used in LTE for downlink and uplink respectively, along with control channel structures and reference signals. MIMO concepts and the simplified LTE protocol architecture relative to prior UMTS standards are also introduced. Finally, aspects of LTE testing are discussed.
Delay Optimized Full Adder Design for High Speed VLSI ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of a hybrid full adder circuit for high-speed VLSI applications. Full adders are important components used in arithmetic logic units, floating point units, and address generation. The author first reviews existing full adder designs based on static CMOS, transmission gate, and dynamic logic styles. Then, a previously proposed hybrid CMOS full adder using both transmission gates and CMOS is described. To improve speed, the author proposes a modified full adder design using only 14 transistors instead of 16. Both the existing and proposed designs are simulated in Cadence Virtuoso at 180nm and 90nm technology nodes. Simulation results show the proposed design has lower power consumption and propagation delay compared to the
Hamza Al-Jaghbeer - Training Report Presentation - Yarmouk Univ. - HijjawiHamza Al-Jaghbeer
Hamza M. Al-Jaghbeer completed a 6-month training at Orange Jordan from June 28, 2015 to December 28, 2015. During this time, he gained experience in mobile access, transmission, and radio frequency teams. He learned about network monitoring, fiber optic installation, site surveys, and in-building signal solutions. Overall, the training provided valuable experience in optimizing mobile networks and improved Hamza's technical and professional skills.
Learning spark ch01 - Introduction to Data Analysis with Sparkphanleson
Learning spark ch01 - Introduction to Data Analysis with Spark
References to Spark Course
Course : Introduction to Big Data with Apache Spark : http://ouo.io/Mqc8L5
Course : Spark Fundamentals I : http://ouo.io/eiuoV
Course : Functional Programming Principles in Scala : http://ouo.io/rh4vv
Firewall - Network Defense in Depth Firewallsphanleson
This document discusses key concepts related to network defense in depth. It defines common terms like firewalls, DMZs, IDS, and VPNs. It also covers techniques for packet filtering, application inspection, network address translation, and virtual private networks. The goal of defense in depth is to implement multiple layers of security and not rely on any single mechanism.
This document discusses wireless security and protocols such as WEP, WPA, and 802.11i. It describes weaknesses in WEP such as vulnerabilities in the RC4 encryption algorithm that allow attacks like dictionary attacks. It introduces WPA as an improvement over WEP that uses stronger encryption keys, protocols like TKIP that change keys dynamically, and AES encryption in 802.11i as stronger alternatives. It also discusses authentication methods like 802.1X that distribute unique keys to each user to address issues with shared keys in WEP.
Authentication in wireless - Security in Wireless Protocolsphanleson
The document discusses authentication protocols for wireless devices. It begins by describing the authentication problem and some basic client-server protocols. It then introduces the challenge-response protocol which aims to prevent replay attacks by including a random number in the response. However, this protocol is still vulnerable to man-in-the-middle and reflection attacks. The document proposes improvements like including an identifier in the hashed response to prevent message manipulation attacks. Overall, the document provides an overview of authentication challenges for wireless devices and the development of challenge-response protocols to address these issues.
HBase In Action - Chapter 04: HBase table designphanleson
HBase In Action - Chapter 04: HBase table design
Learning HBase, Real-time Access to Your Big Data, Data Manipulation at Scale, Big Data, Text Mining, HBase, Deploying HBase
HBase In Action - Chapter 10 - Operationsphanleson
HBase In Action - Chapter 10: Operations
Learning HBase, Real-time Access to Your Big Data, Data Manipulation at Scale, Big Data, Text Mining, HBase, Deploying HBase
Hbase in action - Chapter 09: Deploying HBasephanleson
Hbase in action - Chapter 09: Deploying HBase
Learning HBase, Real-time Access to Your Big Data, Data Manipulation at Scale, Big Data, Text Mining, HBase, Deploying HBase
This chapter discusses Spark Streaming and provides an overview of its key concepts. It describes the architecture and abstractions in Spark Streaming including transformations on data streams. It also covers input sources, output operations, fault tolerance mechanisms, and performance considerations for Spark Streaming applications. The chapter concludes by noting how knowledge from Spark can be applied to streaming and real-time applications.
This chapter discusses Spark SQL, which allows querying Spark data with SQL. It covers initializing Spark SQL, loading data from sources like Hive, Parquet, JSON and RDDs, caching data, writing UDFs, and performance tuning. The JDBC server allows sharing cached tables and queries between programs. SchemaRDDs returned by queries or loaded from data represent the data structure that SQL queries operate on.
Learning spark ch07 - Running on a Clusterphanleson
This chapter discusses running Spark applications on a cluster. It describes Spark's runtime architecture with a driver program and executor processes. It also covers options for deploying Spark, including the standalone cluster manager, Hadoop YARN, Apache Mesos, and Amazon EC2. The chapter provides guidance on configuring resources, packaging code, and choosing a cluster manager based on needs.
This chapter introduces advanced Spark programming features such as accumulators, broadcast variables, working on a per-partition basis, piping to external programs, and numeric RDD operations. It discusses how accumulators aggregate information across partitions, broadcast variables efficiently distribute large read-only values, and how to optimize these processes. It also covers running custom code on each partition, interfacing with other programs, and built-in numeric RDD functionality. The chapter aims to expand on core Spark concepts and functionality.
Learning spark ch05 - Loading and Saving Your Dataphanleson
The document discusses various file formats and methods for loading and saving data in Spark, including text files, JSON, CSV, SequenceFiles, object files, and Hadoop input/output formats. It provides examples of loading and saving each of these file types in Python, Scala, and Java code. The examples demonstrate how to read data from files into RDDs and DataFrames and how to write RDD data out to files in the various formats.
Learning spark ch04 - Working with Key/Value Pairsphanleson
Learning spark ch04 - Working with Key/Value Pairs
Course : Introduction to Big Data with Apache Spark : http://ouo.io/Mqc8L5
Course : Spark Fundamentals I : http://ouo.io/eiuoV
Course : Functional Programming Principles in Scala : http://ouo.io/rh4vv
Learning spark ch01 - Introduction to Data Analysis with Sparkphanleson
Learning spark ch01 - Introduction to Data Analysis with Spark
References to Spark Course
Course : Introduction to Big Data with Apache Spark : http://ouo.io/Mqc8L5
Course : Spark Fundamentals I : http://ouo.io/eiuoV
Course : Functional Programming Principles in Scala : http://ouo.io/rh4vv
XML FOR DUMMIES
The document is a chapter from the book "XML for Dummies" that introduces XML. It discusses what XML is, including that it is a markup language and is flexible for exchanging data. It also examines common uses of XML such as classifying information, enforcing rules on data, and outputting information in different ways. Additionally, it clarifies what XML is not, namely that it is not just for web pages, not a database, and not a programming language. The chapter concludes by discussing how to build an XML document using editors that facilitate markup and enforce document rules.
This document discusses the differences between HTML, XML, and XHTML. It covers how XHTML combines the structure of XML with the familiar tags of HTML. Key points include:
- HTML was designed for displaying web pages, XML for data exchange, and XHTML uses HTML tags with XML syntax.
- XML allows custom tags, separates content from presentation, and is self-describing, while HTML focuses on display.
- Converting to XHTML requires following XML syntax rules like closing all tags, using empty element syntax, proper nesting, and lowercase tags and attribute quotes.
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
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إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
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How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
2. KhoaCNTT2/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
Objectives
• Define VLSM and briefly describe the reasons for its
use
• Divide a major network into subnets of different sizes
using VLSM
• Define route aggregation and summarization as they
relate to VLSM
• Configure a router using VLSM
• Identify the key features of RIP v1 and RIP v2
• Identify the important differences between RIP v1 and
RIP v2
• Configure RIP v2
• Verify and troubleshoot RIP v2 operation
• Configure default routes using the ip route and ip
default-network commands
5. KhoaCNTT5/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
Issues with IP Addressing
• IP addressing crisis
• As early as 1992, the IETF identified two
specific concerns:
–IP address exhaustion
–Routing table growth
U N I V E R S I T YU N I V E R S I T Y
Internet
6. KhoaCNTT6/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
IP Addressing Solutions
• Short term to extension to IPv4
– Subneting masking: RFCs 950, 1812
– Variable-Length Subnet Masks: RFC 1812
– Classless InterDomain Routing: RFCs 1518,
1519, 2050
– Address allocation for private Internets: RFC
1918
– Network Address Translation: RFC 1631
– Route summarization: RFC 1518
• Ultimate solution: IPv6 128-bit address
space
20. KhoaCNTT20/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
RIP v1: Characteristics
• IGP protocol, is classful routing.
• It is a distance vector protocol that uses a hop
count metric.
• The maximum number of hops is 15.
• By default, routing updates are broadcast every
30 seconds.
• The router applies the one subnet mask that is
configured on the receiving interface to receive
network information.
• Load balancing over as many as six equal-cost
paths, with four paths as the default.
21. KhoaCNTT21/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
RIP v1: Limitations
• It does not send subnet mask information
in its updates.
• It sends updates as broadcasts on
255.255.255.255.
• It does not support authentication.
• It is not able to support VLSM or classless
interdomain routing (CIDR).
23. KhoaCNTT23/30PHẠMVĂNTÍNH01-2004
RIP v2 features
• Send out subnet mask information with the route
update.
• Support VLSM or classless interdomain routing
(CIDR).
• Provides for authentication in its updates.
• Provides Multicast routing updates, using the
Class D address 224.0.0.9.
• Use external route tags
• Routing update is includes a next-hop route ip
address.
Overview A network administrator must anticipate and manage the physical growth of a network, perhaps by buying or leasing another floor of the building to house new networking equipment such as racks, patch panels, switches, and routers. The network designer must choose an addressing scheme that allows for growth. Variable-Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) is a technique that allows for the creation of efficient, scalable addressing schemes. With the phenomenal growth of the Internet and TCP/IP, virtually every enterprise must now implement an IP addressing scheme. Many organizations select TCP/IP as the only routed protocol to run on their network. Unfortunately, the architects of TCP/IP could not have predicted that their protocol would eventually sustain a global network of information, commerce, and entertainment. Twenty years ago, IP version 4 (IPv4) offered an addressing strategy that, although scalable for a time, resulted in an inefficient allocation of addresses. IP version 6 (IPv6), with virtually unlimited address space, is slowly being implemented in select networks and may replace IPv4 as the dominant protocol of the Internet. Over the past two decades, engineers have successfully modified IPv4 so that it can survive the exponential growth of the Internet. VLSM is one of the modifications that has helped to bridge the gap between IPv4 and IPv6.Networks must be scalable in order to meet the changing needs of users. When a network is scalable it is able to grow in a logical, efficient, and cost-effective way. The routing protocol used in a network does much to determine the scalability of the network. Therefore, it is important that the routing protocol be chosen wisely. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is still considered suitable for small networks, but is not scalable to large networks because of inherent limitations. To overcome these limitations yet maintain the simplicity of RIP version 1 (RIP v1), RIP version 2 (RIP v2) was developed.
In order to use VLSM, a network administrator must use a routing protocol that supports it. Cisco routers support VLSM with Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Integrated Intermediate System to Intermediate System (Integrated IS-IS), Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), RIP v2, and static routing.
In the past, it has been recommended that the first and last subnet not be used. Use of the first subnet, known as subnet zero, for host addressing was discouraged because of the confusion that can occur when a network and a subnet have the same addresses. The same was true with the use of the last subnet, known as the all-ones subnet. It has always been true that these subnets could be used. However, it was not a recommended practice. As networking technologies have evolved, and IP address depletion has become of real concern, it has become acceptable practice to use the first and last subnets in a subnetted network in conjunction with VLSM. In this network, the network management team has decided to borrow three bits from the host portion of the Class C address that has been selected for this addressing scheme. If management decides to use subnet zero, it has eight useable subnets. Each may support 30 hosts. If the management decides to use the no ip subnet-zero command, it has seven usable subnets with 30 hosts in each subnet. From Cisco IOS version 12.0, remember that Cisco routers use subnet zero by default. Therefore Sydney, Brisbane, Perth, and Melbourne remote offices may each have 30 hosts. The team realizes that it has to address the three point-to-point WAN links between Sydney, Brisbane, Perth, and Melbourne. If the team uses the three remaining subnets for the WAN links, it will have used all of the available addresses and have no room for growth. The team will also have wasted the 28 host addresses from each subnet to simply address three point-to-point networks. Using this addressing scheme one third of the potential address space will have been wasted. Such an addressing scheme is fine for a small LAN. However, this addressing scheme is extremely wasteful if using point-to-point connections.
It is important to design an addressing scheme that allows for growth and does not involve wasting addresses. This section examines how VLSM can be used to prevent waste of addresses on point-to-point links. This time the networking team decided to avoid their wasteful use of the /27 mask on the point-to-point links. The team decided to apply VLSM to the addressing problem. To apply VLSM to the addressing problem, the team will break the Class C address into subnets of variable sizes. Large subnets are created for addressing LANs. Very small subnets are created for WAN links and other special cases. A 30-bit mask is used to create subnets with only two valid host addresses. In this case this is the best solution for the point-to-point connections. The team will take one of the three subnets they had previously decided to assign to the WAN links, and subnet it again with a 30-bit mask. In the example, the team has taken one of the last three subnets, subnet 6 (.192), and subnetted it again. This time the team uses a 30-bit mask. Figures and illustrate that after using VLSM, the team has eight ranges of addresses to be used for the point-to-point links.
In Figure the subnet addresses used are those generated from subdividing the 172.16.32.0/20 subnet into multiple /26 subnets. The figure illustrates where the subnet addresses can be applied, depending on the number of host requirements. For example, the WAN links use subnet addresses with a prefix of /30. This prefix allows for only two hosts, just enough hosts for a point-to-point connection between a pair of routers. To calculate the subnet addresses used on the WAN links, further subnet one of the unused /26 subnets. In this example, 172.16.33.0/26 is further subnetted with a prefix of /30. This provides four more subnet bits and therefore 16 (2 4 ) subnets for the WANs. Figure illustrates how to work through a VLSM masking system. VLSM allows the subnetting of an already subnetted address. For example, consider the subnet address 172.16.32.0/20 and a network needing ten host addresses. With this subnet address, there are over 4000 (21 2 – 2 = 4094) host addresses, most of which will be wasted. With VLSM it is possible to further subnet the address 172.16.32.0/20 to give more network addresses and fewer hosts per network. For example, by subnetting 172.16.32.0/20 to 172.16.32.0/26, there is a gain of 64 (2 6 ) subnets, each of which could support 62 (2 6 – 2) hosts. Use this procedure to further subnet 172.16.32.0/20 to 172.16.32.0/26: Step 1: Write 172.16.32.0 in binary form. Step 2: Draw a vertical line between the 20th and 21st bits, as shown in Figure . /20 was the original subnet boundary. Step 3: Draw a vertical line between the 26th and 27th bits, as shown in Figure . The original /20 subnet boundary is extended six bits to the right, becoming /26. Step 4: Calculate the 64 subnet addresses using the bits between the two vertical lines, from lowest to highest in value. The figure shows the first five subnets available. It is important to remember that only unused subnets can be further subnetted. If any address from a subnet is used, that subnet cannot be further subnetted. In the example, four subnet numbers are used on the LANs. Another unused subnet, 172.16.33.0/26, is further subnetted for use on the WANs.
When using VLSM, try to keep the subnetwork numbers grouped together in the network to allow for aggregation. This means keeping networks like 172.16.14.0 and 172.16.15.0 near one another so that the routers need only carry a route for 172.16.14.0/23. The use of Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) and VLSM not only prevents address waste, but also promotes route aggregation, or summarization. Without route summarization, Internet backbone routing would likely have collapsed sometime before 1997. Figure illustrates how route summarization reduces the burden on upstream routers. This complex hierarchy of variable-sized networks and subnetworks is summarized at various points, using a prefix address, until the entire network is advertised as a single aggregate route, 200.199.48.0/22. Route summarization, or supernetting, is only possible if the routers of a network run a classless routing protocol, such as OSPF or EIGRP. Classless routing protocols carry a prefix that consists of 32-bit IP address and bit mask in the routing updates. In Figure , the summary route that eventually reaches the provider contains a 20-bit prefix common to all of the addresses in the organization, 200.199.48.0/22 or 11001000.11000111.0011. For summarization to work properly, carefully assign addresses in a hierarchical fashion so that summarized addresses will share the same high-order bits. Remember the following rules: A router must know in detail the subnet numbers attached to it. A router does not need to tell other routers about each individual subnet if the router can send one aggregate route for a set of routers. A router using aggregate routes would have fewer entries in its routing table.
VLSM allows for the summarization of routes and increases flexibly by basing the summarization entirely on the higher-order bits shared on the left, even if the networks are not contiguous. The graphic shows that the addresses, or routes, share each bit up to and including the 20th bit. These bits are colored red. The 21st bit is not the same for all the routes. Therefore the prefix for the summary route will be 20 bits long. This is used to calculate the network number of the summary route. Figure shows that the addresses, or routes, share each bit up to and including the 21st bit. These bits are colored red. The 22nd bit is not the same for all the routes. Therefore the prefix for the summary route will be 21 bits long. This is used to calculate the network number of the summary route.
If VLSM is the scheme chosen, it must then be calculated and configured correctly. In this example allow for the following: Network address: 192.168.10.0 The Perth router has to support 60 hosts. In this case, a minimum of six bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Six bits will yield 62 possible host addresses, 26 = 64 – 2 = 62, so the division was 192.168.10.0/26. The Sydney and Singapore routers have to support 12 hosts each. In these cases, a minimum of four bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Four bits will yield 14 possible host addresses, 24 = 16 – 2 = 14, so the division is 192.168.10.96/28 for Sydney and 192.168.10.112/28 for Singapore. The Kuala Lumpur router requires 28 hosts. In this case, a minimum of five bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Five bits will yield 30 possible host addresses, 25 = 32 – 2 = 30, so the division here is 192.168.10.64/27. The following are the point-to-point connections: Perth to Kuala Lumpur 192.168.10.128/30 – Since only two addresses are required, a minimum of two bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Two bits will yield two possible host addresses (22 = 4 – 2 = 2) so the division here is 192.168.10.128/30. Sydney to Kuala Lumpur 192.168.10.132/30 – Since only two addresses are required, a minimum of two bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Two bits will yield two possible host addresses (22 = 4 – 2 = 2) so the division here is 192.168.10.132/30. Singapore to Kuala Lumpur 192.168.10.136/30 – Since only two addresses are required, a minimum of two bits are needed in the host portion of the address. Two bits will yield two possible host addresses (22 = 4 – 2 = 2) so the division here is 192.168.10.136/30. There is sufficient host address space for two host endpoints on a point-to-point serial link. The example for Singapore to Kuala Lumpur is configured as follows: Singapore(config)# interface serial 0 Singapore(config-if)# ip address 192.168.10.137 255.255.255.252 KualaLumpur(config)# interface serial 1 KualaLumpur(config-if)# ip address 192.168.10.138 255.255.255.252
The Internet is a collection of autonomous systems (AS). Each AS is generally administered by a single entity. Each AS will have its own routing technology, which may differ from other autonomous systems. The routing protocol used within an AS is referred to as an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP). A separate protocol, called an Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), is used to transfer routing information between autonomous systems. RIP was designed to work as an IGP in a moderate-sized AS. It is not intended for use in more complex environments. RIP v1 is considered an interior gateway protocol that is classful. RIP v1 is a distance vector protocol that broadcasts its entire routing table to each neighbor router at predetermined intervals. The default interval is 30 seconds. RIP uses hop count as a metric, with 15 as the maximum number of hops. If the router receives information about a network, and the receiving interface belongs to the same network but is on a different subnet, the router applies the one subnet mask that is configured on the receiving interface: For Class A addresses, the default classful mask is 255.0.0.0. For Class B addresses, the default classful mask is 255.255.0.0. For Class C addresses, the default classful mask is 255.255.255.0. RIP v1 is a popular routing protocol because virtually all IP routers support it. The popularity of RIP v1 is based on the simplicity and the universal compatibility it demonstrates. RIP v1 is capable of load balancing over as many as six equal-cost paths, with four paths as the default.
RIP v1 has the following limitations: It does not send subnet mask information in its updates. It sends updates as broadcasts on 255.255.255.255. It does not support authentication. It is not able to support VLSM or classless interdomain routing (CIDR).
RIP v2 is an improved version of RIP v1 and shares the following features: It is a distance vector protocol that uses a hop count metric. It uses holddown timers to prevent routing loops – default is 180 seconds. It uses split horizon to prevent routing loops. It uses 16 hops as a metric for infinite distance. RIP v2 provides prefix routing, which allows it to send out subnet mask information with the route update. Therefore, RIP v2 supports the use of classless routing in which different subnets within the same network can use different subnet masks, as in VLSM. RIP v2 provides for authentication in its updates. A set of keys can be used on an interface as an authentication check. RIP v2 allows for a choice of the type of authentication to be used in RIP v2 packets. The choice can be either clear text or Message-Digest 5 (MD5) encryption. Clear text is the default. MD5 can be used to authenticate the source of a routing update. MD5 is typically used to encrypt enable secret passwords and it has no known reversal. RIP v2 multicasts routing updates using the Class D address 224.0.0.9, which provides for better efficiency.
RIP uses distance vector algorithms to determine the direction and distance to any link in the internetwork. If there are multiple paths to a destination, RIP selects the path with the least number of hops. However, because hop count is the only routing metric used by RIP, it does not necessarily select the fastest path to a destination. RIP v1 allows routers to update their routing tables at programmable intervals. The default interval is 30 seconds. The continual sending of routing updates by RIP v1 means that network traffic builds up quickly. To prevent a packet from looping infinitely, RIP allows a maximum hop count of 15. If the destination network is more than 15 routers away, the network is considered unreachable and the packet is dropped. This situation creates a scalability issue when routing in large heterogeneous networks. RIP v1 uses split horizon to prevent loops. This means that RIP v1 advertises routes out an interface only if the routes were not learned from updates entering that interface. It uses holddown timers to prevent routing loops. Holddowns ignore any new information about a subnet indicating a poorer metric for a time equal to the holddown timer. Figure summarizes the behavior of RIP v1 when used by a router. RIP v2 is an improved version of RIP v1. It has many of the same features of RIP v1. RIP v2 is also a distance vector protocol that uses hop count, holddown timers, and split horizon. Figure compares and contrasts RIP v1 and RIP v2.
RIP v2 is a dynamic routing protocol that is configured by naming the routing protocol RIP Version 2, and then assigning IP network numbers without specifying subnet values. This section describes the basic commands used to configure RIP v2 on a Cisco router. To enable a dynamic routing protocol, the following tasks must be completed: Select a routing protocol, such as RIP v2. Assign the IP network numbers without specifying the subnet values. Assign the network or subnet addresses and the appropriate subnet mask to the interfaces. RIP v2 uses multicasts to communicate with other routers. The routing metric helps the routers find the best path to each network or subnet. The router command starts the routing process. The network command causes the implementation of the following three functions: The routing updates are multicast out an interface. The routing updates are processed if they enter that same interface. The subnet that is directly connected to that interface is advertised. The network command is required because it allows the routing process to determine which interfaces will participate in the sending and receiving of routing updates. The network command starts up the routing protocol on all interfaces that the router has in the specified network. The network command also allows the router to advertise that network. The router rip version 2 command specifies RIP v2 as the routing protocol, while the network command identifies a participating attached network.
The show ip protocols command displays values about routing protocols and routing protocol timer information associated with the router. In the example, the router is configured with RIP and sends updated routing table information every 30 seconds. This interval is configurable. If a router running RIP does not receive an update from another router for 180 seconds or more, the first router marks the routes served by the non-updating router as being invalid. In Figure , the holddown timer is set to 180 seconds. Therefore, an update to a route that was down and is now up could stay in the holddown state until the full 180 seconds have passed. If there is still no update after 240 seconds the router removes the routing table entries. In the figure, it has been 18 seconds since Router A received an update from Router B. The router is injecting routes for the networks listed following the Routing for Networks line. The router is receiving routes from the neighboring RIP routers listed following the Routing Information Sources line. The distance default of 120 refers to the administrative distance for a RIP route. The show ip interface brief command can also be used to list a summary of the information and status of an interface.
The show ip route command displays the contents of the IP routing table. The routing table contains entries for all known networks and subnetworks, and contains a code that indicates how that information was learned. The output of key fields from this command and their function is explained in the table. Examine the output to see if the routing table is populated with routing information. If entries are missing, routing information is not being exchanged. Use the show running-config or show ip protocols privileged EXEC commands on the router to check for a possible misconfigured routing protocol.
Use the debug ip rip command to display RIP routing updates as they are sent and received. The no debug all or undebug all commands will turn off all debugging. The example shows that the router being debugged has received updates from one router at source address 10.1.1.2. The router at source address 10.1.1.2 sent information about two destinations in the routing table update. The router being debugged also sent updates, in both cases to broadcast address 255.255.255.255 as the destination. The number in parentheses is the source address encapsulated into the IP header. Other outputs sometimes seen from the debug ip rip command includes entries such as the following: RIP: broadcasting general request on Ethernet0 RIP: broadcasting general request on Ethernet1 These outputs appear at startup or when an event occurs such as an interface transition or a user manually clears the routing table. An entry, such as the following, is most likely caused by a malformed packet from the transmitter: RIP: bad version 128 from 160.89.80.43
By default, routers learn paths to destinations three different ways: Static routes – The system administrator manually defines the static routes as the next hop to a destination. Static routes are useful for security and traffic reduction, as no other route is known. Default routes – The system administrator also manually defines default routes as the path to take when there is no known route to the destination. Default routes keep routing tables shorter. When an entry for a destination network does not exist in a routing table, the packet is sent to the default network. Dynamic routes – Dynamic routing means that the router learns of paths to destinations by receiving periodic updates from other routers. The ip default-network command establishes a default route in networks using dynamic routing protocols: Router(config)# ip default-network 192.168.20.0 Generally after the routing table has been set to handle all the networks that must be configured, it is often useful to ensure that all other packets go to a specific location. One example is a router that connects to the Internet. This is called the default route for the router. All the packets that are not defined in the routing table will go to the nominated interface of the default router. The ip default-network command is usually configured on the routers that connect to a router with a static default route. In Figure , Hong Kong 2 and Hong Kong 3 would use Hong Kong 4 as the default gateway. Hong Kong 4 would use interface 192.168.19.2 as its default gateway. Hong Kong 1 would route packets to the Internet for all internal hosts. To allow Hong Kong 1 to route these packets it is necessary to configure a default route as: HongKong1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.20.1 The zeros represent any destination network with any mask. Default routes are referred to as quad zero routes. In the diagram, the only way Hong Kong 1 can go to the Internet is through the interface 192.168.20.1.