Cesare Lombroso was an Italian criminologist in the late 19th century known for founding the field of criminal anthropology. He studied at universities in Italy and France and became a professor of psychiatry and forensic medicine. Lombroso believed criminals could be identified by certain physical characteristics and anomalies. He conducted extensive post-mortem examinations and measurements of criminals, mentally ill patients, and normal individuals. Though his theories of identifying criminals by physical traits are now discredited, he shifted criminology to a more scientific study of criminals. Later in life, Lombroso also investigated psychic phenomena and became a believer in spiritualism.