This document provides an overview of theories that attempt to explain criminal behavior. It discusses classical, neoclassical, and positivist criminological theories. Classical theory views criminal behavior as resulting from free will and aims to achieve deterrence through punishment. Neoclassical theory introduced factors like premeditation and diminished responsibility. Positivist theories view human behavior as determined and see criminals as fundamentally different. Biological theories propose innate physiological differences between criminals and non-criminals. Psychological theories explore factors like intelligence, psychoanalysis, and humanistic perspectives. Sociological theories emphasize social and environmental influences on behavior. Theories discussed include anomie, collective conscience, and the work of the Chicago School studying neighborhood crime rates.
Booklet that I made for criminological theories revision, using resources from the internet. These theories include:
* Classical Theory
* Functionalist Crime Theories (includes Durkheim and Merton)
* Marxist Theory
* Right realism
* Left realism
* Labelling (Interactionism)
* Individualistic theories (learning theories, psychological theories and psychodynamic theories)
* Eysenck's theory
* Family crime theories
* Neurophysiological (brain damage)
* Neurochemical
* Kohlberg's moral development
* Behaviourist theory
Booklet that I made for criminological theories revision, using resources from the internet. These theories include:
* Classical Theory
* Functionalist Crime Theories (includes Durkheim and Merton)
* Marxist Theory
* Right realism
* Left realism
* Labelling (Interactionism)
* Individualistic theories (learning theories, psychological theories and psychodynamic theories)
* Eysenck's theory
* Family crime theories
* Neurophysiological (brain damage)
* Neurochemical
* Kohlberg's moral development
* Behaviourist theory
The Causation of Crime: A Study on Biological Factorsiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
This PPT Includes basics of Criminology, the theories of different Criminologists, schools of criminology, importance of criminology in policy making for each country in administration of criminal justice, role of media and investigating strategies.
CRIME THEORIES The function of theory is to provide puzzles .docxwillcoxjanay
CRIME THEORIES
The function of theory is to provide puzzles for research (Lewis Coser)
Source: O'Connor, T. (03/26/04). In Crime Theories, MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/111/111lect03.htm on January 9, 2006.
To understand criminal justice, it is necessary to understand crime. Most policy-
making in criminal justice is based on criminological theory, whether the people making
those policies know it or not. In fact, most of the failed policies (what doesn't work) in
criminal justice are due to misinterpretation, partial implementation, or ignorance of
criminological theory. Much time and money could be saved if only policymakers had a
thorough understanding of criminological theory. At one time, criminological theory was
rather pure and abstract, with few practical implications, but that is not the case anymore.
For example, almost all criminologists today use a legalistic rather than normative
definition of crime. A legalistic definition of crime takes as its starting point the statutory
definitions contained in the penal code, legal statutes or ordinances. A crime is a crime
because the law says so. Sure, there are concerns about overcriminalization (too many
laws) and undercriminalization (not enough laws), but at least on the surface, a legalistic
approach seems practical. It is also advantageous to a normative definition, which sees
crime as a violation of norms (social standards of how humans ought to think and
behave), although there are times when criminology can shed light on norms and norm
violators.
Every criminological theory contains a set of assumptions (about human nature,
social structure, and the principles of causation, to name a few), a description of the
phenomena to be explained (facts a theory must fit), and an explanation, or prediction,
of that phenomenon. The assumptions are also called meta-theoretical issues, and deal
with debates like those over free will v. determinism or consensus v. conflict. The
description is a statistical profile, figure, diagram, or table of numbers representing the
patterns, trends, and correlates of the type of crime taken as an exemplar (most
appropriate example) of all crime. The explanation is a set of variables (things that can
be tweaked or changed) arranged in some kind of causal order so that they have statistical
and meaningful significance. Criminological theories are primarily concerned with
etiology (the study of causes or reasons for crime), but occasionally have important
things to say about actors in the criminal justice system, such as police, attorneys,
correctional personnel, and victims.
There are basically thirteen (13) identifiable types of criminological theory,
only three (3) of which are considered "mainstream" or conventional criminology (strain,
learning, control). The oldest theory (biochemistry) goes back to 1876 and the last four
theories (left realism, peacem.
The Causation of Crime: A Study on Biological Factorsiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
This PPT Includes basics of Criminology, the theories of different Criminologists, schools of criminology, importance of criminology in policy making for each country in administration of criminal justice, role of media and investigating strategies.
CRIME THEORIES The function of theory is to provide puzzles .docxwillcoxjanay
CRIME THEORIES
The function of theory is to provide puzzles for research (Lewis Coser)
Source: O'Connor, T. (03/26/04). In Crime Theories, MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/111/111lect03.htm on January 9, 2006.
To understand criminal justice, it is necessary to understand crime. Most policy-
making in criminal justice is based on criminological theory, whether the people making
those policies know it or not. In fact, most of the failed policies (what doesn't work) in
criminal justice are due to misinterpretation, partial implementation, or ignorance of
criminological theory. Much time and money could be saved if only policymakers had a
thorough understanding of criminological theory. At one time, criminological theory was
rather pure and abstract, with few practical implications, but that is not the case anymore.
For example, almost all criminologists today use a legalistic rather than normative
definition of crime. A legalistic definition of crime takes as its starting point the statutory
definitions contained in the penal code, legal statutes or ordinances. A crime is a crime
because the law says so. Sure, there are concerns about overcriminalization (too many
laws) and undercriminalization (not enough laws), but at least on the surface, a legalistic
approach seems practical. It is also advantageous to a normative definition, which sees
crime as a violation of norms (social standards of how humans ought to think and
behave), although there are times when criminology can shed light on norms and norm
violators.
Every criminological theory contains a set of assumptions (about human nature,
social structure, and the principles of causation, to name a few), a description of the
phenomena to be explained (facts a theory must fit), and an explanation, or prediction,
of that phenomenon. The assumptions are also called meta-theoretical issues, and deal
with debates like those over free will v. determinism or consensus v. conflict. The
description is a statistical profile, figure, diagram, or table of numbers representing the
patterns, trends, and correlates of the type of crime taken as an exemplar (most
appropriate example) of all crime. The explanation is a set of variables (things that can
be tweaked or changed) arranged in some kind of causal order so that they have statistical
and meaningful significance. Criminological theories are primarily concerned with
etiology (the study of causes or reasons for crime), but occasionally have important
things to say about actors in the criminal justice system, such as police, attorneys,
correctional personnel, and victims.
There are basically thirteen (13) identifiable types of criminological theory,
only three (3) of which are considered "mainstream" or conventional criminology (strain,
learning, control). The oldest theory (biochemistry) goes back to 1876 and the last four
theories (left realism, peacem.
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MCJ 5135, Theory of Crime and Criminology 1 Course Le.docxShiraPrater50
MCJ 5135, Theory of Crime and Criminology 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Explain the biological and psychological theories of criminal behavior.
3.1 Identify five major theoretical approaches for identifying causes of criminal behavior.
3.2 Relate major theories of criminal behavior to specific issues.
3.3 Analyze whether developmental disabilities are a cause of criminal behavior.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
3 Unit lesson
3.1 Chapter 1 (selection); Chapter 5 (selection); Chapter 6 (selection); Essay
3.2 Chapter 6 (selection); Essay
3.3 Chapter 6 (selection); Essay
Reading Assignment
Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology, pp. 11–13 (Crime and Criminal Law), pp. 13–14 (Who Defines Crime?
Criminological Definitions)
Chapter 5: Early and Classical Criminological Theories, pp. 109 (Table 5.1), pp. 112 (Table 5.2), pp. 111–112
(Hedonism and Crime: Jeremy Bentham)
Chapter 6: Biological and Psychological Theories, pp. 128–133 (Biological Theories)
Unit Lesson
How is Criminal Mentality Created?
Every thinking person has a theory on what causes criminal behavior. What is yours? How much of your
current fortune would you be willing to stake on whether your theory is correct? Before you respond, read
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 of the textbook. Do not memorize the data; just get a feel for how humans hoping to find a
solution to stop crime try to explain behavior and the efforts spent on understanding criminals. As you
contemplate your own theory or theories on causation, add the following to your deliberation: the earliest
known tradition of classifying crime and punishment was the Code of Ur-Nammu, King of Ur around 2050
BCE. The fifth king of Babylonia in the kingdom of Mesopotamia, Hammurabi, borrowed some of King Ur’s
ideas and chiseled 282 laws and punishments in stone. For at least 4,066 years, crime and criminal activity
have been of interest to governments, yet, to date, there has been no solution to stopping crime (King, 2008).
Can we not conclude there is no solution to crime—no magic bullet?
Theories of Criminal Mentality Creation
Table 5.1 provides seven theoretical schools of thought on criminology, and except for “demonological (study
of demons)” and “ecological (geographic)” schools, the remaining five provide a basis for classifying criminal
behavior based on one or more of the theoretical schools listed in the right column (Hagan, 2017). Even those
remaining schools could lead to analytical dissection; an example would be a closer look at Karl Marx’s
school of thought that capitalism, social class inequality, and economic conditions cause crime.
Perhaps we must accept there is no one classification that fits all crimes or all criminals, and all humans are
not created equal, not in the sense of the U.S. Constitution, but as we are self-thinkers. No two humans think
UNIT I STUDY GUI ...
IntroductionDynamics of Crime TheoryEarly Schools of Tho.docxnormanibarber20063
Introduction
Dynamics of Crime Theory
Early Schools of Thought
The Classical School
The Positive School
The Chicago School
Classical and Rational Theories:
Crime as Choice
Cohen & Felson's Routine Activities
Hindelang, Gottfredson, & Garofalo's Lifestyle Theory
Walters & White's Cognitive Theory
Biological & Physiological Theories:
Born Criminals
Lombroso's Criminal Born Man and Woman
Sheldon's Somatotyping
XYZ Chromosome
Sociobiology
Eysenck's Differential Conditionality
Psychological & Psychiatric Theories:
The Criminal Mind
Social Learning Theories
Bandura's Modeling/Imitation
Criminological Theory on the Web
http://people.ne.mediaone.net/dianedemelo/crime/index.html (1 of 4) [10/1/2001 4:51:02 PM]
Sutherland's Differential Association
Glaser's Differential Identification
Jeffery's & Akers' Differential Reinforcement
Akers' Social Learning Theory
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud's Pscychoanalytic Theory
Warren & Hindelang's Psychoanalytic Theory
Moral Development Theories
Kohlberg's Moral Development
Yochelson & Samenow's Criminal Personality Theory
Sociological Theories I:
Crime and Social Structure
Social Strain Theories
Social Disorganization
Durkheim's Anomie Theory
Merton's Strain Theory
Agnew's General Strain Theory
Subculture Theories
Overview of Subculture Theories
Sellin's Culture Conflict Theory
Cohen's Subculture of Delinquency
Cloward & Ohlin's Differential Opportunity
Miller's Lower-Class Focal Concerns
Shaw & McKay's High Delinquency Areas
Wolfgang & Ferracuti's Subculture of Violence
Sociological Theories II:
Crime and Social Process
Labeling Theories
Overview of Labeling Theories
Criminological Theory on the Web
http://people.ne.mediaone.net/dianedemelo/crime/index.html (2 of 4) [10/1/2001 4:51:02 PM]
Tannenbaum's Concept of Tagging
Lemert's Primary & Secondary Deviance
Becker's Developmental Career Model
Schur's Radical Non-Intervention
Social Control Theories
Overview of Social Control Theories
Reckless' Containment Theory
Hirschi's Social Bond Theory
Sykes & Matza's Techniques of Neutralization
Gottfredson & Hirschi's Low Self-Control Theory
Peacemaking Criminology Theories:
Overview of Peacemaking Theories
Braithwaite's Reintegrative Shaming
Radical, Feminist, & Conflict Theories:
Crime, Sex, Inequality & Power
Overview of Radical, Feminist, Conflict and Marxist Theories
Marxism and Crime
Quinney & The Social Reality of Crime
Turk's Conflict Theory
Greenberg's Adolescent Frustration
Adler's Liberation Theory
Simon's Opportunity Theory
Hagan's Power-Control Theory
Schwendinger's Instrumental Theory
Feminism & Crime
This page is designed and maintained by Diane M. DeMelo.
Questions or comments are encouraged. Also, please read the disclaimer.
[email protected]
Last revised on November 14, 1999
Criminological Theory on the Web
http://people.ne.mediaone.net/dianedemelo/crime/index.html (3 of 4) [10/1/2001 4:51:02 PM]
This page continues to be a work in progress and will be under constructio.
Motive is one of the main themes that law enforcement must identify .pdffabmallkochi
Motive is one of the main themes that law enforcement must identify in order to prevent future
crimes. Law enforcement utilizes the science of criminology to understand criminality and
identify potential criminals.
Identify at least two criminology theories.
Apply these theories to computer crimes and to the individuals’ motives for using technology to
further their crimes.
Solution
CRIMINOLOGY THEORIES
1.Learning theories tend to follow the lead of Edwin Sutherland\'s theory of differential
association, developed in 1947, although ideas about imitation or modeling go back to 1890.
Often oversimplified as \"peer group\" theories, learning is much more than that, and involves
the analysis of what is positively and negatively rewarding (reinforcing) for individuals.
2. Psychological criminology has been around since 1914, and attempts to explain the consistent
finding that there is an eight-point IQ difference between criminals and noncriminals. That gap
isn\'t enough to notice, but it might make them more impulsive and foolhardy, and even smart
people with high IQs are vulnerable to folly. Other psychocriminologists focus on personality
disorders, like the psychopaths, sociopaths, and antisocial personalities.
Criminology theories of computer crimes
Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic theory, as developed by Freud, has taken a somewhat indirect approach in
explaining criminal behaviour. It relies on the pathological process by which criminal acts are
thought to be manifested (Blackburn, 1993).
Freud believed that there was an inner moral agency (superego) governing conduct, whose
development depends primarily on satisfying parent-child relationships (Blackburn, 1993).
Inadequate superego formation and function accounts for criminal behaviour (Blackburn, 1993).
Behaviour therefore depends on the balance of the psychic energy system. A disturbance in this
system or any component structure produces maladaptive development (Blackburn, 1993).
Learning Theories
Learning theory approaches to explaining criminal behaviour have links to one of the core
sociological theories of crime, the differential association theory
Criminology theories to the individuals
Critical Theory: Critical theory upholds the belief that a small few, the elite of the society, decide
laws and the definition of crime; those who commit crimes disagree with the laws that were
created to keep control of them.
Critical criminology sees crime as a product of oppression of workers, (particularly, the poorer
sections) and less advantaged groups within society, such as women and ethnic minorities, are
seen to be the most likely to suffer oppressive social relations based upon class division, sexism
and racism. More simply, critical criminology may be defined as any criminological topic area
that takes into account the contextual factors of crime or critiques topics covered in mainstream
criminology
Choice Theory – Choice theory is the belief that individuals choose to commit a crime.
WINDING UP of COMPANY, Modes of DissolutionKHURRAMWALI
Winding up, also known as liquidation, refers to the legal and financial process of dissolving a company. It involves ceasing operations, selling assets, settling debts, and ultimately removing the company from the official business registry.
Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of winding up:
Reasons for Winding Up:
Insolvency: This is the most common reason, where the company cannot pay its debts. Creditors may initiate a compulsory winding up to recover their dues.
Voluntary Closure: The owners may decide to close the company due to reasons like reaching business goals, facing losses, or merging with another company.
Deadlock: If shareholders or directors cannot agree on how to run the company, a court may order a winding up.
Types of Winding Up:
Voluntary Winding Up: This is initiated by the company's shareholders through a resolution passed by a majority vote. There are two main types:
Members' Voluntary Winding Up: The company is solvent (has enough assets to pay off its debts) and shareholders will receive any remaining assets after debts are settled.
Creditors' Voluntary Winding Up: The company is insolvent and creditors will be prioritized in receiving payment from the sale of assets.
Compulsory Winding Up: This is initiated by a court order, typically at the request of creditors, government agencies, or even by the company itself if it's insolvent.
Process of Winding Up:
Appointment of Liquidator: A qualified professional is appointed to oversee the winding-up process. They are responsible for selling assets, paying off debts, and distributing any remaining funds.
Cease Trading: The company stops its regular business operations.
Notification of Creditors: Creditors are informed about the winding up and invited to submit their claims.
Sale of Assets: The company's assets are sold to generate cash to pay off creditors.
Payment of Debts: Creditors are paid according to a set order of priority, with secured creditors receiving payment before unsecured creditors.
Distribution to Shareholders: If there are any remaining funds after all debts are settled, they are distributed to shareholders according to their ownership stake.
Dissolution: Once all claims are settled and distributions made, the company is officially dissolved and removed from the business register.
Impact of Winding Up:
Employees: Employees will likely lose their jobs during the winding-up process.
Creditors: Creditors may not recover their debts in full, especially if the company is insolvent.
Shareholders: Shareholders may not receive any payout if the company's debts exceed its assets.
Winding up is a complex legal and financial process that can have significant consequences for all parties involved. It's important to seek professional legal and financial advice when considering winding up a company.
A "File Trademark" is a legal term referring to the registration of a unique symbol, logo, or name used to identify and distinguish products or services. This process provides legal protection, granting exclusive rights to the trademark owner, and helps prevent unauthorized use by competitors.
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PRECEDENT AS A SOURCE OF LAW (SAIF JAVED).pptxOmGod1
Precedent, or stare decisis, is a cornerstone of common law systems where past judicial decisions guide future cases, ensuring consistency and predictability in the legal system. Binding precedents from higher courts must be followed by lower courts, while persuasive precedents may influence but are not obligatory. This principle promotes fairness and efficiency, allowing for the evolution of the law as higher courts can overrule outdated decisions. Despite criticisms of rigidity and complexity, precedent ensures similar cases are treated alike, balancing stability with flexibility in judicial decision-making.
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RIGHTS OF VICTIM EDITED PRESENTATION(SAIF JAVED).pptxOmGod1
Victims of crime have a range of rights designed to ensure their protection, support, and participation in the justice system. These rights include the right to be treated with dignity and respect, the right to be informed about the progress of their case, and the right to be heard during legal proceedings. Victims are entitled to protection from intimidation and harm, access to support services such as counseling and medical care, and the right to restitution from the offender. Additionally, many jurisdictions provide victims with the right to participate in parole hearings and the right to privacy to protect their personal information from public disclosure. These rights aim to acknowledge the impact of crime on victims and to provide them with the necessary resources and involvement in the judicial process.
In 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs established a committee led by Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh, former Vice Chancellor of National Law University (NLU), Delhi. This committee was tasked with reviewing the three codes of criminal law. The primary objective of the committee was to propose comprehensive reforms to the country’s criminal laws in a manner that is both principled and effective.
The committee’s focus was on ensuring the safety and security of individuals, communities, and the nation as a whole. Throughout its deliberations, the committee aimed to uphold constitutional values such as justice, dignity, and the intrinsic value of each individual. Their goal was to recommend amendments to the criminal laws that align with these values and priorities.
Subsequently, in February, the committee successfully submitted its recommendations regarding amendments to the criminal law. These recommendations are intended to serve as a foundation for enhancing the current legal framework, promoting safety and security, and upholding the constitutional principles of justice, dignity, and the inherent worth of every individual.
Introducing New Government Regulation on Toll Road.pdfAHRP Law Firm
For nearly two decades, Government Regulation Number 15 of 2005 on Toll Roads ("GR No. 15/2005") has served as the cornerstone of toll road legislation. However, with the emergence of various new developments and legal requirements, the Government has enacted Government Regulation Number 23 of 2024 on Toll Roads to replace GR No. 15/2005. This new regulation introduces several provisions impacting toll business entities and toll road users. Find out more out insights about this topic in our Legal Brief publication.
Military Commissions details LtCol Thomas Jasper as Detailed Defense CounselThomas (Tom) Jasper
Military Commissions Trial Judiciary, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Notice of the Chief Defense Counsel's detailing of LtCol Thomas F. Jasper, Jr. USMC, as Detailed Defense Counsel for Abd Al Hadi Al-Iraqi on 6 August 2014 in the case of United States v. Hadi al Iraqi (10026)
1. Chapter 1
Crime and Justice in the
United States
Chapter 1
Crime and Justice in the
United States
Chapter 3
Explaining Crime
2. Chapter 3
2
Explaining Crime
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define criminological theory.
2. State the causes of crime according to classical
and neoclassical criminologists.
3. Describe the biological theories of crime
causation.
4. Describe the different psychological theories
of crime causation.
3. Chapter 3
3
Explaining Crime
5. Explain sociological theories of crime
causation
6. Distinguish major differences among classical,
positivist, and critical theories of crime
causation.
7. Describe how critical theorists would explain
the causes of crime.
4. Chapter 3
4
Explaining Crime
3.1 Introduction to
Criminological Theory
Several theories attempt to explain criminal
behavior. Some theories assume:
• Crime is part of human nature.
• Crime is based on biological,
psychological, sociological, and/or
economic aspects.
6. Chapter 3
6
Explaining Crime
Criminological Theory
Most of what is done in criminal justice is
based on criminological theory. Failure to
understand these theories leads to:
• Problems that undermine the success of the
theories
• Intrusion on people’s lives without good
reason
7. Chapter 3
7
Explaining Crime
criminological theory
The explanation of criminal behavior, as well as the
behavior of police, attorneys, prosecutors, judges,
correctional personnel, victims, and other actors in
the criminal justice system.
8. Chapter 3
8
Explaining Crime
What is a theory? Why is it important to
understand the various theories of criminal
behavior?
CRITICAL THINKING
9. Chapter 3
9
Explaining Crime
3.2 Classical and Neoclassical
Approaches to Explaining Crime
The causes of crime have been the subject of
much speculation, theorizing, research, and
debate. Theories about the cause of crime are
based on religion, philosophy, politics,
economic, and social forces.
11. Chapter 3
11
Explaining Crime
classical theory
A product of the Enlightenment, based on the
assumption that people exercise free will and are thus
completely responsible for their actions. In classical
theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior,
is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which
actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action
against the possible pain associated with it.
12. Chapter 3
12
Explaining Crime
Classical Theory
In 1764, criminologist Cesare Beccaria wrote
An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, which
set forth classical criminological theory.
He argued that the only justified rationale for
laws and punishments was the principle of
utility.
14. Chapter 3
14
Explaining Crime
Classical Theory
Beccaria believed the basis of society, as well
as the origin of punishments and the right to
punish, is the social contract.
The only legitimate purpose of punishment is
special deterrence and general deterrence.
15. Chapter 3
15
Explaining Crime
special deterrence
The prevention of individuals from committing crime
again by punishing them.
social contract
An imaginary agreement to sacrifice the minimum
amount of liberty to prevent anarchy and chaos.
continued…
16. Chapter 3
16
Explaining Crime
general deterrence
The prevention of people in general or society at
large from engaging in crime by punishing specific
individuals and making examples of them.
17. Chapter 3
17
Explaining Crime
Classical Theory
Beccaria believed the best way to prevent and
deter crime was to:
• Enact laws that are clear, simple, and unbiased, and
that reflect the consensus of the population.
• Educate the public.
• Eliminate corruption from the administration of justice.
• Reward virtue.
18. Chapter 3
18
Explaining Crime
Classical Theory
The main real-world drawbacks of Beccaria’s
theory are:
• Not all offenders are alike—juveniles are treated
the same as adults.
• Similar crimes are not always as similar as they
might appear—first-time offenders are treated the
same as repeat offenders.
19. Chapter 3
19
Explaining Crime
Neoclassical Theory
Classical theory was difficult to apply in
practice. It was modified in the early 1800s
and became known as neoclassical theory.
20. Chapter 3
20
Explaining Crime
neoclassical theory
A modification of classical theory in which it was
conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might
inhibit the exercise of free will.
21. Chapter 3
21
Explaining Crime
Neoclassical Theory
Neoclassical theory introduced the idea of:
• Premeditation as a measure of the degree of
free will.
• Mitigating circumstances as legitimate
grounds for diminished responsibility.
23. Chapter 3
23
Explaining Crime
1. Name four of the ways that classical
criminologist Cesare Beccaria thought
were best to prevent or deter crime. Do
you agree with Beccaria? Why or why
not?
2. What are the main differences between
classical and neoclassical theories?
CRITICAL THINKING
24. Chapter 3
24
Explaining Crime
3.3 Positivist Approaches to
Explaining Crime
The theory of the positivist school of
criminology grew out of positive philosophy
and the logic and methodology of
experimental science.
25. Chapter 3
25
Explaining Crime
The Positivist School of Thought
The key assumptions of the positivist school
of thought were:
1. Human behavior is determined and not a matter of free
will.
2. Criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals.
3. Social scientists can be objective in their work.
4. Crime is frequently caused by multiple factors.
5. Society is based on consensus, but not on a social contract.
26. Chapter 3
26
Explaining Crime
The Positivist School of Thought
The problems with positivist assumptions are
that they:
1. Account for too much crime.
2. Ignore the process by which behaviors are made illegal.
3. Assume that most people agree about most things most of the
time.
4. Believe that action is determined by causes independent of a
person’s free will.
5. Believe that social scientists will be objective in their work.
27. Chapter 3
27
Explaining Crime
Try to identify harmful or destructive
behaviors that are not defined as crimes.
Why do you think these behaviors are not
defined as crimes?
JUSTICE ISSUE
28. Chapter 3
28
Explaining Crime
Biological Theories
Biological theories of crime causation
(biological positivism) are based on the belief
that criminals are physiologically different
from noncriminals. The cause of crime is
biological inferiority.
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Explaining Crime
biological inferiority
According to biological theories, a criminal’s innate
physiological makeup produces certain physical or
genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from
noncriminals.
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Criminal Anthropology
Criminal anthropology is associated with
the work of Cesare Lombroso, who published
his theory of a physical criminal type in 1876.
criminal anthropology
The study of “criminal” human beings.
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Criminal Anthropology
Lombroso’s theory consisted of the following
propositions:
1. Criminals are, by birth, a distinct type.
2. That type can be recognized by physical
characteristics, or stigmata, such as enormous
jaws, high cheekbones, and insensitivity to pain.
continued…
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Criminal Anthropology
3. The criminal type is clearly distinguished in a
person with more than five stigmata, perhaps
exists in a person with three to five stigmata, and
does not necessarily exist in a person with fewer
than three stigmata.
4. Physical stigmata do not cause crime; they only
indicate an individual who is predisposed to
crime. Such a person is either an atavist or a
result of degeneration.
continued…
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Criminal Anthropology
5. Because of their personal natures, such persons
cannot desist from crime unless they experience
very favorable lives.
atavist
A person who reverts to a savage type.
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Body-Type Theory
Body-type theory is an extension of Lombroso’s
criminal anthropology, developed by Ernst
Kretchmer and later William Sheldon. It says that
human beings can be divided into three basic body
types, or somatotypes:
1. Endomorphic (soft, fat)
2. Mesomorphic (athletically built)
3. Ectomorphic (tall, skinny)
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Explaining Crime
Body-Type Theory
Sheldon found that delinquents were more
mesomorphic than nondelinquents, and
serious delinquents were more mesomorphic
than less severe delinquents.
Sheldon did not consider that delinquents are
more likely to be mesomorphic because, for
example, mesomorphs are more likely to be
selected for gang membership.
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Explaining Crime
Heredity Studies
Several studies have attempted to determine if
criminality is hereditary by studying:
All of these methods fail to prove that criminality is
hereditary, because they cannot separate hereditary
influences from environmental influences.
• family trees
• statistics
• identical and fraternal twins
• adopted children
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Explaining Crime
Modern Biocriminology
Ongoing research has revealed numerous
biological factors associated either directly or
indirectly with criminal or delinquent
behavior:
• chemical, mineral, and vitamin deficiencies in the diet
• diets high in sugar and carbohydrates
• hypoglycemia
continued…
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Explaining Crime
Modern Biocriminology
The limbic system is a structure surrounding
the brain stem that is believed to moderate
expressions of violence.
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Explaining Crime
limbic system
A structure surrounding the brain stem that, in part,
controls the life functions of heartbeat, breathing, and
sleep.
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Modern Biocriminology
Violent criminal behavior has also been
linked to disorders in other parts of the brain.
Recent evidence suggests that chronic violent
offenders have much higher levels of brain
disorder than the general population.
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Brain Neurotransmitters
Some criminal behaviors are believed to be
influenced by low levels of brain
neurotransmitters (the substances brain cells
use to communicate).
• Low levels of serotonin have been found in
impulsive murderers and arsonists.
• Norepinephrine may be associated with
compulsive gambling.
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Explaining Crime
Hormones
Criminal behaviors have also been associated
with hormone abnormalities, especially those
involving:
• Testosterone (a male sex hormone)
• Progesterone and estrogen (female sex hormones)
Administering estrogen to male sex offenders has
been found to reduce their sexual drives.
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Explaining Crime
What are the pros and cons of using chemical or
physical castration on repeat sex offenders?
JUSTICE ISSUE
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Explaining Crime
Positivist Approaches
Today, most criminologists believe that
criminal behavior is the product of a complex
interaction between biology and
environmental or social conditions.
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Explaining Crime
Positivist Approaches
Biology or genetics gives an individual a
predisposition to behave in a certain way.
Whether a person actually behaves in that
way and whether that behavior is defined as a
crime depend on environmental or social
conditions.
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Explaining Crime
Psychological Theories
There are many theories regarding
psychological causes of crime, including:
• Intelligence and crime
• Psychoanalytic theories
• Psychoanalysis
• Humanistic psychological theory
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Explaining Crime
Intelligence and Crime
The idea that crime is the product primarily of
people of low intelligence has been popular
occasionally in the United States.
A study in 1931 showed no correlation
between intelligence and criminality.
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Explaining Crime
Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic theories of crime causation are
associated with the work of Sigmund Freud
who believed that people who had unresolved
deep-seated problems were psychopaths.
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Explaining Crime
psychopaths
Persons characterized by no sense of guilt, no
subjective conscience, and no sense of right and
wrong. They have difficulty in forming relationships
with other people; they cannot empathize with other
people. They are also called sociopaths or antisocial
personalities.
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Explaining Crime
Psychoanalysis
The principal policy implication of
considering crime symptomatic of deep-
seated problems is to provide psychotherapy
or psychoanalysis in order to resolve the
symptoms associated with the problems.
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Explaining Crime
Psychoanalysis
The problems with the idea that criminals are
biologically or psychologically “sick” are:
1. The bulk of the research on the issue suggests that
most criminals are no more disturbed than the rest
of the population.
2. Many people with psychological disturbances do
not commit crimes.
continued…
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Explaining Crime
Psychoanalysis
3. Psychoanalytic theory ignores environmental
circumstances.
4. Much of the theoretical structure of psychotherapy
is scientifically untestable.
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Explaining Crime
Humanistic Psychological Theory
Abraham Maslow and Seymour Halleck
developed theories similar to Freud’s but
based on the assumption that human beings
are basically good.
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Explaining Crime
Humanistic Psychological Theory
Maslow believed that human beings are
motivated by five basic levels of needs, and
that people choose crime because they cannot
(or will not) satisfy their needs legally.
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Explaining Crime
Humanistic Psychological Theory
Neither Maslow nor Halleck asks these basic
questions:
• Why can’t people satisfy their basic needs legally,
or why do they choose not to?
• Why don’t societies ensure that basic needs can be
satisfied legally so that the choice to satisfy them
illegally makes no sense?
continued…
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Explaining Crime
Humanistic Psychological Theory
• Why does society oppress many people, and why
aren’t more effective measures taken to greatly
reduce that oppression?
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Explaining Crime
What formal and informal forms of coercion
do you have to submit to?
Do you think that such coercion can influence
whether you might commit a crime?
JUSTICE ISSUE
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Explaining Crime
Sociological Theories
Sociologists emphasize that human beings
live in social groups and that those groups and
the social structure they create influence
behavior.
Most sociological theories of crime causation
assume that a criminal’s behavior is
determined by his or her social environment
and reject the notion of the born criminal.
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Explaining Crime
The Contributions of Durkheim
Many sociological theories of crime causation
stem from the work of Emile Durkheim who
rejected the idea that the world is simply the
product of individual actions.
Social laws and institutions are “social facts”
and all people can do is submit to them.
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Explaining Crime
The Contributions of Durkheim
Durkheim argued that crime is also a social
fact. The cause of crime is anomie.
Crime is functional for society and marks the
boundaries of morality. He advocated
containing crime within reasonable
boundaries.
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Explaining Crime
anomie
For Durkheim, the dissociation of the individual from
the collective conscience.
collective conscience
The general sense of morality of the times.
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Explaining Crime
The Theory of the
Chicago School
In the 1920s, a group of sociologists known as
the Chicago School attempted to uncover the
relationship between a neighborhood’s crime
rate and the characteristics of the
neighborhood.
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Explaining Crime
Chicago School
A group of sociologists at the University of Chicago
who assumed in their research that delinquent
behavior was a product of social disorganization.
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Explaining Crime
The Theory of the
Chicago School
The Chicago School described American cities
in ecological terms, saying growth occurs
through a process of:
Invasion: A cultural or ethnic group invades a territory.
Domination:
Succession:
The group dominates that territory.
The group is succeeded by another group and
the cycle repeats itself.
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Explaining Crime
The Theory of the
Chicago School
Other studies found that neighborhoods that
experienced high delinquency rates also
experienced social disorganization.
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Explaining Crime
social disorganization
The condition in which the usual controls over
delinquents are largely absent, delinquent behavior is
often approved of by parents and neighbors, there are
many opportunities for delinquent behavior, and
there is little encouragement, training, or opportunity
for legitimate employment.
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Explaining Crime
The Theory of the
Chicago School
One of the problems with the theory of the
Chicago School is the presumption that social
disorganization is a cause of delinquency.
Both social disorganization and delinquency
may be the product of other, more basic
factors.
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
Robert Merton in 1938 wrote about a major
contradiction in the U.S. between cultural
goals and social structure. He called the
contradiction anomie.
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Explaining Crime
anomie
For Merton, the contradiction between the cultural
goal of achieving wealth and the social structure’s
inability to provide legitimate institutional means for
achieving the goal.
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
Merton argued that the limited availability of
legitimate institutionalized means to wealth
puts a strain on people. People adapt through:
1. Conformity—playing the game.
2. Innovation—pursuing wealth by illegitimate
means.
continued…
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
3. Ritualism—not actively pursuing wealth.
4. Retreatism—dropping out.
5. Rebellion—rejecting the goal of wealth and the
institutional means of getting it.
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
In the mid-1950s, Albert K. Cohen adapted
Merton’s anomie or strain theory to explain gang
delinquency.
anomie
For Cohen, it is caused by the inability of juveniles to
achieve status among peers by socially acceptable
means.
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
Juveniles unable to achieve status through
socially acceptable means either:
• conform to middle-class values and resign
themselves to their inferior status, or
• rebel and establish their own value structures,
then find others like themselves and form
groups to validate and reinforce the new values.
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Explaining Crime
Anomie or Strain Theory
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin further argued
that the type of adaptation made by juvenile gang
members depends on the illegitimate opportunity
structure available to them. They identified three
gang subcultures:
continued…
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Explaining Crime
• Criminal—formed to make money.
• Violent—formed to vent anger if they can’t
make money.
• Retreatist—formed by those who can’t join the
other gangs, and become alcoholics and drug
addicts.
Anomie or Strain Theory
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
Gabriel Tarde was one of the first theorists to
believe that crime was something learned by
normal people as they adapted to other people
and the conditions of their environment.
Writing in Penal Philosophy in 1890, Tarde
viewed all social phenomena as the product of
imitation or modeling.
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Explaining Crime
imitation or modeling
A means by which a person can learn new responses
by observing others without performing any overt act
or receiving direct reinforcement or reward.
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
Edwin H. Sutherland—in his theory of
differential association—was the first 20th-
century criminologist to argue that criminal
behavior was learned.
This theory, modified, remains one of the
most influential theories of crime causation.
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Explaining Crime
differential association
Sutherland’s theory that persons who become
criminal do so because of contacts with criminal
patterns and isolation from anticriminal patterns.
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Explaining Crime
learning theory
A theory that explains criminal behavior and its
prevention with the concepts of positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction,
punishment, and modeling or imitation.
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
Learning theory argues that people commit
crimes because they get positive
reinforcement or negative reinforcement.
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Explaining Crime
negative reinforcement
The removal or reduction of a stimulus whose
removal or reduction increases or maintains a
response.
positive reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus that increases or
maintains a response.
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
According to learning theory, criminal
behavior is reduced, but not eliminated,
through extinction or punishment.
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Explaining Crime
punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus to reduce a
response.
extinction
A process in which behavior that previously was
positively reinforced is no longer reinforced.
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
Among the policy implications of learning theory is
to punish criminal behavior effectively, according to
learning theory principles. This is not done
effectively in the U.S.
• Chances of a prisoner escaping are great.
• Probation does not function as an aversive
stimulus.
• Most offenders are not incarcerated. continued…
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Explaining Crime
Learning Theories
• Punishment is not consistent and immediate.
• Offenders are generally returned to the
environments in which their crimes were
committed.
• There is no positive reinforcement of alternative,
prosocial behaviors.
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Explaining Crime
What are the pros and cons of returning
released prisoners to their prior cities and
neighborhoods?
Do you think that government could prohibit
released prisoners from returning to their prior
locales? How would that work?
JUSTICE ISSUE
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Explaining Crime
Social Control Theories
The key question in the social control theory
is not why people commit crime and
delinquency, but rather why don’t they? Why
do people conform?
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Explaining Crime
social control theory
A view in which people are expected to commit
crime and delinquency unless they are prevented
from doing so.
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Explaining Crime
Social Control Theories
The most detailed elaboration of modern
social control theory is attributed to Travis
Hirschi who wrote the 1969 book, Causes of
Delinquency.
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Explaining Crime
Social Control Theories
Hirschi argued that delinquency should be
expected if a juvenile is not properly
socialized by establishing a strong bond to
society, consisting of:
1. Attachment to others
2. Commitment to conventional lines of action
3. Involvement in conventional activities
4. Belief in the moral order and law
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Explaining Crime
Social Control Theories
More recently, Hirschi wrote with Michael
Gottfredson that the principal cause of deviant
behaviors is ineffective child rearing, which
produces people with low self-control.
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Explaining Crime
1. What are the five key assumptions of the
positivist school of thought?
2. How would you describe body-type
theory? What is the major criticism of this
theory?
CRITICAL THINKING
continued…
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Explaining Crime
3. Explain psychoanalytic theory and some
of the problems associated with it.
4. Explain learning theory. Do you think this
theory has merit?
CRITICAL THINKING
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Explaining Crime
3.4 Critical Approaches to
Explaining Crime
Critical theories grew out of the changing
social landscape of the American 1960s.
Critical theories assume that human beings
are the creators of institutions and structures
that ultimately dominate and constrain them.
Critical theories assume that society is
characterized primarily by conflict over moral
values.
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Explaining Crime
Labeling Theory
The focus of labeling theory is the
criminalization process rather than the
positivist concern with the peculiarities of the
criminal.
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Explaining Crime
criminalization process
The way people and actions are defined as criminal.
labeling theory
A theory that emphasizes the criminalization process
as the cause of some crime.
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Explaining Crime
Labeling Theory
The labeling theory argues that once a person
commits a first criminal act, they are labeled
negatively as a criminal.
The label becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
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Explaining Crime
Labeling Theory
A policy implication of labeling theory is
simply not to label, through:
• Decriminalization—The elimination of behaviors
from the scope of criminal law.
• Diversion—Removing offenders from the criminal
justice process.
continued…
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Explaining Crime
Labeling Theory
• Greater due-process protections—Replacing
discretion with the rule of law.
• Deinstitutionalization—Reducing jail and prison
populations.
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Explaining Crime
Labeling Theory
An alternative policy is reintegrative shaming:
• Disappointment is expressed for the offender’s
actions.
• The offender is shamed and punished.
• Then the community makes a concerted effort to
reintegrate the offender back into society.
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Explaining Crime
MYTH FACT
Most offenders resist
being labeled criminal
and accept the label
only when they are no
longer capable of
fighting it.
In some
communities the
label criminal, or
some variation of
it, is actively
sought.
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Explaining Crime
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory focuses on the conflict in
society between rich and poor, management
and labor, whites and minorities.
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Explaining Crime
conflict theory
A theory that assumes that society is based primarily
on conflict between competing interest groups and
that criminal law and the criminal justice system are
used to control subordinate groups. Crime is caused
by relative powerlessness.
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Explaining Crime
Conflict Theory
According to conflict theory, criminal law and
the criminal justice system are used by
dominant groups to control subordinate ones.
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Explaining Crime
All behavior occurs because people act in ways
consistent with their social positions.
Subordinate groups appear in official criminal
statistics more frequently because dominant
groups have control over the definition of
criminality.
Conflict Theory
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Explaining Crime
Conflict Theory
The amount of crime in a society is a function
of the extent of conflict generated by power
differentials.
Crime is caused by relative powerlessness.
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Explaining Crime
relative powerlessness
The inability to dominate other groups in society.
power differentials
The ability of some groups to dominate other groups
in a society.
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Explaining Crime
Conflict Theory
Policy implications of conflict theory are:
• To redistribute power and wealth through a
more progressive tax system or limitation of
political contributions.
• For dominant group members to become
more effective rulers and subordinate group
members better subjects.
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Explaining Crime
Radical Theory
Radical theories argue that capitalism
requires people to compete against each other
in the pursuit of material wealth.
The more unevenly wealth is distributed, the
more likely people are to find persons weaker
than themselves that they can take advantage
of in their pursuit of wealth.
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Explaining Crime
Radical Theory
Radical theory defines crime as a violation of
human rights. Under a radical definition of
crime:
• prostitution
• gambling
• drug use
would not be crimes.
• racism
• sexism
• imperialism
would be crimes.
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Explaining Crime
JUSTICE ISSUE
Do you accept the radical definition of crime
as a violation of politically defined rights to
decent food and shelter, human dignity, and
self-determination?
Do you prefer the traditional legal definition
of crime as a violation of the criminal law,
committed without defense or excuse and
penalized by the state?
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Explaining Crime
Radical Theory
The policy implications of radical theory include:
• Demonstrating that the current definition of
crime supports the ruling class.
• Redefining crime as a violation of human rights.
• Creation of a benevolent socialist society in
which the economy is regulated to promote
public welfare.
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Explaining Crime
Radical Theory
Criticisms of radical theory include:
• The radical definition of crime as a violation of
human rights is too broad and vague.
• The adherents of radical theory are pursuing a
political agenda.
• Its causal model is wrong.
• It has not been tested satisfactorily and it cannot
be tested satisfactorily.
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Explaining Crime
Other Critical Theories
New critical theories of crime causation
include:
• British or left realism
• Peacemaking criminology
• Feminist theory
• Postmodernism
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Explaining Crime
British or Left Realism
Many critical criminologists focus on crimes
committed by the powerful. In the mid-1980s
a group of social scientists in Great Britain,
known as left realists, began focusing on
crime by and against the working class.
Left realists want to give more power to
police to combat crime, but also want to make
the police more accountable for their actions.
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Explaining Crime
left realists
A group of social scientists who argue that critical
criminologists need to redirect their attention to the
fear and the very real victimization experienced by
working-class people.
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Explaining Crime
Peacemaking Criminology
Peacemaking criminology is a mixture of
anarchism, humanism, socialism, and Native
American and Eastern philosophies that
rejects the idea that criminal violence can be
reduced by state violence.
Peacemaking criminologists believe that
reducing suffering will reduce crime.
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Explaining Crime
peacemaking criminology
An approach that suggests that the solution to all
social problems, including crime, is the
transformation of human beings, mutual dependence,
reduction of class structures, the creation of
communities of caring people, and universal social
justice.
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Explaining Crime
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory looks at crime from a
feminine perspective.
The focus is on three areas of crime and justice:
• The victimization of women
• Gender differences in crime
• Gendered justice (differing treatment of female and
male offenders and victims by the criminal justice
system)
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Explaining Crime
feminist theory
A group of social scientists who argue that critical
criminologists need to redirect their attention to the
fear and the very real victimization experienced by
working-class people.
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Explaining Crime
Feminist Theory
The principal goal of most feminist theory is
to abolish patriarchy by ensuring women
equal opportunity and equal rights.
Criticisms of feminist theory include:
• The failure to appreciate differences
between women
• A contradictory position regarding police
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Explaining Crime
postmodernism
An area of critical thought which, among other
things, attempts to understand the creation of
knowledge, and how knowledge and language create
hierarchy and domination.
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Explaining Crime
Postmodernism
Postmodernist criminologists argue that
interpretations of the law are dependent on the
particular social context in which they arise.
They would change the criminal justice
apparatus with informal social controls.
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Explaining Crime
1. How would you explain labeling theory?
2. What is peacemaking criminology? Is this
theory realistic?
3. Explain feminist theory and its key
criticisms.
CRITICAL THINKING
132. Chapter 1
Crime and Justice in the
United States
Chapter 1
Crime and Justice in the
United States
End of Chapter 3