Hallucinations are sensory perceptions experienced without an external stimulus. They can affect any of the five senses and have various causes including neurological conditions, medications, drugs, and mental illnesses. Common types are auditory and visual hallucinations. The nurse's role is to assess the patient's needs, ensure safety, monitor for withdrawn behavior, and report any new problems while showing compassion. Guidelines recommend pharmacological and psychological interventions for managing conditions associated with hallucinations.
A discussion of the neurological and pathophysiological basis of auditory hallucinations including musical hallucinations, tinnitus and psychotic hallucinations.
A discussion of the neurological and pathophysiological basis of auditory hallucinations including musical hallucinations, tinnitus and psychotic hallucinations.
The ppt covers all aspects concerning organic brain disorder - Dementia and Delirium. It includes Alzheimer's, Parkinson's along with clinical features (according to ICD 10); cognitive, physical, neurobiological changes; treatment and assessment scales. Diagrams and charts are included wherever necessary for ease of understanding.
Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally. Schizophrenia may result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and behavior that impairs daily functioning, and can be disabling. People with schizophrenia require lifelong treatment.
Schizophrenia is a severe, chronic and disabling mental disorder with a varying course. It is characterised by a breakdown of thought processes and by a deficit of typical emotional responses. It is a clinical syndrome
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Astronomy Update- Curiosity’s exploration of Mars _ Local Briefs _ leadertele...
Caring for patients who experience hallucinations
1. Caring for patients who experience
hallucinations
22 JULY, 2007 BY NT CONTRIBUTOR
Hallucinations are the result of dysfunction in the brain caused by the
neurotransmitter dopamine (Kapur, 2003)….
Abstract
VOL: 103, ISSUE: 21, PAGE NO: 28
Lynne Walsh, MSc, BSc, RMN, RGN, RNT, DipPP, is lecturer, School of
Health Sciences, University of Wales
Hallucinations are sensory perceptions that are experienced in the absence of
an external stimulus. An example is seeing or hearing things that are not
really there. One example could be a recently bereaved person who ‘sees’ the
person who has died. These perceptions can affect one or more of the
senses.
Hallucinations may be under-reported for a variety of reasons. These include
a fear of being diagnosed as mentally ill or of being reported to the police for
illegal drug use. Another important factor is that findings in some research
studies may be under-represented in certain groups of people, such as older
people.
INCIDENCE
Ohayon (2000) found that out of a sample of 13,000 adults, 38.7% reported
experiencing hallucinations, 6.4% had hallucinations once a month, 2.7% had
them once a week and 2.4% had them more than once a week.
It is evident that certain diseases or disorders are associated with specific
hallucinations. Patients with a diagnosis of psychotic or anxiety disorders are
more likely to suffer from visual and auditory hallucinations, while drug users
are more likely to suffer from tactile hallucinations.
2. Schneider and Dagerman (2004) stated that 40-50% of patients diagnosed
with Alzheimer’s disease developed hallucinations in the latter stages of the
illness. It was also found that hallucinations in children are rarely experienced
under the age of eight; however, approximately 40% of children diagnosed
with schizophrenia suffer from visual or auditory hallucinations.
The National Sleep Foundation (2007) supported studies in both the US and
the UK (Ohayon, 2000), looking at people during normal sleep and wake
cycles. They found that 30-37% of adults had experienced hypnagognic
hallucinations, which occur just before falling asleep, and 10-12% of adults
reported hypnopompic hallucinations, which occur as a person awakens.
CAUSES OF HALLUCINATIONS
There are a variety of causes that are both physical and psychological. These
include the following:
- Electrical or neurochemical activity in the brain causes some people to
experience a hallucinatory sensation called an aura before migraine;
- Auras are also experienced by some people with epilepsy before an epileptic
seizure and often include smell (olfactory) and touch (tactile) auras;
- Brain disease or brain damage can cause changes in brain function and
produce hallucinations;
- Fever as a result of infection can cause hallucinations in children and older
people;
- Severe medical illness, such as liver failure, kidney failure or brain cancer,
can cause hallucinations;
- Prolonged stress can impede thought processes and trigger hallucinations;
- Sleep deprivation and exhaustion cause physical and emotional exhaustion
and can induce hallucinations by blurring sleep and wakefulness;
3. - Sensory deprivation is caused when the brain lacks external stimulation to
form perceptions. It may compensate by forming hallucinatory perceptions;
these can occur in people who are blind or deaf;
- Hallucinogenic drugs such as ecstasy, LSD, mescaline and psilocybin (found
in ‘magic’ mushrooms) can trigger hallucinations. Cannabis also has
hallucinatory effects;
- Some prescription medications may cause hallucinations;
- Drug and alcohol withdrawal also induces tactile and visual hallucinations -
with alcohol withdrawal this is seen when the person is suffering from delirium
tremens (DTs);
- Up to 75% of patients admitted for treatment for schizophrenia reported
suffering from hallucinations;
- Delirium or dementia;
- Psychotic depression;
- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often suffered by war veterans -
many combat veterans diagnosed with PTSD experience auditory
hallucinations;
- Visual and olfactory hallucinations have been reported by survivors of rape
and childhood sexual abuse.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF HALLUCINATIONS
All five senses - hearing, sight, touch, taste and smell - can be affected.
Although auditory and visual hallucinations are the most common ones
experienced by patients, other types may affect different senses. These
include touch, where the person has the feeling that creatures may be
crawling over the skin (tactile hallucinations), experiencing a peculiar taste
(gustatory hallucinations) or a peculiar smell (olfactory hallucinations). It must
be remembered that although these experiences are not real to carers and
4. nurses, they are very real to patients. Thus it is important to relay to patients
that you believe they are experiencing them.
Auditory hallucinations shown by hearing one or more voices talking are
associated with people with psychotic disorders, particularly schizophrenia.
Florid hallucinations are associated with taking hallucinogenic drugs, sleep
deprivation or neurological illness.
Causes of visual hallucinations
- Hypnagogic hallucination;
- Peduncular hallucinosis;
- DTs;
- Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia;
- Migraine coma;
- Charles Bonnet syndrome;
- Focal epilepsy.
Hypnagogic hallucinations occur just before falling asleep and are associated
with narcolepsy, a disorder shown by uncontrollable brief episodes of sleep.
Low levels of neurons and low levels of the neurotransmitter hypocretin are
the main cause of this disorder.
Peduncular hallucinosis: the peduncle is the neural tract running to the pons in
the brain. It is believed that problems in this area can cause hallucinations.
The person has insight and is fully conscious. These hallucinations occur in
the evenings.
DTs are caused due to withdrawal from alcohol in late-stage alcoholism. The
person may be agitated and confused, with poor sleep and insight.
5. Hallucinatory symptoms are similar in both Parkinson’s and Lewy body
dementia. Symptoms occur in the evening and sensory perceptions are
affected.
Migraine coma is a type of hallucination experienced during recovery from a
coma when conscious. Depression may be evident and the person has
insight.
Charles Bonnet syndrome is the name given to visual hallucinations
experienced by people who are blind; they usually occur in the morning and
evening. People who are blind and who experience these hallucinations are
usually aware they are hallucinating and cope with it by opening and closing
the eyelids until the hallucinations disappear (Rovner, 2002).
Focal epilepsy can cause localised visual hallucinations that last for a few
seconds. Even though consciousness may be impaired, the person still has
insight.
THE NURSE’S ROLE
People experiencing hallucinations may also have disturbed thoughts and
may become disinterested in others and their surroundings. They may also
find it difficult to maintain interpersonal skills and form relationships.
Disturbances in behaviour and social functioning can cause the following
problems:
- Withdrawal;
- Decreased motivation;
- Poor self-care;
- Poor interpersonal relationships.
An assessment of a patient’s needs is essential and must consider the
following:
6. - Ensure physical needs are met - these include nutritional needs, sleep and
self-care needs;
- Maintain safety - a risk assessment must be undertaken as patients may
become a risk to themselves or to others;
- Monitor for withdrawn behaviour;
- Assess for disturbances in thought processes.
Nurses need to listen to clients with acute mental illness to begin to
understand their communication difficulties and to observe for abnormal
behaviour. It is important to show kindness, compassion and patience and to
report any new problems. Clients with schizophrenia may have strong positive
and negative experiences that cause emotional conflict. Many clients with
mental health problems suffer from acute psychotic episodes that have a
major impact on their own lives and their families. Some people diagnosed
with schizophrenia experience auditory and visual hallucinations.
The National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2003) has developed a
full national clinical guideline on core interventions for schizophrenia in both
primary and secondary care. It focuses on pharmacological intervention to
treat and manage schizophrenia, and the main priority is the importance of
taking oral antipsychotic drugs. The guideline also recommends psychological
intervention to manage schizophrenia. These include cognitive behaviour
therapy, counselling, psychotherapy and social skills training.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
- Understand the range of causes of hallucinations
- Know the different types of hallucinations
- Understand the nurse’s role in caring for patients with hallucinations
- Be aware of clinical guidelines covering relevant conditions
7. GUIDED LEARNING
- List the many causes of hallucinations
- Identify the different types of hallucinations, and the types specific to certain
conditions
- Describe the nurse’s role in caring for patients affected
- Reflect on your own practice in relation to patients who experience
hallucinations
This article has been double-blind peer-reviewed.