Questions and answers from the book.

1. CAMBRIDGEAS
HISTORYREVISION
INTERNATIONALRELATIONS
QUESTIONSANDANSWERS

2. QUESTION1PAG136
The League of Nations was an international organisation designed to
preserve world peace. Disputes between nations would be settled by
negotiation and, if necessary, arbitration. This would protect weak
states from the aggressive actions of more powerful and ambitious
nations. The primary aim was to avoid another war like the First World
War. The League would achieve this by promoting disarmament,
abolishing the type of secret diplomacy that led to the system of
alliances that helped to cause the First World War, by arbitrating
disputes and by a system of collective security. In addition, the League
was to administer the Paris peace settlement’s decisions and promote
international co-operation. (see pages 131–6)

3. Wilson was one of the key figures at the Paris peace talks, and was the
strongest advocate there of the League of Nations. It was at his
insistence that the League’s Covenant was included in the terms of all
of the treaties that emerged in Paris. As a result, he could be seen
(both by public opinion at the time and by historians subsequently) as
the League’s founder.
However, the concept of a League of Nations was not his. The League
to Enforce Peace had suggested the idea in the USA as early as 1915; a
British League of Nations Society was founded in the same year.
Individuals (including Robert Cecil in Britain, Leon Bourgeois in France,
Paul Hymans in Belgium and Jan Smuts in South Africa) had all
suggested the need for a League of Nations-type organisation. (see
pages 131–3)
QUESTION2PAG136

4. Methods include:
• promoting disarmament among member states
• abolishing secret diplomacy
• arbitrating disputes between nations
• collective security (in the form of economic sanctions or, if necessary, joint
military action)
• administering plebiscites and mandates created by the Paris peace settlement
• promoting international co-operation (improving working conditions,
repatriating prisoners of war, providing loans, encouraging the development of
education
• promoting developments in public health and medicine. (see pages 134–6)
QUESTION3PAG136

5. Depicted: US president Woodrow Wilson.
Context: 1919, following the Paris peace settlement, which began the
League of Nations. Wilson is depicted giving an olive branch
(representing the League of Nations) to a dove. The olive branch and
the dove are symbols of peace – symbols that would have been widely
understood in 1919.
Message: Wilson is depicted as benevolent and well-meaning, clearly
wanting to create a system to preserve peace in the future. However,
the olive branch (League) is clearly far too heavy for the dove the carry.
This implies that the cartoonist is sceptical about the League’s chances
of success, suggesting it has set itself unreasonably high aims and
objectives. As a cartoon published in Britain, it is likely to reflect public
opinion in that country. (see pages 131–6)
QUESTION4PAG136

6. The following points could be made:
• Geneva was deliberately chosen as a base because of Switzerland’s neutrality
in the First World War and being the centre of the Red Cross.
• All states were represented in the General Assembly.
• The Council’s permanent members were the most powerful and influential
countries, who would be required to provide the main support for any action
proposed by the League; other countries would become members of the
Council on a rota system.
• The Secretariat managed the day-to-day administration, which would be vital
if the League was to be successful.
• The Permanent Court of International Justice would arbitrate disputes
between nations.
• Commissions and committees would deal with specific issues likely to cause
disputes between nations, and also encourage international co-operation (e.g.
in social reform). (see pages 137–9)
QUESTION1PAG139

7. The Permanent Court’s purposes were:
• to reach decisions regarding the legal issues relating to disputes between
nations
• to advise the League on its decisions, enabling arbitration to take place. (see
page 138)
QUESTION2PAG139

8. Articles 3 and 4 deal with the respective roles of the Assembly and the
Council – both the Assembly and Council ‘may deal at its meetings with
any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the
peace of the world’. This does not differentiate between their
respective roles.
Article 10 suggests that any threat of aggression should be referred to
the Council, a point repeated at the start of Article 11. However, Article
11 then outlines the right of any member state to report anything likely
to disturb international peace to either the Assembly or the Council.
(see pages 137–9)
QUESTION3PAG139

9. The League’s successes in the 1920s involved relatively minor disputes
in which none of the major powers had any vested interest. The smaller
nations had little option but to accept the decisions made by the
League, not least because they relied on it to guarantee their own
security. Disputes in the 1930s often involved the vested interests of
the major powers, some of which were prepared to challenge the
League’s authority (e.g. Italy in Abyssinia, Japan in Manchuria).
The answer should be supported by appropriate and accurate factual
information – e.g. the League did little to stop Italy’s aggression against
Abyssinia because both Britain and France wanted to remain on
friendly terms with Italy as a defence against the growing threat of
Germany. The most perceptive answers might refer to changes in the
membership of the League (e.g. the entry of Germany and Japan), the
effects of international economic problems, etc. (see pages 140–50)
QUESTION1PAG150

10. The following reasons might be given:
• The League relied on support from the major powers. When one of the major
powers was the cause of the dispute, the League was usually powerless.
• The concept of collective security required the support of member states (in
following economic sanctions or collective military action) – the vested interests
of the major powers often prevented them from taking such action (as with
Italy’s aggression in Abyssinia).
• The League had no army of its own.
As in Question 1, answers should provide factual support for the points
made. (see pages 131–50)
QUESTION2PAG150

11. By 1934, there were signs of aggression from Germany, Italy and Japan.
Litvinov argues that the League needs to confront this aggression
before such states become too powerful. The implication is that the
League is failing to confront the aggression of rogue nations. Litvinov
advocates the strong use of collective security before it is too late.
Essentially, he is arguing against the notion of appeasement. (see pages
134–50)
QUESTION4PAG150

12. The programme endorsed strong measures against any country using
aggressive tactics in order to expand its power. These measures would
involve collective security – economic or military sanctions – to force
the aggressor state to back down. (see pages 134–50)
QUESTION5PAG150

13. Hankey argues that the League is bound to fail and that membership
would lull Britain into a false sense of security – assuming that the
League would protect it rather than ensuring its own protection.
Membership would encourage Britain not to develop its own
armaments, leaving the country vulnerable. (see pages 131–50)
QUESTION6PAG150

14. In the source, Stalin argues that the only way to preserve peace in the
future is to have a ‘special organisation’. Thus, he clearly supports the
idea of a UN. (see pages 152–7)
QUESTION1PAG157

15. Stalin says that the UN must be stronger than the League. The UN must
be ‘a fully authorised international organisation having at its command
everything necessary to defend peace and avert new aggression’. For
this to be effective, the Great Powers (the USSR, Britain and France)
would need to maintain their Second World War alliance, working
together to ensure future peace and security. (see pages 152–7)
QUESTION2PAG157

16. The source argues that the main reason for the failure of the League of
Nations was that member states put their own interests ahead of their
commitments to the League. In the new organisation, members must
‘be conscious, over and above the interests of our own country, of the
interests of the world and of mankind’. For the UN to be successful,
member states must work collectively. In this sense, Source B agrees
with Stalin’s sentiments in Source A (page 157). (see Chapter 5)
QUESTION3PAG157

17. It could be argued that the USA’s refusal to ratify the Paris peace settlement
and join the League of Nations undermined both the post-war treaties and
the prospects of future peace. When the League was established, it lacked
the membership of many of the major powers – the USA, the USSR and
Germany. This clearly undermined both its credibility and its power. As a
non-member of the League, the USA could ignore its decisions, for example
on issues such as disarmament. In its early stages, the League’s strength was
entirely dependent on Britain and France, each of which had its own vested
interests that may well conflict with their commitments to the League.
However, it could be argued that it was the failure of Britain and France to
keep to their commitments that led to the League’s failure – e.g. their refusal
to confront Italy over Abyssinia and their failure to oppose foreign
intervention in the Spanish Civil War. Answers should show balance and must
contain a clear and consistent argument supported by appropriate and
accurate factual material. (see Chapter 5)
QUESTION1PAG159

18. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor effectively ended the USA’s policy
of isolationism. Its international interests (primarily economic) meant
that it could no longer avoid becoming involved in international
relations. Roosevelt had long held the view that the USA could not
remain isolated, and had advocated US entry into Second World War
before the attack on Pearl Harbor. The attack convinced him that he
had been right all along, and he was determined to establish the UN
and to ensure that the USA gained considerable control over its actions.
Truman shared Roosevelt’s commitment to the UN. (see pages 152–8)
QUESTION2PAG159

19. Depicted: US president Harry S. Truman, a representation of the United
Nations and of the League of Nations.
Context: the League of Nations had failed to confront the aggressive
actions of nations such as Germany, Italy and Japan, hence its demise
(symbolised by the gravestone – ‘died of lack of exercise facing wanton
aggression’). Truman wanted the UN to adopt a stronger and more
proactive role against perceived aggression. The cartoon was published
in 1950, when the UN was involved (at American request) in the Korean
War. Truman is shown leading a well armed UN into the conflict,
trampling over the grave of the weak League of Nations.
QUESTION3PAG159

20. Message: the key to understanding this cartoon relates to the effigies of the
League and the UN. Both are female (representing peace), yet the League is
shown as weak, vulnerable and frightened while the UN is seen as strong,
determined and well-armed. This could be related to the differences
between the League and the UN recommended by Stalin in Source A on page
157. The cartoonist is also stressing the leading role the USA played in the
UN – it is Truman leading the UN effigy into battle; the speed at which they
are travelling implies that inadequate thought has gone into the decision to
involve the UN in the Korean War.
Intended for a British audience, the cartoon suggests that British public
opinion was not entirely convinced that US leadership of the UN was a good
thing. (see pages 152–8; contextual knowledge of the UN’s involvement in
the Korean War would help here, but is not essential)
QUESTION3PAG159CONT