This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines key terms like research, methodology, methods, and research design. It discusses the different types of research such as exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. The steps involved in research process and design formulation are outlined, including defining the problem, literature review, developing hypotheses, data collection and analysis. Both qualitative and quantitative research approaches are described.

1. Research Methodology
Research + Methodology

2. Research
• Research word has two syllables
Re + Search
• Prefix verb
• Re – again, anew, over again
• Search – examine closely and carefully
• Two words form a noun to describe a careful and
systematic study to find answers to research
questions.
• Art of scientific investigations for search of
knowledge and information.

3. Research - Definitions
•“A careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search of new facts in any branch of
knowledge”(Advance Learner’s Dictionary of
Current English, Oxford, 1952, p. 1069.)
•Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematic effort to gain new
knowledge”(Redman,L.V. and Mory,
A.V.H.,The Research, 1923, p.10)

4. •According to Clifford and Woody, research
comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis, collecting,
organizing and evaluating data making
deductions and reaching conclusions”.
•D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the
encyclopedia of Social Sciences define
research as manipulation of things, concepts
or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend correct or verify knowledge. (Kothari,
C.R., Research Methodology, New Age
International(P) Ltd, p.1.)

5. • As per the Kothari, the terms research refers to the
systematic method consisting of defining a problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting and analyzing facts
researching certain conclusions in form of solution(s)
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalization
for some theoretical formulation.
• Thus, Research is a systematic, objective and organized
study/investigation finding answers to research questions,
establishing and verifying theories, knowledge, facts,
principles, thus originally contributing to the existing stock
of knowledge and making its further advancements.

6. Method
•Technique used by a person for studying or
solving a problem
•In research methods can be for data collection
as well as for data analysis.
•Methodology ( getting data via surveys) can
not be changed but methods can be changed.

7. Methodology
•Science of methods
•Science dealing with principles of procedure –
step by step process
•Organized, documented set of procedure or
set of procedures and guidelines.
•Systematic way to solve a problem
•Systematic study of methods that are, can be
or have been applied with in a disciplines.

8. Research Methodology
•RM is a way to systematically solving a
research problem.
•Science of studying , how research is done
systematically.
•Various steps that are adopted by researcher
in studying a research problem along with
logic behind each.
•Methodology varies on the basis of problem,
application, area, disciplines etc.

9. •Research Methodology has many dimensions
to constitute each part of methodology.
•Scope of the methodology is much wider then
that of R methods.
•Before finding RM, there should be rationality
of using each methods so that Research
outcome as given by a method should match
with research questions .

10. •Thus, research methodology refers to the
systematic method consisting of defining a
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting
and analysis facts using appropriate research
methods to draw certain conclusions in form
of solution(s) to the research problem finding
answers to the RQ.

11. Research Questions
• In medical science :
1. How many patients.
2. Health status.
3. Health needs of a community
4. Common problems
5. Causes
6. Precautions
7. RCA

12. Product Marketing
1. Satisfaction
2. Advertising campaigns
3. Effectiveness
4. Sales Team – effectiveness
5. Value for money
6. Expenditure
7. Market share.

13. HR
1. Employee satisfaction
2. Training and development
3. Performance appraisal
4. Reward system
5. Retention
6. QWL
7. Wages and salary
8. Motivation

14. • RQ: To find usage of hair colours on the basis of gender
• H : Females are higher users of hair colours than males.
• RQ: To evaluate smoking habit on the basis of gender
• H2 Greater proportion of males are smokers in the
population
• RQ : What foods are comfort foods
• H : Potato chips/ Ice creams
• RQ When does people eat comfort foods.
• H: When outside their houses/ traveling/in good mood/in
bad mood.

15. Nature of Research Methodology
1. Systematic : Research follows logical sequential of steps
2. Empirical : Conclusions are based on evidences
gathered from information collected.
3. Valid and Verifiable : Results are valid on the study area
and can be verified on others.
4. Rigorous : Rigorous process and degree of rigorous ness
produces appropriate and reliable results.
5. Controlled : Less influence from external factors in case
of physical sciences whereas more impact in case of
Social sciences and since external factors cannot be
controlled, therefore impact is quantified.

16. 6. Art as well as Science : Art of a researcher and
science being a systematic study having scope for
experimentation.
7. Objectivity : Objective oriented – problem
identification and solving approach.
8. Logical : Reasoning and logical process.

17. Scope of RM
• Most researches are applied research, which has
application in many disciplines and professions to
enhance professional knowledge base:
1. Health(nursing, occupational therapies, physiotherapies,
community health, health promotion, public health etc)
2. Education
3. Town planning.
4. Library studies
5. Business Studies
6. Social work
7. Social sciences
8. Behavioral Sciences
9. Languages.
10. Physical and life sciences etc.

18. • Application of the research can be considered from four different
perspectives :
1. Producer
2. Service provider, Service administrator, manager and/or planner.
3. Service consumer;
4. Professional

19. Producer Role
• Total number of product users.
• What type of Product Required
• Changing Needs
• CB,
• Preferences, Ease, Complexity, Convenience
• Product design and Layout, MIX
• R&D
• Patents
• Production Process

20. Service administrator, manager and/or
planner
• Needs of a community
• Expenditure pattern
• What type of product/service can satisfy needs.
• Product development/diversification
• How many service providers/channels.
• Training needs
• How many cases per day, working hours
• Performance evaluation.
• Market a product.

21. Consumer
• Getting value for money.
• Effectiveness of service provider.
• Long term benefits.
• Investments.
• Loyalty and switching behavior.
• Evidences
• Incentives, loyalty programmes, sales promotion.

22. Professionals
• Most effective interventions for particular problems.
• Relationships between X &Y
• Application of a theory in different situations
• Best ways for Measuring attitudes and perceptions
• Understanding process
• Enhancing professional acumen
• Finally effective DM

23. Significance of Research
1. Complex nature of business has increased attention for
using research for operational problems.
2. Research is an aid to economic policies by providing
basis eg. Budgets and availability of revenues vis-à-vis
needs and expectations of the people.
3. Facilitates decision making.
4. National resources allocation and usage.
5. Destination dev, impact studies, carrying capacities and
sustainability.
6. Planning and operational problems.
7. Social sciences to understand social relationships and
solve social problems.

24. 8. R&D – Patents eg. Automobiles.
9. Medical science .
10. Continual improvement.
11. Disciplines – knowledge domain, professionals,
careerism, livelihood
12. Generation/ criticism/application of theories..

25. Types of Research
1. Exploratory Research
2. Descriptive Research
3. Causal Research
• Exploratory Research( explore/search)
1. Exploratory studies are conducted to clarify the nature of problem.
2. Management may have discovered general problem but research is
needed to gain better understanding of the dimensions of the
problems.
3. Discover ideas, provide insights and understanding
4. R process is flexible & unstructured.
5. Sample is small & non representative.
6. E provide information to analyze the situation but does not provide
conclusive evidences, therefore the information provided become
basis and therefore it is usually followed by another exploratory
research

26. • Descriptive Research (Describe)
1.Describe characteristics of a population or a phenomenon
2.Every month bureau of labor statistics conduct descriptive research on
unemployment and other characteristics of labor force from the
current population survey.
3.Active investors’ characteristics– median age 55, well educated,
employed in business and industrial categories etc but no explanations
for cause of such phenomenon.
4.Unlike exploratory research descriptive studies are based on previous
understanding of the nature of the problem. Although researcher has
general understanding but the conclusive evidences answering
questions to determine course of actions needs to be collected.
5.Normally structured
• Causal Research (Cause and Effect Relationship)

27. Research Process in Flow Chart
Define Research
Problem
Review of Literature
1.Review concepts & theories
2. Review previous research findings
Formulate
Hypothesis
Design Research
including sample
design
Data Analysis
(Test hypothesis if any)
Data Collection
Interpret
& report

28. Qualitative Research
• Applied to gain qualitative understanding of underlying reasons &
motivations & to define problem & develop approach.
• Unstructured, exploratory, RM based on small samples that
provides understanding of the problem.
• It also helps to generate H & identify variables.
• Qualitative research can be direct approach (where purpose of
researcher can be disclosed by respondent) or indirect approach.
• Direct approach can be focus group or depth techniques (detailed
free exchange). Focus Group means interview conducted by
trained moderator among small group of respondents in
unstructured & natural manner.
• Qualitative R – to gain qualitative understanding, unstructured,
non-statistical, small sample.
• Quantitative R – to Q data & generalize results from sample to
population, structured, statistical, large sample.

29. Defining Research Problem should -
1. Allow the researcher to obtain all information needed to address the
management decision problem.
2. Guide the researcher in proceeding with the project.
3. Research problem should not be broad statements.
Broad Statements
Specific Components
• Broad Statements – Initial statement of research problem that
provides an appropriate perspective on the problem. Eg. What
changes in the product to increase sales.
• Specific Components-Second part of the Resrach problem definition.
The specific components focus on key aspects of the problem &
provide clear guidelines on how to proceed further. Eg.- Demo,
psychographic characteristics, loyalty, switching behaviors etc.

30. 2. Analytical Model
• Analytical model is set of variables and their
relationship designed to represent in whole or in
part, some real system or process. Models can be
verbal, graphical or mathematical.
1. Verbal Model : Analytical model that provides a
written representation of the relationship b/w
variables.
2. Graphical Model : Analytical model that provides a
visual picture of the relationship b/w variables.
3. Mathematical Model :Analytical model that
describes the relationship b/w variables in
equation form.

31. Analytical Model : Examples
• Verbal Model : A consumer first becomes aware of department store,
Then gains understanding by evaluating store in terms of factors
comprising choice criteria. Based on evaluation, consumer forms
degree of preference. If preference is strong, consumer will
patronage/protect the store.
• Graphical Model Awareness
Understanding : Evaluation
Preference
Patronage
n
• Mathematical Model : y = a˳ + ∑ ai xi
i=1
y= degree of preference, xi = patronage, a˳ ai = model parameters – awareness,
evaluation etc.

32. 3. Research Questions (RQ).
• RQ are refined statements of the specific components of the
problem.
• Components of the problem
Subcomponents (RQ)
Information (Guides specific information required)
DM
Problem Solving
• Eg : Product features, psycho profile of customers, markets
(availability), price, packaging etc.

33. 4. Hypothesis (H)
• Hypothesis is a unproven statement or proposition or
assumption
• These may be tentative statement about relationship on the
basis of theory/secondary data.
• It provides possible answers to RQ
• Research Questions are interrogative, whereas H are
declarative that can be tested.

34. Components of R problem
Objective/theoretical
Framework
RQ
Analytical Model
Hypothesis
Null Alternate
(No relationship b/w variables) (Difference b/w two variables)

35. • Objectives /RQ
1. To understand existing practices of QWL/CRM….
2. To study the existing relationship matrix b/w demand and
supply in FMCG
3. To explore IT usability in services
4. To examine existing provision of mgt education
5. Gap analysis actual & expeted, impact assesment, cause
and effect, study the perception, attitude, causes of stress,
success factors
6. Comparative, formulate planning, propose, suggestive,
modeling, validating models etc.

36. Step 3 Research Design Formulation
• RD is framework/blueprint for conducting MR project.
• It includes defining variables, designing scales, mode of obtaining
data(experiment/survey), designing instrument (questionnaire)
sample planning to select respondent.
• Basic purpose is to provide guideline to conduct research i.e. test H
& find answers to RQ.
• RD formulation involves following steps
1. Definition of information needed.
2. Secondary data analysis.
3. Qualitative research
4. Method of collecting quantitative data-survey, obs, experiment
5. Measurement & scaling procedures.
6. Questionnaire design
7. Sampling process and sampling size.
8. Plan of data analysis.

37. Research Design - Classification
• RD
• Exploratory RD( explore/search)
1. Discover ideas, provide insights and
understanding
2. R process is flexible & unstructured.
3. Sample is small & non representative.
4. Followed by another exploratory research
• Descriptive Research (Describe)
1. Describe market characteristics 0r functions
2. Based on prior information and structured
• Cross-sectional Design Collection of
information from any sample once
• Single Cross Sectional
(one sample)
• Conclusive RD (come to end)
1. Test hypothesis & examine relationship.
2. Formal & structured
3. Large & representative
4. Output is applied for DM
Casual R(Cause)
1. Cause & effect of 1 varble on other
2.Independent & dependent variables
• Longitudinal Design Same
variable over time same R
• Multiple Cross-sectional
2 or more samples from target
population.

38. Steps of RD Formulation
1. Definition of information needed
• Based on components & subcomponents of problem, RQ,H defining the
information required, listing, categorizing, source etc.
2. Secondary Data Analysis
• Analysis of secondary data helps to define MR problem & develop an
approach
• Before designing R, researcher should analyse SD, as in some case SD
can solve routine problems.
• SD can be internal (organization) or external, 1st internal data to be
collected and analyzed than external.
• Imp issues related to SD are error, accuracy, dependability, source
credibility, content, time, cost etc.
• Source : Databases, Internet, published materials, Govt data, general
business data, full text directory.
• Analysis: Using relevant QT – mean, average, percentage, SD,
correlation, regression, time series, factor, conjoint etc.

39. 3. Qualitative Research
• Applied to gain qualitative understanding of underlying reasons &
motivations & to define problem & develop approach.
• Unstructured, exploratory, RM based on small samples that provides
understanding of the problem.
• It also helps to generate H & identify variables.
• Qualitative research can be direct approach (where purpose of
researcher can be disclosed by respondent) or indirect approach.
• Direct approach can be focus group or depth techniques (detailed free
exchange). Focus Group means interview conducted by trained
moderator among small group of respondents in unstructured &
natural manner.
• Qualitative R – to gain qualitative understanding, unstructured, non-
statistical, small sample.
• Quantitative R – to Q data & generalize results from sample to
population, structured, statistical, large sample.

40. 4. Method of Collecting Quantitative Data
• Survey : structured questionnaires designed to
provide specific information. These questions can
be asked verbally, in witing or via computer.
1. Structured - formal, standardized, pre-arranged
order eg – 1(SD) ---------------- 5(SA)
2. Surveys can be classified as telephone interviews,
personal interviews, customer link, mail interviews,
electronic interviews, www. etc

41. Observation Method
• Methodology used in descriptive research. It involves
recording of behavioral pattern of people, objects & events in
a systematic manner to obtain information about the
phenomenon of interest.
• Observation can be structured/unstructured,
natural/contrived, disguised/undisguised observation. On the
basis of mode of admn – personal/mechanical.
• Structural Obs – where researcher defined behaviour to be
observed & method by which it will be observed eg. Auditor. In
unstructured observations of all aspects are made with out
specifying.
• In natural or disguised obs in natural env eg restaurant. In
contrived/disguised in artificial env eg. In test kitchen.
• In personal human observer record data, in mechanical it is
mechanical devices.

42. Experimentation
• Experiment is the process of manipulating one or more
independent variables and measuring their effect on one or
more dependable variables, while controlling for the
external (other than independent) variables.
• Independent variables : That can be manipulated eg. Price,
package design, advertising themes etc. whereas dependent
variables measures the effect of independent variables eg.
Sales, image.
• External variable eg. Store size, location, competitive effort.
• Test Units – Individuals, organizations, stores, product,
geographic regions.

43. Measurement & Scaling
• Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols
to characteristics of objects according to pre-specified rules(
not objects but their characteristics, not consumers but
their perceptions, attitudes, preferences or relevant
characteristics).
• Scaling : An extension of measurement that involves
creating a continuous structures upon which measured
objects are located.
• Eg. Attitude interms of (un)favourableness toward
1---------------------------100
1= extremely unfavorable & 1000= extremely favorable

44. Primary Scales of Measurement :4
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio
1. Nominal Scale :A scale whose numbers serves only as
labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects with a
strict one-to-one correspondence b/w numbers and
objects.
• Eg. 10 stores numbering 1-10 or for football players,
employees, brand numbers, store types, gender but 10
does not mean more efficient.
• Analysis on the basis of percentage, mean, averages, chi
square.

45. 2. Ordinal Scale
• It is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to
objects to indicate the relevant extent to which some
characteristics is possessed.
• Thus it determine whether object has more or less of
characteristics than other object.
• It indicate relevant position not magnitude of difference
b/w objects.
• Eg. Ranking in tournaments, quality ranking, preference
ranking, market positions- GE No1 most admired co.
• Analysis – percentile, median, rank order, correlation,
Friedman ANOVA.

46. 3. Interval Scale
• Scale in which numbers are used to rate objects at
numerically equal distances that represent equal distances
on characteristic being measured.
• It allow to measure & compare differences b/w objects.
Difference b/w 1&2 is same as b/w 2&3.
• Eg. Temperature scale
• An be applied to measure attitude, openion etc.
• Analysis – Range, Mean, SD, Correlation, T test, ANOVA,
Regression, Factor.

47. 4. Ratio Scale
• It allows researcher to identify or classify objects, rank
order the objects and compare the intervals or
differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of
scale values.
• Ratio scale allows only one proportional transformation
of the form y=bx where b is a positive constant.
• Eg. Conversion of Yards to feet (b=3).
• Eg. Difference b/w 2&5 is same as 14&17 but 14 is 7
times 2 therefore it should be 14:35.

48. Scaling Techniques- classification - 2 types Comparative &
Non-comparative scales.
• Scaling Techniques
• Comparative Scales Non-Comparative Scale
• Paired Rank Constant Q sort & continuous Itemized
Comparison order sum other procedure rating scale rating scale
• Likert Semantic differential Stapel

49. Scaling Techniques- classification
1. Comparative Scales : It involves a direct comparison of
stimulus objects.
• Eg. Preference for coke or Pepsi. Properties of rank
order or ordinal scale.
2. Non-comparative Scales: Also known as monadic or
metric scales, in which each object is scaled
independently of others.
• Eg. Evaluate coke on 1-6 scale of preference.
1= Not at all preferred 6=Highly preferred.

50. Comparative Scaling Technique
1. Paired Comparison Scaling : Respondent is presented
with two objects at a time and asked to select one object
in the pair according to some criterion. Data obtained is
ordinal in nature.
• Eg . Respondents shop in store 1 more than store 2, Total
Cereal better than Kellogg’s product, prefer Crest than
Colgate.
• Paired Comparison can be converted into rank order also
called as transitivity of preferences. Eg.
A is preferred to B
B is preferred to C
Therefore A is preferred to C

51. 2. Rank Order Scaling
• Technique in which respondents are presented with
several objects simultaneously and asked to order or
rank them according to some criterion. Eg.
• Brand of Toothpaste Overall preference(rank order)
a. Colgate
b. Crest
c. Pepsodent
d. Oral B
e. Close up
f. AIM
g. Gleen

52. 3. Constant Sum Scaling
• In this technique respondents allocate a constant sum of units such as
points, Rs, Dollars, stickers among a set of stimulus objects with
respect to some criterion.
• Eg. Respondent is asked to allocate 100 points to a attribute of a toilet
soap acc to the imp or presence of a attribute.
• If unimp =0 pts, if an attribute is twice as imp as some other attribute,
it will receive two times the points and finally sum of all the points
should be 100. attribute can be cleaning power or mildness.
• Softness is double than fragrance and cleaning power is double the
softness than:
Fragrance = x
Softness = 2x
Cleaning power 4x
Total 5x=100 therefore x=20

53. 4. Q-Sort Scaling
• This scaling is developed to discriminate a large number of
objects. It uses rank order procedure in which objects are
sorted based on similarity with respect to some creterion.
• Eg 100 statements to be placed on 11 point scale least
highly aggreed with to most highly aggreed with. Then
sorting the statements.
Statements Least highly agreed with Most highly agreed with
1 1 2 3 ------------------------- 10 11
2 1 2 3 ------------------------- 10 11
3 1 2 3 ------------------------- 10 11
Then sorting statement with 1 as response : Statement No 1,4,7,9
Statement with 2 as a response

54. Non-Comparative Scaling Technique
1. Continuous Rating Scale : Also referred as graphic rating scale,
in which respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme
criterion to other. The line may be vertical, horizontal, scale
points, numbers or brief description may be provided.
• How do you rate a product
• Version 1
• Probably the worst -----------------I--------------Probably the best.
• Version 2
• Probably the worst ------------------------I-------------------------Best
• 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
• Version 3
• Worst--------------------------------------------------------------------Best
• v bad Neither good nor bad V good

55. 2. Itemized Rating Scale
• Measurement Rating Scale : Measurement scale having
numbers and/or brief description associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in term of scale
positions. Respondent select the specified categories
that best describe the object. Most commonly used in
itemised ratind scale are :
a. Likert.
b. Semantic
c. Stapel.

56. a. Likert Scale
• Named after Rensis Likert, the Likert scale have five
response categories ranging from SD to SA, which
requires respondents to indicate the level of agreement
or disagreement with each series of statements related
to object.
• To conduct analysis each statement is assigned numeric
code ranging from -2 to +2 or 1 to 5.
• Negative statements (2,4,7,9) can be reversed.
SD D NDNA A SA
S1
S2
S3

57. b. Semantic Scale
• Seven point rating scale with endpoints associated with bipolar labels that
have semantic meaning. (language words that has a meaning eg. Cold -
warm)
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Powerful.
Unreliable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Reliable
Careless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 careful
• c. Stapel Scale: Developed by Jan Stapel. A scale for measuring attitude
consist of 10 categories measuring from –5 to +5 without neutral(0) Eg.
Department Store
Quality Service
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2
+1 +1
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

58. Other Scaling Techniques
1. Balanced versus Unbalanced Scale :In balanced scale
number of favorable & unfavorable categories are equal,
and in unbalanced scale, they are unequal.
2. Odd versus Even Number of Categories : In odd number
of categories middle position is neutral no neutral point
in even.
3. Forced versus Unforced Scale : In forced scale,
respondent is forced to provide a openion, because no
openion option is not provided.
4. Verbal Description : Usage of verbal, numerical or even
pictorial description to have effect on respondent.

59. Multi Item Scale : Dev of multi item scale requires considerable
following & involves various steps
Develop a Theory
Generate an initial pool of items : theory, SD & qualitative R
Select a reduced set of items based on qualitative judgment.
Collect data from a large pretest sample.
Perform statistical analysis
Develop a scale
Collect more data from a different sample.
Evaluate scale reliability, validity & generalisability
Prepare a final scale

60. Scale Evaluation
• Reliability :Extent to which scale provides consistent results,
if repeated measurements are made on the characteristics
Eg.
1. Test – Retest approach – identical set of items at two
different times under as nearly equal conditions.
2. Alternate Reliability : Two equivalent form of scale
measured from same respondent at time intervals.
• Validity : Extent to which differences in observed scale
reflect true differences among the characteristics of the
object.
• Generalisability : Degree to which a study based on sample
applies to a universe. Imp factors : within & outside
organizations.

61. Questionnaire Design
• Questionnaire : A structure( formal, standard, pre-
arranged order) technique for data collection that
consists of a series of questions, written or verbal that a
respondent answers.
• Objectives of a questionnaire (3)
1. Translate the information needed into specific
questions that R will or can answer.
2. Motivate and encourage respondent to cooperate,
involve and participate. Also minimizing fatique,
boredom.
3. Minimize response error( mis-recorded or mis-analyzed)
: accurate answers, appropriate choices, options.

62. Questionnaire Design Process (10 steps in sequence)
Specify the information needed
Specify the type of method
Determine the content of individual questions
Design the questions to overcome the respondent’s inability & unwillingness
to answer.
Decide on Questionnaire structure
Determine the question wording.
Arrange the questions in proper order
Identify the form & layout.
Reproduce the questionnaire.
Eliminate the bugs(problems) be pretesting

63. 1. Specify the information needed
• Specifying the information is guided by reviewing the
components of problem, research questions,
hypothesis.
• Information should fully address all components.
• Also requires clear idea of target population,
characteristics of respondent group, gender, socio-
economic eg. Questions to college students may not be
appropriate to house wives.
• Poor understanding leads to high chances of
uncertainty or no-opinion response.

64. 2. Type of Method
• Types : Personal interview, telephonic, mail, internet, e-mail.
• Type of interview method influences questionnaire design.
• In personal interviews, respondents see the questionnaire
and interact face to face, thus lengthy, complex and varied
questions can be asked.
• By telephone, interact but can not see questionnaire, thus
simple and short questions.
• Mail questions are self administered, thus requires simple
and detailed instructions.

65. 3. Content of Individual Questions
• After step 1&2, next step is to determine individual question
content : what to include in individual questions.
1. Is the question necessary?.
“each Q should contribute to information needed or serve
some specific purpose – otherwise eliminate that question”
2. Are the several questions needed instead of one. Sometimes
yes, sometimes no (merge)
• When double – barreled questions, split them in two.
• Do you think coco-cola is a tasty & refreshing soft drink ?
If no, does it mean both or one
Therefore :
1. Do you thing coco-cola is a tasty soft drink ?.
2. Do you thing coco-cola is a refreshing soft drink ?.

66. 4. a) Overcoming the Inability to Answer
• Inability may be because of respondents may not be
informed, may not remember or may not be able to
articulate (express) type of response
1. If not informed, ask about the topic on which they are
not informed confirm through filter questions and then
change the Respondents.
• Filter questions : Initial question in a questionnaire that
screens potential R to ensue they meet the
requirements of the sample.
• Eg. Husbands may not be informed about the monthly
expanses on purchase of groceries, when purchases are
made be wife.

67. 2. Can respondent remember : can not expect every one to
remember, depends on the ability to remember.
i. Eg. How many gallons of soft drinks did you consume during
the last 4 weeks. (x)
ii. What brand of shirt, you were wearing 2 months ago. (x)
iii. What do you have in your lunch a week ago. (x)
• The right way is
• On an average, how do you consume soft drinks in a typical
week.
a) Less than once a week b) 1 to 3 times a week
c. 4-6 times a week d) 7 or more times a week.
• To remember R often applies telescoping (psychological
phenomenon to remember event occurred more recently.
• Researcher can also apply aided recall approach (options to
recall- what brand of soft drink best advertised on TV- Coco
Cola, Pepsi, Mountain Dew.

68. 3. Can Respondent Articulate (Express)
• Some time respondent may ignore such questions or may even
refuse to respond to such questionnaire.
• Eg. “Atmosphere of the department store they would prefer to
patronize” most of the R may not articulate but if provided with
alternate description of store atmosphere.
B. Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer
1. Effort & time required by respondent : Should be minimized by
designing appropriate questions and responses.
• Q. Pls list the Deptt store, where you purchased following items
in your most recent trip to deptt store.
Sl.No Items Departmental Store
1. Women.s Dresses A B C D
2. Children's Dresses A B C D
3. Men’s Dresses A B C D
4. Cosmetics A B C D

69. 2. Context : Questions asked should be appropriate in given
context /situation
• Eg. Personal hygiene if asked by a Restaurant Chain
Personal hygiene if asked by a Medical Association
3. Legitimate Purpose (Logic for answering) :
• Eg. Firm ask about Age, sex, income, occupation etc reveals
that firm want to see consumption of preference on the
basis of demographic basis.
4. Sensitive Information : Respondent may not disclose/
unwilling to disclose or may disclose inaccurately, the
information which is sensitive i.e. if it can cause
embarrassment, threaten prestige, image etc,
• Eg. Money, family life, political affiliations, religious beliefs,
involvement in crimes/ accident
• Chances of not answering are more in case of personal
interviews.

70. Increasing willingness
1. Placing sensitive topics at end
2. Ensure secrecy and confidentiality – only for research
purpose.
3. Avoid asking name or signature.
4. Avoid contradictory statements or senstive statements.
5. Increase logic (legitimate) for questioning.
6. Should be in appropriate context.
7. Choosing appropriate wording
8. Giving description at places so that R can articulate
9. Order of questions

71. 5. Choosing Question Structure
• Questionnaire may be unstructured or structured
A. Unstructured Questionnaire : Open ended questions that
respondents answer in their own words. They are also
referred as free response / free answer questions
• What is your occupation ?
• What do you think of people who prefer discount
products ?

72. • Advantages
1) Good as first question on topic,
2) help to express general attitudes and opinions.
3) Much less biasing influence on respondents.
4) Respondents are free to express any views that can provide
rich insight.
5) Hence, useful in exploratory research. Good for verbal
interviews.
• Disadvantages
1) Difficult to code the responses
2) Costly and time consuming
3) Data analysis and interpretation is difficult and extensive.
4) Not suitable for self administered questionnaire mail, e-mail,
internet) because respondents want to be brief in writing than
speaking.

73. B. Structured Questionnaire
• Structured questionnaire specify the set of response
alternatives and the response format. A SQ may be
multiple choice, dichotomous or a scale.
A. Multiple Choice : In MC researcher provides a choice of
answers and respondents are asked to select one or more
of alternatives given.
• Eg. Do you intend to buy a new car within next six
months
A. Definitely No
B. Probably No
C. Undecided
D. Probably Yes
E. Definitely Yes

74. • Important Aspect
1. No of alternatives should explain all possible choices
2. No of alternatives should be same for other Q
3. Order or position (extremes at corners, in or some but
b/w
4. Advantage : Multiple choice overcome interviewer
biasness and can be administered quickly, easy to code,
process and analyze and interpret, less costly and
consumes less time.
5. Disadvantages : Providing list of possible answers provides
biased responses – choose among answers.

75. B. Dichotomous
• It has only two response alternatives –yes and no, Agree or
Disagree, Accept or Reject
• But these two alternatives can be supplemented by neutral
alternative – no opinion, Don’t know, not sure, both or none.
• If yes/No - biased, but biasness reduced when 3rd neutral
• Do you intend to buy a new car within next 6 months
a. Yesb. No c. Don’t Know or Undecided.
• Taking a +ive statement gives 59.5 %
• But Taking a –ive statement gives 44.8 %
• You will buy product becoz of its +ive features(59 %)
• You will not buy product becoz of its –ive features (44 %)
• Therefore, apply Split Ballot technique to reduce biasness i.e 50
% positive and 50 % negative

76. C. Scale
• Already Discussed eg.
Definitely No Probably No Undecided Prob Yes Def Yes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

77. 6. Choosing Questionnaire Wording
• Questionnaire wording is translation of desired question content
and structure into words that respondent can clearly understand.
• If not worded properly – respondent may refuse or answer
incorrectly leading to non response or response error
• To avoid problem, following guideline
1.Define the issue : Questions should clearly define the issue being
addressed
2.Use ordinary words : Should match vocablory level of the
respondents
• Eg Do you think distribution of soft drinks is adequate
• Do you think soft drinks are easily available when you want to buy
them
3.Use Unambiguous Words : Words used should have single
meaning Eg. Usually, Normally, Frequently, Often, Regularly,
Occasionally, sometimes.

78. 4. Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions :
• Leading Questions are those that clues the respondents as to
what answer is desired or leads the R to answer in a certain way
• Eg. Do you think that Patriotic Americans should buy imported
automobiles, if they would put Americans labor out of work
• Leading -------- No, how can patriotic Americans put Americans
labor out
• Do you think that Americans should buy imported automobiles.
• Yes No Don’t Know
5. Avoid Implicit Alternatives (Not expressed clearly)
• Do you like to fly when traveling short distances
• Do you like to fly when traveling short distances or would you
rather drive.
• In first question, the alternative of driving is only implicit & likely
to yield more preference for flying than 2nd Q

79. 6. Avoid Generalization should be specific not general
• Eg. What is annual & Estimates
• Questions per capita expenditure on groceries in your
household. (x)
• What is the monthly/weekly expenditure on groceries in
your household. ( correct)
• How many members are there in your household.
7. Dual Statements : Positive or negative
• Evidence suggests that responses are influenced by
Directionally of the statements i.e. +ive or –ive like
agreement of disagreement
• Therefore, Second questionnaire with one having half
+ive & half –ive and 2nd half –ive and half +ive.

80. 7. Determining Order of Questions
a) Opening Questions : Crucial in gaining confidence &
cooperation of respondents
• Should be simple, interesting and non threatening.
b) Type of Information : 3 types
• Basic Information : Relates directly to the research
problem
• Classification Information : Consisting of socio-
economic & demographic characteristics – to classify
respondents
• Identification Information : To identify - Includes names,
add, Tel. No
c. Difficult Information : Q are sensitive, embracing,
complex or dull should be placed late in sequence. After
rapport is established, they are less likely to object.

81. D. Effect on Subsequent Questions :
Questions asked early in sequence influences the
subsequent questions. As a rule of thumb, general
questions should proceed specific questions, that
prevents specific questions from biasing.
E. Logical Order :
All the questions that deal with particular topic should be
asked before beginning a new topic. Before switching a
brief translation and explanation should be given such as
JC – QWL – OP.

82. 8. Form and Layout
• Format, Spacing and positioning of questions.
Parts:
• Part A - Qualifying questions
• Part B - Relative Importance of features.
• Part C - Information on lifestyles, consumption
pattern, Buying behavior
• Part D - Identification – Demographic, Socio-
economic

83. Product purchased from a deptt store
Yes No
Payment mode Ever purchased from
a deptt store
Credit cash Yes
Other No
Store Bank OtherCC
charge card Charge card
Intentions to use store/
bank/other charge card

84. 9. Reproduction of Questionnaire
• The questionnaire should be reproduced on a good quality paper
and should have professional appearance. Otherwise
respondents may think it as unimportant and may effect
responses
• If several pages than it should be in a from of a booklet as it easy
to handle & use than sheet of pages.
• May also use double page format.
• Tendency to crowd Q’s to look shorter( reducing font sige and
space) should be avoided.
• Ideal spacing and line spacing.
• Large and clear font – easy to read- No strain.
• Although Colour does not influence response rate, but can give
clarity for both respondent and researcher Eg. White pages for
Household and yellow for business persons.

85. 10. Pretesting
10.Testing of a questionnaire on a small sample to identify
and eliminate potential problems.
11.All aspects should be tested such as – question content,
wording, sequence, form and layout, difficulty in questions
and instructions etc.
12.Respondents for pre-testing should be drawn from a
same population.
13.Pre-test is best done by personal interview.
14.Questionnaire should not be used in field survey without
pre-sting.

86. Sampling
• Sampling is a process of selecting a few(sample) from a bigger
group(study population)
• Population is usually represented by N and number of selected
sample is called sample sige usually denoted by n.
• Way of selecting a sample from population is called sampling design.
• Two types – Probability , Non-probability Sampling

87. Probability sampling method
• In Probability sampling method selection criteria for the respondent
from the population is on the basis of probability.
• Three types –
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster Sampling.

88. Simple Random sampling
• Every member has equal and independent chances of being selected.
• It requires complete list of elements and ID No to each.
• Can be done on the basis of Computer programming or draw system
or on the basis of random number table.

89. Stratified Sampling
• Applicable/useful when population consist of a
number of heterogeneous subpopulations.
• Populations is divided in to subgroups/segments
called strata.
• Basis can be location, hierarchy , industry, gross sales,
number of employees.
• Within group- Homogeneous and inter group
heterogeneous . Eg. Top Mgt, Middle Mgt, Lower
management, Supervisor, sartorial staff.
• A simple random sample is drawn from each strata
in proportion or non-proportion to its size.

90. Cluster Sampling
• Also known as Area Sampling Method.
• Population is divided in to smaller groups called clusters.
• Inside the clusters, elements also called as elementary
units are as heterogeneous as population. Eg Committee
from various departments for product development.
• Cluster sampling offer more heterogeneity within group
and more homogeneity among groups reverse of stratified
sampling.
• Cluster sampling invites preparing list of clusters instead of
list of elements. Eg. List of residential colonies(Blocks), for
door-to-door interviews.Airline select random set of flights
for distribution of questionnaire on customer satisfaction
applying cluster sampling.

91. Non-Random Sampling
• Do not follow theory of probability.
• Used when elements in population is unknown or can not be
identified.
• Types – 4.
1. Convenient Sampling.
2. Purposive sampling.
3. Judgmental Sampling.
4. Quota Sampling.

92. 1. Convenient Sampling :
• Units are included depending upon convenience of a
researcher.
• Eg. For project on food habits among adults- researcher
may choose his/her friends as easily available.
2. Purposive Sampling.
• Specific target respondents who will be able to provide
desired information or satisfy prescribed creteria.
• Eg. Frequency of visits, ussage, MBA students for B
schools, or insurance providers.

93. 3. Judgmental Sampling.
• Researcher uses judgmental selection criteria.
• Test market & many product tests on selected shopping malls.
• Selection of one or few markets representative of population.
4. Quota Sampling
• Proportionate sampling for demographic characteristics w.r.t
population.
• Quota is different then stratified on two ways- one in
stratified it is random basis for selection whereas in quota non
random basis, secondly in quota basis for grouping is
demographics whereas in strata basis for grouping is research
need based factors.
• Eg 10 male and 10 female
(60% F with income more then 1lakh) (40% M income more then 1 lakh)
Age 0-25 Yrs - 12%
25-50 Yrs - 63%
50+ -25%

94. 3. Judgmental Sampling.
• Researcher uses judgmental selection criteria.
• Test market & many product tests on selected shopping malls.
• Selection of one or few markets representative of population.
4. Quota Sampling
• Proportionate sampling for demographic characteristics w.r.t
population.
• Quota is different then stratified on two ways- one in
stratified it is random basis for selection whereas in quota non
random basis, secondly in quota basis for grouping is
demographics whereas in strata basis for grouping is research
need based factors.
• Eg 10 male and 10 female
(60% F with income more then 1lakh) (40% M income more then 1 lakh)
Age 0-25 Yrs - 12%
25-50 Yrs - 63%
50+ -25%