3. 11 By the same Author
II BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volumes One, Two and Three
I BRICKWORK
CARPENTRY
JOINERY
By J. K. McKay
Ii BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volume Four
I
II
4. w. B. McKay
M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E.
Former registered architect and
chartered structural engineer and Head
of the Department of Building and
Structural Engineering in the
Manchester University Institute
of Science and Technology.
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
VOLUME ONE
FIFTH EDITION (METRIC)
By j. K. McKay, BA, B.Sc.Tech.. A.R.I.B.A.. C.Eng., M.I.Struct.E., F.F.B.
With drawings by the authors
o
Orient Longman
6. PREFACE
TO THE FIFTH EDITION
IN this edition the various units have bt'en converted to metric terms.
Since the first appearance of this volume in '938, the materials of construction for simple two~storey
structures have hardly changed although techniques have been modified. As the earlier editions were pub~
lished obsolete methods wefe given a secondary place and this has been continued once more. . Th ~y cannot
he omitted entirely whilst thirt}' per cent of building expenditure is still devoted to repair and alteration work.
The chapter contents have been extended and amended. Several of the drawings have been revised
or replaced to illustrate up-to-clate applications. Eleven new Figures arc included as follows: 10, on founda~
tions; 381, tfussed rafter roofs; 39, showing a built-up timber roof trU!iS and interlocking tiles; 55, a storm
lipped timber window and cavity walling; 62, metal windows; 65, stairs; 68, pCirtable power tools; 70 and 7',
giving larger details of slating; 78, domestic water services and 8" a vocabulary of structural steel components;
the associated text has been added and sections on plastering are included.
). K. MCKAY.
7. II
III
II
II!
PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION
DUR1KG the past few years syllabuses in Building Construction have been extensively revised, and to-day
those operating in Technical Schools and Colleges approved for National Certificate purposes show general
agreement as to what parts of the subject should be treated in the earlier stages.
This also applies to Building Construction as taught in Schools of Architecture, although its treatment
and presentation may not be the same.
Accordingly, one of the aims of the author has !:oeen to include in this first volume only such matter as
is now generally accepted as being suitable for the first stage of the subject. Each cbap:rer is headed with
the appropriate sectio:l of the syllabus in detail, and this is covered by the text and drawings.
Most of the drawings have been prepared to large size to enable associated details to be grouped con-
veniendy for reference.
In Schools of Architecture. where Building Constructiull is closely related to DeSign, the illustrations
may prove helpful to the first-year st~dent in preparing his constructional sheets, particularly during the
early months of the session, when adequate design subjects are not available and his ability to design is
limited.
Attention is drawn to the suggested" Homework Programme." It is recognised that only a relatively
small proportion of the details shown in the book can be drawn to scale by the student during a session, and
a selection has therefore been made of those which may be regarded as typical; as far as time win permit,
additional alternati·e details should be skt,tched by students in their notebooks.
Teachers of apprentice-students attending Trade Courses, such as Brickwork and Masonry, Car?entry
and Joinery, etc., will find that the subject matter in the chapters concerned more than covers the first~year
syllabuses. Whilst the Homework Programme docs not apply to such courses, where the subjects need to be
developed more gradually and treated in greater detail, it is hoped that the arrangement of Fig. 58, referred
to in the programmt·, "ill serve as a useful guide to these students in preparing well-balanced sets of homework
sheets.
In preparing certain sections of this book the author has had assistance from several sources, and he is
especially indebted to Mr D. H. England and Mr W. I. Tarn who gave him many valuable and practical
suggestions in connection with the chapter cn Plumbing. Thanks arc also extended to his colleague Mr E.
Spencer for reading the proofs of the chapters on Carpentry and Joinery. and for much useful criticism
bearing upon these sections.
w. B. McK.
August 1938
8. . '
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. BRICK 'ALU., FOUl'DATlONS
Iaterials-Bonding-Stopped Ends--Junctions ~nd Quoins- Piets-Jambs-Cavity Walls--Foundations-Damp
I'roor Courses-Site Concrete--Offsets ~nd Cotbcls- I-intds-:rches-Windo,," Sills-Thrcsho!ds-Copings-
Plll1(hs -~Tools , Construction, Jointing and Po i nting--'- Plast~ red 'alls.
PAGE
II. i'lASO:->RY r,LL~ 3S
Classification of Stoncs-Quarryinll- Preparation- Dcfects- Wai!ing-Hubbie "ork- .-shlar-.l,rchcs- Window
Si lls-Phnths- ( .om ices-String Courses- Cop; ngs-:'>.1asonr· Joints-:-lortar Jointing- Li fting ..-!-'PI ianees.
III. TnlllER, FLOORS '" "n ROOb
Structure, {irowth, F"lljn~, Oil',,,oning, Prcs<:n-ation, Conversion, Defccts and Classification of Timbcr- Floors-
I' la~ r (' r<'J ( 'eilings Single, 1)""1,1,, . Truss<·J Rafter and Framed Roofs-Tren"h Timh('ring Centering
IV. DOOR3, VIXDOWS, STAms
I.cdw:d Braced and D"ttcn"d. Fn,mcu I.c-dgc-d Brace<.:! and Battened, Panelled and Flush !)oors-Timber Casement,
(,,,",,d Fram~ , Pi,-oted and Yorkshir" 'i ndows, lI.letal Vinuows-Hardware--.·rchitraves, Skirtings, Picture Rails
and .-ngle Br"Js-Slairs "ails, Scre"'s and Fa~teners-Too l s.
V. ROOF COVERINGS 131
Formation, Quarrying. ('onycrs;nn, Preparation and ChHacteristics of Slatcs-Centre -nail~d ~nd Ilead-nailed
Slating Details- ""ils-Ridges- llips- Valle's-Tools- Plain and Interlocking Tilinjl.
VI. PLUMBI:'lG
llanllfactUl'(, and Characteristics of Lcau-Le'ld Rolls, Drips, Fbshiogs and Soakers-Det~ils of Leadwork at
Gutt~rs. FLits . Chimn~,- St~cks, Ridg<-s. Hips and Valleys-Lead and Copper Pipe Joints-Eav<:s Glltlers- Down-
pipes-n"" ,ntie '';tlcr Sen'ices- Tools.
VII. 'IrLD STEEL SECTlO]'S. BOLTS AND RIVETS
HO:IEVORK PROGRc:l'lE
I~DEX
vii
9. 1
III
!
II
III
11
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
NO.
OF FiC.
I. Comparative Strength of Bonded and Unhonded Wall.
~. Bricks
3. English Bond: Square Stopped Ends.
.... Flemish Bond: Square S{OppW. E,,"'~
s. Riaht Angled Junctions
6. Right Angled Quoins
,. Piers
8. Rebated Jambs
9. Foundation {or One-and-a-h~!f Brick Wall
10. Foundations.
II. Offsets, Cor~ls, ButtTe.. eappings
12. Lintels .
13- Isometric Sketch of Portion of Brick Arcade
I .... Key DetAil, showina Application of Arehe., etc.
15. Brick Archet (Flat Gauged, Segmental, Semicircular, etc.)
16. Window Sills and Threshold.
17. Copings, Plinths and Joints
18. Section throush Face of Limestone Quarry
19. Preparafion of SlOne, Surface Finishes and Masons' Tools
ao, :no 23_ Rubble Work
al. Key Detail of Stone Gable
24. Ashlar .
as- Slone Arches, Window Sills ~nd Plinths
l6. Cornice.
27. Copinge and Joints
l8. Lifting Appliance.
19. Structure and Seasoning of Timbtlr
30. Conversion of Timber
31. Defcct, in Timber
PAGE
5
6
8
9
"
"
'.'5
,6
'9
'0
"
"
'5
"
'9
,6
J7
41, 43, +4
"
.6
3l. Plan, Se(:tioos and Details of Single (Ground) Floor of Domcstic Dwelling
,8
50
5'
53
56
57
57
6.
6,
66
68
33. Methods of Laying Floor Boards, F.'c.
34. Plan, Section and Dctails of Single (FIrst) Floor of Domestic:: Ow,,1ing .
3S. Sketch showing various Roof Members
36. Plans, Sec::tions Ind Details of Single Roofs
37, 38. Plans, Sections and Details of Double Roof
38". TrUSSl·d Raftcr Hoof~
39. BUIlt-up Roof Tru.s and Int!."r1ocklng Tiles
40. Timbering to Trench"
"
75, 76
77
,8
79
NO.
Of FIG.
41. Centering
42. Lcdged and Battened Door and Frame
43. Ledged, Bra(:ed and Battened Door and Furnin..e
44. Framed, Ledged, Brac::ed and Ballened Door
45. Flush Doors (Laminated and Framed)
46. Various Types of Doors and Panel Mouldings
47. Mitred and Scribed Joinl$
48. Single Panelled Door
49. Door Casings and Methods of Fixing
So. Two Panelled Door
51. Detail, of Twin Tenon Joint
52. Four Panelled Door
53. Setting Out and lIand Preparation of Doors
H. Casements and Solid Framed Windows
55, 56, 57. Casement Window Details
s8, 59. Details of Window with Cased Fr~me and Sliding Sashes
60. Window wilh Pivoled Sash
6 •. Window with Horizontal S]idinR Sash
62. Metal Windows
63, 64. Ar(:hitu,C!l, Skirtings, Picture Rails and Angle Beads
65. Stairs
66. Nails, Screws and Fasteners
67. Joiners' Tools
68. Portable Power Tools
69. Tool. Ind Preparation of Slates
70. Slating Details
7'. Slating Details
72. Plain Tiling Detaib
73. Lead Details of Parapel Gutters
74. Lead Flat Details
75. [.eadwork at Chimney', etc.
76. Protection of Corni(:es
Rain-Vl'ater Pipes
Domestic Waler Services.
Plumber's Tools
.,
".
,8.
70·
So. Sted F!:it, Square, Rouod and Tee BU$, Angles, Channels, Beams,
Rivets
,.. TypIcal Steel Sectioos
Not~: UNLESS INDICATED OTHERWISE ALL DIMEt-;SIONS ON THE FIGURES ARE GIVEN IN MILLIMETRES
,
PAG8
8,
8,
"
8,
,"
"
94
"
97
99
'00
'0'
,oJ
'0,
106, loS,
'''''
11O, "4
,,6
'"
,,8
'"21,
'"
"J
"4
'"
'"
'"
,,6
,,8
'39
'45
'47
'49
'5'
'53
'56
'57
Bolt. and
'59
,60
10. CHAPTER ONE
BRie K W A L LS. FOUNDATIONS
Syllabl/s-Brid description of Ihe manufactun: of bricks; char.lcteristic.s. Lime mQrtKT. ~ent mortar and com::~tt. 51'!'!:s ~nd shapes of bricks; terml; heading,
stretchmR. English and FiHnish bonds'; I, II and 2-br;tk walls with twpped ends; i 10 I, ! 10 I and I 10 Ii-brick junctions; righI-angled quoins 10 I,
I! and l_brick walls; piers; rebated jamb~ wilh 56 mm and 112 mm recesses to I and I,·brick walls; 275 mm cavity walls. Foundations for t. I, 11 and a-brick
walls; surface concrete; horizontal damp-proof courses. Linlels; axed and ~auged flat, segmental and semicircular nrches; rough relieving arches; terms, Copings;
windo~' sills; steps; cor~ls and o-ersailing courses. Jointing and pointing. Plaster;n!!: 10 "ails.
MATERIALS
Bridts.-Bricks are made chiefly from clay and shale.l Clay, a plastic earth,
is constituted largely of sand and alumina and may contain various quantities
of chalk, iron, manganese dioxide, etc. Shale is a laminated deposit of day
rock which is capable of being reduced to a plastic condition when broken up
and ground to a fine state of division. Bricks are approximately 215 mm by
102·5 mm by 65 mm (see p. 3).
Manufacture of Bricks.-The processes of manufacture vary considerably
aa::ording to the variety of day used, machinery available, etc., and the following
is a brief general description. Bricks are moulded either by machinery or by
hand.
Machine·madeBricb.-Most bricks are made by machinery. The various processes
are: (I) preparation of the earth, (2) moulding, (3) drymg and (4) burning.
(I) Pupararion.-The clay or shale is excavated, and after large 5ton~ or other
extraneous maner have been removed, it is conveyed to a pug mill ar.d findy ground by
heavy rotating wheels which force it through small perforations in the bottom of the mill.
(a) Moulding.-There are two kinds of machine-made bricks, i.t., ",i,.e·cuts and
pressed.
Wire-c;:"t Bricks are moulded as follow,:-The fine clay from the pug milliS forced
through a mouthpiece (approximately alS mm by loa·s mm) ofa machine in a continuous
band and conveyed by rollers to a frame which containl several fine vertical wires about
65 mm apart. A portion of this continuous band, equal in length to that of the frame, is
pU5hed forward through the frame by means of a metal plate and the wires divide it into
ten or more alS mm by 10a'S mm by 65 mm slabs of clay.
Pte$Sed Briclts.-Gf the many different types of machines for moulding brick. by
pressure the limplest is worked by hand and the larger by steam power. The fonner
consilts of a metal box the size of a brick, containing a elay slab which has been wire_cut
a. explained above; a descending metal plate exerts pressure upon the elay to consolidate
it; it is then removed. The larger type of machine oon5i8'* of a rotating table containing
t....e1ve or mote boxes or dies each being the aiae of a brick; IS the table revolves each die
in turn is brought under a hopper containing the prepared clay or .hale; a plunger operat-
ing in the hopper descends and forces the elay into the die after which the raw brick (or
. Iab of clay) is pUlhed out a. the tahle rotates.
I Flemish bond is sometimet deferred until the second year of the Course.
t Sand-lime bricks (consilting of a mixture of lime and und) and concrete brick. are
alao manufactured (see Chap. I, Vol. II).
,
(3) Drying and (4) Burni",.-Both of these operations arc carried out in a modern
kIln, one type of which contains several chambers, each accommodating 40,000 or more
bricks. The wire-cut or prelsed. raw bricks are carefully stacked with a space between
each and in alternate layers ut ,.ight angles to each other. Heat, produced from gas or
coal dUM, is Rradual1y applied until a maximum temperature is obtained (which ia main-
tained fo,. approltimatciy two days), when the brICks are then allowed to cool. The loading,
drying, burning, cooling and emptying of the kiln may occupy two "ceo, and at it is a
continuous process, a chamber of finished bricks is emptied daily.
HAND-MAD£ BRlcKs.-Whilst most bricks are machine-made and used for general
purposes (on account of their relati"e cheapness) there II also demand for hand-made
bricks for supenor facing work. The preparation, dryinR and burning proccsaes arc
similsr to those already descnbed, but the moulding is done by hand. The mould is of
wood or metal and resembles the sides of a rectangular box equal in size to the required
bricks.' It i. either wetted or sanded to prevent the clay from adhering to it. A ponion
of the prepared cl~y sufficient to fill the mould is now taken, roughly shaped, and duhed
by the moulder into the mould. The clay is pressed with the fingers to fill the mould
completely and the slab is levelled off by a wood fillet or I piece of ... ire drawn across the
top; the slab i. then removed and finally taken to the kiln, dried and burnt.
ChaTacttristics.- Good bricks should be thoroughly burnt; this makes them
hard and durable (the quality of lasting for a long period without ptrishing)
and enables them to withstand pressure. A hard ringing sound emitted when
two bricks are struck together indicates that they have been burnt satisfactorily.
Generally the bricks should be true to size and shape, with st{aight edges and
even surfaces, SO as to facilitate laying them in position.: They should be free
from cracks, chips and large particles of lime. Unless desired, uniformity of
colour is not now specified.'
Inferior bricks are generally underburnt and as a consequence are easily
broken and are very porous; these are neither hard nor durable and are incapable
1 Clay shrinks during the drying and burning processes by approximately one_tenth
and allowance for this il made by using a mould which is larger than the finished brick.
t Bricks havin, rough surfaces (tenned texture) and sliChtly irregular edges arc .elected
purposely for cenain first-c1na work. Thul the external wall, of country houses are
frequently faced with such bricks.
I Bricks of a variety of colours in tonu of -red, purple, grey, brown, etc., are now
available, and, provided the colours have been carefully selected, brickwork when faced
with bricka of mixed sh.adca hu a very "tisfactory appearance.
11. 2 BRICK WALLS
of withstanding: heavy IO<lu('. if they contain coar~c grain:; of uncombined
lime, any water absorbed c.!Uses the lime to cpanJ, resulting in the partial
disintegration of the hricks. They ~rc in,'ariahly of poor appc;lrancc.
The weight of bricks varies considerably; approximately, wire-cUis arc
between 2 and 3 kg and pressed bricks from 3 to 7 kg each.
Lime.-Of the several varieties of lime, that used cllleAy for hrickork
and masonry is known as hydraulic lime.l
It is produced from limc~tone or
chalk whIch is burnt in a kiln for three Of four days, when it is ready to be made
into mortar.
Cement.-That generally used is known as Portland cement hecause of its
resemblance to thc colour of the stone of that ni.lffiC. [t is manufactured from
eh<llk and clay. The former is crushed and tht: day i~ liquified by the addition
of water, when it is c<llled slip, These two !ll<lterials are mixt:d together in
correct proportions and -ery findy ground; the mixture, known as slurry, is
c()Il'e}'l~d to t<lllksand then to a kiln where it is gradually suhjected to a high
temperature aud converted into a hard dark-looking clinktr; the latter is passed
to a mill when: it i~ ground to an exceedingly finc powder to complete the
process, TIle cement is :Illtomatically packed into pay,cr or jute sacks, each full
,;;Ilk Ieighing 50 kg, or it may be dclicrcd" in hulk • (Ioo~c).
Sand.- That obtained from pits or quarries is the best for mortar bCl.:ause
of its angularit~' (called "~harp "); failing this, that from ril'er banks or beds
1~ u"ed. Sea sand is unsuitable for mortar as it contains salts which attract and
rct,lin moisture, in addition to producing a whitish powder or etBorescencc
II hich lliscolours the brickwork or masonry. Sand should be well gradcd, dean,
"h;trp ,1l1d fro.::e from loam, day or otllt:r impurity. Dirty sand should never
ht: uscll as it may rt:duct: th~ ,ldhesic "alu~ of the mOrlar considcrably,
~nd in order to ensure a clean sand it is frequently specified that II shall be
II,lsilcu.
Lime Mortar.-This is a mixture of quicklime (burnt limestone scc abol"c)
,Iud ~<lJld in the proportion of I linl(': 3 ~;tnd, in addition to water. It was once
the principal material used for bedding and jointing hricks, stones, etc.; it is used
less fn.:qucntly now liS it develops strength very slowly. If mixed by hand. the
lime is placed in a heap, sprinkled with water and completely covered with the
lllca~ured proportion of sanJ; the lime expands and breaks into small particles
oling 10 the heat which i~ generated; this is known as slaking or slacking the
lime and the heap should he left undisturbed for at least tlenty-four hours
so as to ensure thorough disintegration of the lime. As unslaked particles of
lime in mortar may cause d.dmage to walling, it is necessary to pass it through
a screen to eliminate unslaked lumps; after slaking, the material is turned o"er
with a shovel on a boarded platform, more water is added and the mixing
oper:.ltion continued until the mortar is of the right consistency, nei~her too
.mfT nor too plastic. If mixed in a pug mill, the lime and sand are thoroughly
J This has Ih~ properly of ""nina und~r wal~r.
incorporate~ after ahout twenty minutes' applicatioll of the rotating and grinding
rollers. The mortar should be used fresh and just sufficicnt should be mixed
for each Jay's usc.
Cement Mortar.- This is a mixture of 1 cement: 3 sand. The sand is
placed on a platform, the correct amoun! of cement is added to it, both are
thoroughly mixed dry before water is addt:d and the mass gradually worked up
into a plmn1c condition. As cement mortar scts comparativcly quickly, it should
only be mixed in small amounts and not be ust:d after it has started to set.
Cement mortar is used in the construction of piers (sec pp. 12 and 13), walling
below d~rnl' course level (sec p. 17), chimney stacks, etc., a~ brickwork built in
ct:ll1ent mortar is much stronger than that built in lime mortar. A mix of
I .6 can lliso be used for general walling; hut as this is harsh, then an additive,
which forms ~ir buhbles to impro'e the'plasticity, can be included in the mixing
II ,ncr in the proportion of about 3°'u.
('('m(,l1/ Grout is cement which has been reduced to a thick liquid COIl-
si!>tency by the addi tion of sufficient water.
Cement-Lime Mortar (also known as compo).- This is thc most usual
gellcral purpose morlar comprising 1 cement: 2 lime: 9 sand, or 1 : I : 6 if
thert: is a danger of frost as this is yuicker setting. The addition of limc im~
proves workability making it easier to place.
Concrete consist~ of a fine aggregate (or body), a coarse aggregate and a
matrix (binding material). The fine aggregate is usually sand, common coarse
aggregatt:s are broken brick or stone (or gran:l) and the matrix is usually cement.
The proportions vary, but a common mix is composed of I part cement, 2 parts
sand and .j. parts broken brick or stone; the maximum size of the latter depends
upon the use to which the concrete is to be put and may be 38 mm (that passed
through a 38 mm square mesh sieve) for foundations and 20 mm for reinforced
concrete work. The aggregates must be carefully graded from a minimum to
a maximum, so that when the materials aremixed the space between the particles
is reduced to a minimum and a dense concrete ensured.
The mixing is done either by hand or by machinery. If mixed by hand,
th..: materials in correct proportion are placed on a boarded platform and mixed
t.....ice (or thrice) dry and then twice (or thrice) wet. The amount of water
added after the materials have been tllrned over dry (by using shovels) must be
carefully regulated, as an exuss of water considerably reduCts the strength of the
concrete. The mixing should always be done on a platform otherwise dirt
would be shovelled into the mixture and ils strength thereby reduced.
ILa concrete-mixing machine is used, the materials in proper proportion are
charged through a hopper into the mixer, the correct amount of water is then
added; the ffii;>;cr is rotated at a specified speed for a definite period, usually
a minute, after which the concrete is discharged from the machine.
The concrete should be carefully deposited where required on the building
so as to ensure Ihat the density of the material shall be uniform throughout.
,
r
12. BONDING
BONDING, SOLID BRICK WALLS
The craft of the bricklayer is concerned with emhedding bricks in mortar
and suitably arranging them so that the mass, called brickwork, conforms with
ce~tain requirements such as strength and appearance. Strength depends a good
deal Il)()n the bond. The Building Regulations require external walls to be
adequatt.: to prevent undue heat loss from the huilding; some typical examples of
thermally insulated waJ!s for dwellings arc given 011 p. 34. .
BOlld is the interlacement of bricks produced when they lap (project bt:yond)
those immediately above and below them. An unbonded wall, with its con-
tinuous t;fftiwl joints, has little strength and stability and such joints must he
avoided. Fig. I illustrates the comparati'e strength of a bonded .111 A and
weakness of an unbonded wall B which are shown supporting a load. The
portion of the load tral1~mi!ted to the wail Ais distributed over a rclatil'elylarge
area, as indicated within the broken lines c and 0, whereas that transmitted
to the wall H is practically concentrated on the portion betwel'll the continuou~
vertical joints E and F, with the result that this portion 'ould tend to drop as
shown; in addition, the two vertical sections G and II would lend to separate
because of the ahsence of bond. Various bonds are descnbed on PI'· 4 and 7.
Size of Bricks.-Uniformity in the siz~ of bricks is essential if the main-
tenance of the correct bond is to be facilitated during the construction of a wall;
time is wasted if a consignment contains bricks of varying sizes as the bricklaver
is required to make a selection as the work proceeds. .
The length of a brick should be twice its width plus the thickness of one
vertical joint in order that a proper bond may be maintained (See A, Fig. 2).
Brick~ in common use 'ary in size from 210 to 230 mm long by 100 to 110 mm
wide by 38 to 75 mm thick, The following sizes are aailable: (I) Clay bricks
are mostly 215 by 102'5 by 65 mml; using a 10 mm joint this gives a nominal
s:ze or format of 225 by 112'5 by 75 mm; this is adopted in must oflhe Figures
in this book. (2) Concrete bricks may be as (I) or 190 by 90 by 65 mm; with
a 10 mm joint Ihis makes a format of zoo ry 100 by 75 mm.
Terms.~The following defines those which ha'e a general application to
brickwork :-
Arris.-An cdgc of a brick (sec A, Fig. z).
Bed.- The lower 215 mm by 102'5 mm surface of a brick when placed in
position (sec A, Fig. 2).
}/eader.-The end or 102'5 mm by 65 rnm surface of a brick (sec A, Fig. 2).
Strl'tcher.-The side (usually referred to as the" edge ") or 215 mm by
65 mm surface of a brick (see A, Fig. 2).
Fact.-A surface of a brick such as the headerfocl'(loz'5 mm by 65 mm) and
Jtre/chtT face (215 mm by 65 mm) (see A, Fig. 2); is also applied to.1.l1 exposed
surface of a wall.
Frog or Kick.-A shallow sinking or indent (either rectanguillr, triangulaTor
1 Bricks 50 and 75 mm thick may b", obtained.
215 UN60NDED
S~ETCH SHOWING
COMPAI<.ATIVE SH,ENGTH
Of A SONDED WAll" WEAKNESS
OF AN UNSONDED WALL F[ct' R ~ 1
trapezoidal in section) formed on either one or both 215 mm by 102'5 mm
faces of a brick (sec 0 and 111, Fig. 2); a wire-cut hrick has no frogs, a pressed
brick has two frogs as a rule and a hllnd-madc hrick usually has only one frog; a
frog affords a good key for the mortar (sec 1'01, Fig. 2) and therefore walls which arc
required to show thin bed joints should be constructed of bricks with frogs;
bricks having only one frog should be laid with the frog uppermost so as to
ensure it being completely filled with monar.
Bed Joint.l.- :Iorlar joints, parallel to the beds of the bricks, and therefore
horizontal in general walling; thickne~s varies from 3 to 12 mm the most usual
lhickness is 10 mm shown at LJ, Fig. 2.
CQurse.-A compkle la),':J of bricks plu~ it" mortar bedding joint; a hlading
couru consists of headers and a s/rf/ching course comprises stretchers (see u,
Fig. 2); a brick-on-tdgt courst consists of brICks placed on their 215 mm by 65 mm
faces (see J and K, Fig. 17) and a brick-un-tnd or .lolditr course is composed of
bricks laid on their 102'5 mm by 65 mm faces (see Nand 0, Fig. 17)'
Brick Gaugt.· The height of a number of brick courses, e.g., four courses to
300 mm if 65 mm brickS<lnd IOmmjoiotsareused. See Gouge-rod, pp. 28and 30.
13. 4 BRICK WALLS
ContinuQus Vnticoi Joints or Straight Joinlf.- Vertical joints which come
immediately over each other in two or more consecutive courses (see R, Fig. I);
although these aTC sometimes unavoidable (see Flemish bond, Fig. 4) they should
not appear on the face of brickwork' (see English Bond, p. 7).
Quoin.-A corner or external angle of a wall (see u, Fig. 2 and G, Fig. 6).
Stopped or Cloud End.- A square termination to a wall (see Fig. 3) as distinct
from a wall which is returned as shown in Fig. 6.
PtTpends.-Imaginary vertical lines which include vertical joints (see broken
lines at lJ, Fig. 2); these should be plumb or true.
Lap.-The horizontal distance which one brick projects beyond a vertical
joint in the course immediately above or below it; it varies from 46'25 to 10::;'5
mm, ·j.t., 46 to 102 mm; or, allowing for the joint thickness, 56 to 112 mm
(see u, Fig. 2).
Racking Bach.- The stepped arrangement formed during the construction or
a wall when one portion is built to a greater height than that adjoining (see u,
Fig. 2). No part of a wall during its construction should rise more than 900 mm
above another if unequal settlement is to be avoided.
Toothing.-Each alternate course at the end of a wall projects in order to
provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a later date (see
u, Fig. 2).
When a new Willi has to be conn«<:ted to ~nexistinlf wall and "'here such provision
has not bolen made. II is necetlsary to form a sinkinlj: or indrnl in each ;lltt:rnate course
of the existing Willi 50 that th!: new ork may be prop!:rly tied inlo II; the depth
of th!: indents should be such as to allow the new work to be bonded into the old for
at I!:ast .,6 mm and the width should be "'lual to the thickn!:$S of the n!:w wall.
Sometimes the indents are fonn!:d thr!:e Or fuur courses high with a s,milar dislanCe
betw~n each.
Bat.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made across the width of
the brick; four different sizes are shown at E, F, C and H, Fig. 2. Applications
are illustrated in the following: Half Bat (£) at F, Fig. 4; Thut.quarter Bat
(F) at K, Fig. 3; BnMlled Bats (0) at N, Fig. 8, and (H) at E, Fig. 8.
Closer.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made longitudinally and
usually having one uncut stretcher face; seven forms are shown at J, K, I., N,
0, P and v, Fig. z. The Quem Closn (1) is usually placed next to the first brick
in a header course (see j, Fig. 3); sometimes the abbreviated queen closer v
is used (see K, Fig. 3); the queen closer K is obtained by cutting an ordinary
brick into two half bats nnd then splitting one into half; K is more often used
than J as it is easier to cut, although (as shown at L, Fig. 3) it generally produces
a 56 mm wide continuous vertical joint. The King Cluser (L), formed by re-
moving a corner and leaving half·header and half-stretcher faces, is shown
bonded at D, Fig. 8. The Btf}tll~d Closn (N) has one stretcher face bevelled
(splayed or slanted) and is shown at E, Fig. 8. Mjtr~d CkJurl (0 and p) are
only used in exceptional cases as when the ends are required to be mitred (joined
at an angle), i.e., quoins of certain bay windows.
TIle remaining bricks Q, R, sand T shown in Fig. z are usually moulded
specially to the required shape and are called specials or purpose-mades, although
for common work or where the hrickwork is to be covered with plaster, ordinary
bricks may he cut by a trowel or chisel to form all but the last of these.
Bullnofe (Q).-Thesc are used for copings (see D, Fig. 17) or in such
positions where rounded corners are preferred to sharp arrises (see Q, Fig. 7);
a brick with only one rounded edge is known as a Singlt Bullnose and one with
both edges rounded is termed a DO!Jblt Bullnose; the radius of the quadrant
curve varies from 28 to 56 mm.
Splay (R and s).- These are often used to form plinths (see P, Fig. 17); the
amount of splay varies.
Dogltg or Anglt (T).- These bric~s arc used to ensure a satisfactory bond
at quoins which depart from a right angle and are to be preferred to the mitred
closers 0 and 1'; the angle and lengths of faces forming the dogleg vary.
The abo,"e purpok-mRde bricks He ontya few of mRny wh'ch can now be obtllined.
Most of th!: larger brick.manufacturing firm$ make" standard spe<:ials " which ar!:
kepI in stock. Wherever p()ssiblc. a ,election should be mad!: from these. Q$ purpasc-
made! which differ from tl>f:' standard arc most costly on account of the moulds which
ha·t to be made specially and ddi'~ry mo}' be delayed.
Types of Bond.- There are many varieties of bond, and in a First Year
Course it is usual to confine the instruction t,=, Heading, Stretching, English
and Flemish bonds. It is sometimes considered advisable to postpone the
study of Flemish bond until the following year. In cavity·wall construction
(see p. 13) it is most usual to have stretching bond, but as this is somewhat
monotonous, English garden wall bond can be used. This comprises a row
of half·bricks to every three rows of stretchers (see A., Fig. 18, Vol. II).
The thickness of a wall is either expressed in millimetres or in terms of the
length of the brick, thus: 102'5 mm or i·brick, 215 mm or t·brick, 327'5 mm
(often specified 328 mm) or I !.brick, 440 mm or 2·brick, etc.1
A bond is usually identified by the appearance of the external face of the
wall, and it is this face appearance which is referred to in the following description
of bonds. Thus the expression .. alternate courses of headers" refers to the
arrangement of the bricks on the face, even if the headers in each course are
backed by stretchers.
Kote that th!: join" in most of Ihe details are indicated by single linn, the
thiekness not being: shown. Stud!:nlS ar!: not Tf:'COmmend!:d to ~how the joint.i .br
double lines for unless thev ar!: "!:T'I' accuratdv drawn, accumulatIVe urors are Ilkelv
to OCXUf rcs~lting in the hOOd beinjl StlO" n ttlcOrrectly. I.)rawing is furth~r facililat!:d
,f. ~s shown ttl the examplu, the d,menslons 01 a bnck :lfe 1I$5umf:'d to b!: :us mm by
I U ' ~ mm by 7S mm.
Heading Hond.-Each course of a wall consists of headers only. It is used
chiefly in the construction of footings (see Fig. 10) and walls which are sharply
curved, where the long faces of stretchers would unduly break the line of the
cun·e.
, Large mod!:m buildin,. ar!: usually of steel-framed or reinforc.ed concrete cop-
struction which provide for the support of heavy loads by the use of e.llher Iteelwork or
reinforced cancret!:. and therefore wall, which !:xc!:!:d l bricks in thickness are T:rely
requirm.
14. 1
TlU USUAL "'.(11. $llU AAt :
LlNGT" 215",,,,. W,DTH IOl·5_,Dl'TIt 65_
oTttU. SllU ".,-r, 215_102_''''50; 1901<,0 .. 50 (66511
2'90" ,0 .90 (I. 65); 1,0.. 90ot90 it.6S,
A
VIEW Of $Ii.ICKS "8-6 "C.
(m SHOW)
QUOIN
MO"'TA~ JOINT
6
6
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/ !lACK.
F=.=.=·,,~~~~==C~~
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HUlON SItOWING
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c K s
QUEEN (LOSER.-HAlF
BEVELLED ClOHIi.
ftf ....oe~ (OUME
r=-=~'-'=ii=-==L~
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elEVATiON Of POftTlON Of WAll IN ENGLISH BONO U
SIotOWING HO""IHAl SlllO '''leKS IN ACCOA.OAItCf WITH a.s.3921
./
./
II..
SPLAY SHETCHEfI..
1:..0 ••
FICURE 2
I
5
MOST OF lion a!II,leKS '" TItUE '001<.$ AA.i 0""""'''
IN Tltf 'OI.MAT 225-11,·,.,5 O,.fUCTlONS TN£U.OF
TO ""now fO," 10..JOIHT TJHCKHUS. lIoNS IS USI.l.4l
WHt'" 'O"D'NG IS SHOWN n .SIHCilf LINES ONLY.
<.
',-, F
TH~H-QUA~TE~ BAT
28 0.-. s!> ..... A.....Drus
MITRED CLOSH,S DOUBLE SULlNO$f
SP LAY-IHAOEft OOGlEG
15. 6
KEY P LAN
ENGLISH BOND
at. 328 E W S Q U A ~ E
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HAVl IlDUQD THt NUO FOp., WAU1 !XCUDlHCi T'NO
MKI!.S IN THICKHm. CAVITY W.Ul W tl1EHSIVllV
uno IN lIlU 01' loOUO U1UH.... IUoW
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16. {,
BONDING 7
Stretching Bond.-Each course consists of stretchers with exception of a
half hat which mUS1: be placed at the stopped end of a wall at each alternate
course so that the work will break joint. Note that at H, Fig. 3, the break joint
i$ formed by the first or quoin stretcher appearing as a header on the return facc,l
This bond is suitable for 102'5 mm thick walls, such as are required for cavity
walls, chimney stacks, sleeper walls and division walls.
English Bond.- T his consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers
(sec Fig. 3). Observe: (I) in each heading course a quem closer is placed llext
to the quoin header2 and the remaining bricks are headers, (2) every alternate
header in a course comes centra!1y over the joint between two stretchers in the
course below, gi'ing a lap of 56 mm, and (3) there are no continuous vertical
joints, excepting at certain stopped cnds and particularly where queen closers of
the form K (Fig. 2) and not] are used. It is this comparative lack of straight
joints which gives to English bond its characteristic strength.
Square Stopped Ends. - Fig. 3 shows details of stopped ends to a I-brick
wall (J), a I!-brick wall (K), a 2-brick wall (L), a 2!-brick wall (M) and a 3-brick
wall (N). A key plan of a portion of a building is shown at A, and the treatment
of the stopped end of the doorway opening at c (which is called a square jamb
~see p. 13) would be in accordance with one or other of these details, depending
upon the thickness of the wall.
The external walls of a house ifbuilt of solid brickwork arc usually 328 mOl thick,
and the division walls He either 10Z· 5or ZI5 mm thick; othCT types of buildings may
han, thicker walls, but, as already explained, walls exceeding Z hricks in thicknes, He
now rarely requlred. IllS nmc general practice to "'" cat."ity ex/en",/ .mll•.
Speci:tl attention should be taken in the construction of stopped ends of
walls as these arc often required to take concentrated loads from lintels, etc.
(see Fig. 12).
The following should be noted :~
I. At least every alternate transverse joint is continuous from face to facc;
a I!-brick wall cons:sts of units comprising a strctcher backed with two hcaders,
or vice versa (see broken lines at K, Fig. 3); a stretcher course of a 2-brick wall
is formed of units having a stretcher on each face with two headers in the middle
(see L, Fig. 3).
Students al eMminations frcquentlr make the mistake of .he ,,"ing non_continuous
transverse joints.
2. Walls of an even number of half bricks in thickness present the same
appearance on both faccs, i.e., a course consisting of !.tretchers un the front
elevation will show stretchers on the back elevation (see], I. and '-', Fig. 3).
3. Walls of an odd number of half bricks in thickness will show each course
consisting of headers on oile face and stretchers on the other (see Kand M, Fig. 3).
1 Low division walls which are not required to support loads may be built with the
bricks placed on edge and in stretching bond; the thickness is thus reduced to 65 mm.
, A heading cOUrSe should never commence with a queen doser, for, in this positiun
it would be liable to displacement.
4. The middle portion of each of the thicker waUs consists entirely of headers
(see L, M and N, Fig. 3).1
Flemish Bond.~This comprises alternate headers and stretchers in each
course. There are two kinds of Flemish bond, i.e., (I) Double Flemish and
(:!) Single Flemish.
(I) Double Flemish BOlld (see D, E, F and G, Fig. 4) shows the characteristic
appearance of Flemish on both external and internal faces . As shown at D,
each header comes centra!ly over a stretcher and, unlike English bond, no
header comes over a vertical face joint. It is not so strong as English bond
because of the largc number of short continuous vertical joints (indicated by
thick lines) which occur in the longitudinal joints. Some consider that double
Flemish bond has a more pleasing apiJearance and is more economical than
English bond.
A differen~e of opinion exists about the supniority Or otherwise of the appearance
of Flemish bond, some favour the pattern of units of cross formation which appears
on the face- see D. Fig. 4 Where a flush face is required on both sides of a I-hrick
wall this is more readih obtained in Flemish rather than English bond. This is
because the stretcher face ofbricks may vary in length due to the unequal shrinkage
during the i-urning process; thus the combined length of two headers plus one
joint m:l}' excecd the length of a stretcher. Although this defect will not occur in
well·made bricks, if it does then a I-brick English·bondcd wall could have One face
flush with the other f~ce showing each heading course set back slightly from the
stretching course. This irrcgularity is less pronounced in Flemish bond with Its
alternate headers and stretchers in each courst for the set·back at each short header
is mOre evenl" distributed ; the resulting appearance is considered to improve the
surface texture or character of the work.
Square Stopped Ends.~On reference to the elevation 0 and the plans E, F
and G, Fig. 4, it will be seen that in every alternative course a queen closer is
placed next to the quoin header so as to provide a lap of approximately 56 mm.
This agrees with the rule for English bond. Attention is drawn !O the units
of which every coursc in each wall is comprised and which are indicated within
the broken diagonal lines. The notes on Fig. +should be carefully studied.
(2) Single Flemish Bond consists of a facing of Flemish bond with a backing
of English bond in each course (see Hand], Fig.. 4). It is adopted where ex-
pensive facing bricks are required to give the characteristic appeararH.:e of Flemish
bond and where comparatively cheaper bricks are used as a backing. This
bond cannot be applied to walls which are less than Ii-brick thick. It is
relatively weak, as can be seen on reference to II and J, which show 225 mm long
continuous vertical joints appearing in the longitudinal joints. Note that half
bat!; are used which arc known as snap headers or false headers. An alternative
arrangement of bricks in the 2-brick wall at J is shown at K (where the snap-
header anJ full-header backing are substituted by two three-quarter bats);
A scale of 1:10 is generally used "hen detailinl'( brick bonding; students are re-
commended to commence with the he"ding course followed by the stretching course
immediately belo" it; a tracing of the latter COUrse trunsposed over the heading courSe
will emphasize the fact that there are no continuous vertical joints (see L, Fig. 3).
17. 8
E
F
DOUSLE
SQUARE
FLEMISH
i'I++PH H HU
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PLAN O~ COUaSE "P' ~
PLAN OF
".. AIO¥I AN ALlIQlAlIYJ: DfTAIU ~ lWl srorno IIICI
OJ 'M IlOOOIQ' oPtMl*, "C'AT ""~FICi..1.
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FLEMISH BOND
STOPPE
o
eouall ,
eouall •
F J. 0 N T ELEVA.TION
SECTIONS SHOWING COMPAAATIVE
STt.ENGTH OF ENCiUSH BOND.ANO
WEAKNESS Of SINGLE FLEMISH 80Ntl
ENGLISH
o END S
SINGLE FLEMISH
PLAN OF COU,",SE "P:'
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l--_,....:.·.~:.:..:~::.::.i~T._!_"::..~:""'~F:::c.~·_N'----=:.J'EliIi'll'TI'IIU
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STUTCHEM IN lACH COJl.St ON 10TH AAoCU.
~. IN S!NGLE flE,wSH BOWD, AlTEIWAU HEADEM t.
Sll!lCHHS IN fACH COUASE ON ONE fACE
ONLV WITH A ~NC; IN fHGUSH JOHn
.l. QlJUN aosu. ALWAYS ADJOIp..!S TNt QUOIN
HEADt"-
4 EN:" HEADfJ.rs C(NTMLlY CNE"'" STJUTCH!".
.5 CONTINlXllI1 VU.TICAL JOINTS lHOWN IV THlCl
UNn.
6. K)AAV,.TIOH a: UNITS "nHIN POI(fH a.w.oHAL
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FIGURE 4
PLAN OF COU~SE "II:
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PLAN OF COUI.~E .".
18. ~
I
"
R
IGHT ANGLED JUNCTIONS
ENGLl5f+ BONDED EXT ERNAL l.INTEItNAL WALL5
A
1---1.- COU P..5E ".
(~E 'u."G.5)
T EE .JUNCTION e.n WUN V'l8 6 JS WALLS
(MAT'l1. F ! ;';. ~ At,
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(,HntfIG
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ell-os, JUNCTION &li'tWUN'rl/26 G 26 W.A.L..1..S
(M "'T~ FIG 5 Ao)
FICURE 5
9
DOUBLE FLEMI5f+ BONDED
EXTER.NAL WALL5 e. ENGLISH
I!>ONDED INTERNAL WALLS
COUIl.l£ 'P
F
........... ""'-'-f--,..-'--I
r:r.EMISK toND
TEE. JUNCTION &f.TWIiEN Il!- l.. PhS WAL~
T'"-r-~";(jt..5 I<.T"'" FIG J.~;- _ ....,
, , NOTE:
l. .,..... HUOtNG COUUE ~ T
CJl,DSS -...L ~TE!u THf:
STUTCHlNG GOUIUE 01'
'TH£MIIrIIN ~l,. .
~ THE ~D EFfECTED 6V THf:
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3. Aol.T1IOUr.TIi COUll..SlS .w..&
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INUOl.n ~ .t.L.TU."oI.'oTt: C Il$.
19. 10 BRICK WALLS
this results in a reduction in the length of the continuous vertical joints with a
corresponding increase in strength, but an increase in cost due to the lahour
and wastage of bricks involved in the cutting of the three-quarter bats. This
alternative bond may also be substituted for the corresponding course of the
Ii-brick wall (H).
The comparative weakness of single Flemish bond is illustrated at L, Fig. 4,
which shows a perfectly bonded 44c mm wall built in English buml and all in-
adequately. bonded wall of the same thickness built in single Flemish bond;
the continuous vertical joint shown by a thick line in the section through the
latter waH is 225 mm wide, as shown in the plan at J, Fig. 4.
JUNCTIONS AND QUOINS
The key plan at A, Fig. 3, sho,",ll several connections between walls. One
type of connection is termed a junction (D, E, U, V and x) and another form is
known as a quoin (F and Y).
Junctions.- These are classified into right-angled junctions and squint
junctions.l
There are two forms of right-angled junctions, i.e., (a) tee-junctioqs
and (b) cross-junctions or intersections.
(a) l'ce-junctions.-A tee-junction is a connedion between two walls which
on plan is in the form of the letter T (see n, u, wand x in the key plan).
Plans of tee-junctions between walls built in English bond are sllOwn at
A, Band c, Fig. 5. At A one of the wurses of the 102'5 mm internal division wall
enters the stretching course oftht-215 mm external wall, giving a ! 12 mm lap,
and the alternate course of the division wall butts against the heading course of
the main wall. ::"-Iote the following in connection with details Hand c: (1) the
heading course of the internal 'al1 is bonded into the stretching course of the
main wal1, the first header or tie brick (shown shaded) giving a 56 mm lap and
being adjacent to a queen closer; (2) the stretching course of the cross waU
butts against the heading course of the external wall. The tic bricks are also
shown in the section at K, Fig. 5.
Plans of junctions between external walls built in double Flemish bond and
English bonded division walls arc shown at F and G, Fig. 5. As in the above
examples, the key header has a lap of 56 mm.
(b) Cross-junclions or Intersections. - A cross-junction is an intersection between
two continuous walls (see E in the key plan at A, Fig. 3). Details are given at
nand E, Fig. 5; the walls arc shown in English bond, it being assumed that
they are to be plastered. iote: (I) one of the courses is continuous and the
course at right angles butts against it; (2) these continuous courses alternate;
and (3) a key header forms a 56 mm lap at each side of the non-continuous
course.
Thc aboye ~r~ only ~ few examples of s('vcrHI m~tl)ods of bonding l!t junctions.
The arrangement of the bricks depends largc!y upon: the relative position of the
w~lIs . 'ariations of these exampks "ill be ne£ess~ry ,hen d comilluoos trnllSVl'rse
1 Squint junctions are detailed in Chap. i., Vol: I I.
joint in the JT"din wall docs not eoine;G" with a face of the entering course of the
adjacent wall. The essenti,1I requirem~nts arc the avoidance of continuous vertical
joints with the employment of the mini,,-,um number of cut bricks.
Quoins or External Angles.-There are two forms of quoi'ns, i.e., right-
angled or square quoins and squint quoins. I As is implied, a right-angled
quoin is formed by two walls which meet at 90°. Example~ of right-angled
quoin:; arc shown al ~- dllll Y, Fig. J.
Square QIIOillS in English BOlld.-Plans of alternate cOllfses of right-angled
quoins formed by walls built in English bond arc shown detailed at A, Band c,
Fig. 6. The following should he noted :--.
l. At the same level, the heading course on one face of the angle is returned
by a stretching eOllTSC; tlHls at , the heaqing course I' is returned by a stretching
course similar to 1'1.
2. There arc no continuous vertical joints.
3. When the wall is an N'CII numher of half-bricks in thickness the brick
figured 3 is a header projecting 56 mm (oee , and c, Fig. 6).
4. When the wall is ~ln odd ;lumber of half-bricks thick, the brick figured 3
is a siretcher projecting 56 mm (sec B. Fig. 6).
5· At the 56 mm projection (or quarter hond) of number 3 brick the
transt~rse joint is continuous (sec ,1 at B, Fig. 6).
6. rn the 1 and 2-brick quoins the heading course of one w~l1 is continuous
to the front of the return face and that in the 1 ~-brick quoin is continuous to
the back of the stretching LICe; the return stretching course in each case butts
against the heading course.
When dn", i"g thl'SC dc·t;oih (u~u.llly to a scale ! '0) th., studcnt should SCI
nut th~ outline or 1)'" quuin and. UHnmc'!!Ung ""th tIle' headin" "ourse. fill in the
thrce bricks !!uml)<'rt,d !,~. and, fo]lo','l'll by thl' Tl'rn"inl!!" bnl'ks; ,f numoer J
briek " pL1<'~u in corrcct po~'t'()'; "c"ordillc In <·ill",c (3) or (4) "h""<: ,,,,<1 if (3 ) i~
c'omplied "i1h. htlle ulflicu]t, 'ill be c'~p"ricnced in completing ""ch course. as Ih.'
detmls are in ;I«o.-dMK'e "ilh those "I' I';ng]"h bond shown 11l Fig_ J.
::iquar(' Quoills ill DUI/blt' Flemish BUlI<i. -- ilct;lils of these are shown at I),
F and F, Fig. ll. ;'otc:
I. In the 1 and ! ~ · brick quoins the continuous course is that which contains
the queen closer; also the but! courses are similar to E and F, Fig. 4, commencing
with unils which are similar to those shon within the brokcnlines in Fig. 4.
2. Number 3 brick in the! and t 1-brick qlloi!l~ is a strelchcr which projects
16R mm, and in the 2-hrick quoin it is .1 header which projects 56 mm as in
the English bonded 2·brick quoin.
3. The half bat at the internal angle of the 2-hriek quoin is necessary to
avoid a long continuuus yertical joint and to form the continuous transverse
joint which bounds the characteristic 6-brick unit enclosed within the broken
lines.
, S'lomt qUOlllS arc usu~J1y dcah with in til<' ,ecolld n'ar of the Course ~nd they are
1h.,refore de1m].,d m Chap. I, Vol. II.
20. R.IGHT ANGLE.D QUOINS
ENGL I SH SONO o 0 U B L E
-ZlS-
-
- A
I
- -
"
COURSE 'p'
SUI'It;,~.
I
~J I 1111 ~~3~=d~~=+==~~~~~~=t~~===r~~ir~
PLANS OF A ONE ell-Ie .... QUOIN
I-.m -l
, ~
NOTES ON ENGLISH BONDED QUOINS
r- t. Hf.AOING COURSE ON ONE fJoCE Of GUOIN FOItMS
-T
THE £fGINNING OF THE STltETCHINCi COUItSE ON
- B
THE J.ETU~ FACE - Sf[ 'A~ 'C' t.. 'G~
r-- :l. WHEN WALL IS AN EVEN NUM6f;II.Qf IW.F B~
THIO.., &Na '3' IS A HEADE~ - SU 'A" 'C. f,'(j!
~
- 3. WHEN WALL IS AN ODD NUMIIEII.OF HALf fWClIS THICK,
r-- &AA:K ';Y IS A STRETCHER - SEE '8~
COUItSE .p. 4- ON£ WAllIS CONTINUOI.JS t.. .....OJN:t.HT WALL BUTTS
IbS
" AGAINST IT - SH 'H' '..1. "K'l-'I! / ,
Sl( 1'16,; -'
J H> "-
kr--
" I
f- COURSE "11.'
li F -H -
In FIG.3
•~
I I "
I ~
~ I COUME >po
I !l
in FIG.4
FLEMISH BON 0
r-21
5j.
D
p=r-
E
Llr
COUItSE .~
±-
m FIG· 4
~
-P-
'I-
~
f-1-
~
II~
-.l
"
PLANS OF /It. ONE (. A HALF BRICK. QUOIN PLANS OF A ONE b A HALF Pd,ICi~ QUOIN
-440----l
l' .....::..::::!:
NOTES ON FLEMISH 50NDED QUOINS
I
l. IN T11E I L II'J &RICK QUOjN1, MCH OF THE CONTI,,"'-
0ClUS COURSE5 CONTAINS A QU£EN C!OSflt. l> 15
lxf
- c AS D£TAllED AT 'f' & 'P, FIG.4 SUTT COUoSES
CQMIII..ENC£ WITH UNITS SIMILAA TO THOSE SHOWN
;<-
&Y &WKEW LINES IN ~IG4
F
5b :l. IN Ttf: A&OVE QUOINS,&/UC.I(.·Y IS"., STitfTCHfR
" /
I ,
- 1 COURSE 'PO WHICH I'WJKTS 11>10 ; IN THE :l &IICKGUOIN
+1'>.~11
$f' fI<; !> ITISAHEADEJl..t.PJI..OJECTS 56.
~
3
L c~~~:"'" I
su ~IG,;
3
1
r-
rr3
If
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I
~ cou-.s£ .,.
I UtFIG4
~I
COUl'ISf'R'
~·~~'~"~'~"F'~-1==~r=~~
If--L---'----'-----'---'---'--'
PLANS OF A TWO 8~ICK QUOiN PLANS OF A TWO !~IC" QUOIN
"": "" £''C'' AN. .....nllWrlTIVf OUA,lU
Of: THf ouou.I Of' SHOWN "T ",t( fiG, ~
FIGIiRE 6
"[):'''f' to"f" AAt I<LlElVI,II,Tlll DEl."U.5
Of: THE QUOIN rr SHOI¥N "'1 ""~ Fie. 3
21. 12 BRICK WALLS
Piers (also known as pillars or columns) of brickwork are adopted either to
support concentrated loads such as are transmitted by arches, floor beams and
roofs, or to strengthen walls. Such piers may be isolated (or detached) or they
may be attached to walls.
Detached Pjers.- Such may be either square, rectangular, circular or
polygonal on plan. A plan of a portion of a building in which piers are employed
is shown at A, Fig. 7, and a detached pier is shown at c. Such a building may
be an arcade or loggia, or it may be considered as a portion of a factory,
although modern buildings of the latter type usually have pillars of mild steel
or reinforced concrete._ Maximum strength is obtained if pillars are constructed
with sound dense bricks built in English bond and in cement mortar.
English Bonded Detached Piers (see plans J, K and L and the corresponding
elevations D, E and F, Fig. 7).- It is only necessary to show one course of each
pier, as in every case the arrangement of the bricks in each course is the same.
Thus the 215 mm pier has every alternate course constructed as shown at J with
similar intennediate courses at right angles isee elevation D); the 328 mm pin has
alternate courses as shown at K with similar adjacent COUTS"s, havinjl; the stretcher
face of two three-quarter bats at the front over the three headers (see E); eaeh course
in the 440 mm pier is as shown at L, but every alternate course is turned to the side
(see elevation F).
The only continuous vertical joints are those shown by thick lines at K. A
stone pad or template as shown in each elevation is usually provided at the top
of a pier to ensure a firm bed for a beam or roof truss and to distribute the load
effectively. Detached pillars to which gates are hung are often finished with
a coping as illustrated in Fig. 17.
Doub/e Fkmuh Bonded Detached Pias (~e G, H, M and N, Fig. 7).-In the
It-brick pier (which is the smallest that ca!l be constructed in this bond) con-
tinuous vertical joints are produced, as indicated by thick black lines at N;
owing to the small size of this pier the true face appearance of Flemish hand is
not presented in the elevation at H (as the headers are not centrally over the
stretchers), but the pier is nevertheless considered to he in Flemish bond as in
each course there is a header adjacent to a stretcher. The short continuous
vertical joints shown in the plan M of the 2-hrick pier can be avoided if bevelled
closers (see broken lines) are used as an alternative.
Piers may be formed with rounded arrises by using bullnose bricks; thus
double bullnose bricks (see Q, Fig. 2) may be used in the construction of pier J
and single bullnose bricks for the remaining piers.
Attached Piers or Pilasters.- Such arc shown at H in the key plan at A,
Fig. 7, and some alternative details are gi-en at 0 to S inclusive. The stability
of walls is increased by the use of these piers at int~als, and like those of the
detached type they may be used as supports for concentrated loads.
Examples in English bond are shown at 0, P and Q. Rounded arrises may
be obtained by using bullnose bricks (see Q). The width of a pier is usually a
FIGURE 7
P I E R S
ALTERNATE DETAILS OF DETACHED PI EiI. "C"
E N G L , S H DO U 8 LE FLEMISH
• 0 N 0 80»0
r-- S T ONE ~ TON i
I--
, "'(H'"-. PAOS_
D~ E F G H
E;
,
E LEV A T ION S ELEV.Jt.T ION S
LHOE
'"
ffIJ j [
M
ffiJN
JDJ K ~ n ...
-
ISR.I'/. IYz BR.leK. 2 BII.I(/<.. 2 BItIC/. lIz 6J1..JeK.
p L A N , P l A N s
Al TEil.NATE PLANS OF ATTACHED PIE f'.. "S"
E N G L I S H DOUBLE FLEMISH
8 a N 0 80ND
"' '"
}1J 5
rI ~(l15
I ! I1
~l5
U
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5
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II : IAHACflW: :
': B-.J.: PIH..S "
II ",/' ~ .:
( *,ihiG@.",, 't.,., -
~("Cf
-- "" , . A FIGURE 1
" ...u •
22. CAVITY WALLS '3
multiple of 112 mm and the projection may be either 112 mm (as at 0 and 1'),
225 mm (as at Q) or upwards.
The piers and adjacent walling shown at II. and,; UTC in double Flemish hond;
the 112 mm projection may be increased as rC(.juiTed.
A gate pier of the attached type is shown at A, Fig. 17.
Buttresses are piers which are provided to resist thrusts from roof trusses
or to strengthen boundary walls, etc. Examples of buttress eappings arc illus-
trated in Fig. II.
The brick and concrete foundations for piers <lre referred to on p. 17.
JAM B S
Jambs are the 'crtical sides of openings which aTC formed in walls to rcccl"C
doors, windows, fireplaces, etc. There arc three forms of jambs, r.t'., (a) square
or plain, (b) rebated or recessed and (c) rebaled and splayed.1
(a) Square Jambs.-Examples of s4uare jambs are shown in Figs. 42, H, 4Q,
'50, 5z, 54, 56 and 57 in connection with door and window openings. Thc
stopped end details in Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction of the brickwork.
.. frequ~'m c~us" of d.Ullpnl·ss III huddings IS due to door und "indo" fr"'""~
being fiX<'d in op"nings "Ilh 'qu.,,',· j.unbs on ,"eeount of the' pointing h,·com,,}).!
defect;,c ,"od allO'1ng "ind ,,"d r"in I.. ,·nteL
(b) Rebated Jambs (see Fig. R). The"" details are shown in both English and
double Flemish bond. The plam and ~ketch c show that a rebated jamb con-
sists of (I) an outer revral or face, (z) a rece~s and (3) an inner rcveal.~ Window
and external door openings are best provided with rebated jambs for the reasons
stated below, and applications of these are illustrated in Figs. 43, iX, 55 and 60.
As is implied, the outer reveal is that portion of the jamh "hich is seen
from the outside; it may be 102 mm (see D, M, C, etc., Fig. 8), or it may be
215 mm wide (see Q and R). The rccess 'aries in depth from 56 mlll or les~
suitable for external doors (see Fig. 48) and casement windows (sec Fig. ::;:;) w
10Z mm-suitable for windows of the boxcd frame type illustrated in Fig: 51'(
A 56 mm recess is shown-at I) and that at K is lIZ mm deep.
The object of the recess will be appreciated on reference to P, Fig. 8, ,hich
indicates by broken lines the relative position of a window frame; the protC<.:lilJll
afforded by the outer "nib" of brickwork assists effectively in pren~ntil1i! thl'
access of rain into a building betwccn the frame and adjoining brickwork; tiK'
bedding and pointing of the frame (see p. 84) affords additional protection.
Rebated jambs having 102 mm outer reveals and 56 mm recesses in I, I~
and 2~brick walls built in English bond are detailed at D, E and F, Fig. 8; thcse aTe
plans of the alternate courses T and u shown at A. The corresponding courses
in double Flemish bond are shown a Ie, Hand J. Jambs with liZ mm recesses
are shown in English bond at K, Land M, and in double Flemish bond at N, 0
and p, Examples of rebated jambs in both English and Flemish bonds having
• Reb.ted and aplayed jambs are detailed in Chap. I, Vol. II,
I Sometimes frames are lUed in r~Tle rebated jamb. (~ D, Fig. 57).
ZI5 mm outcr reveals and 56 mm recesses are detailed at Q, and with liZ mm
recesses at R. These details may he associated with the window z shown at A,
Fig. 3, and which is shown in the alternati'c cle'ations A and B, Fig. S; the former
indicates 65 mto thick bricks built in English hond and R shows 50 mm thick
hricks huilt in Flemish hondo
EXCl'ptlOJ{ at Q ,md M, the jmnts "f Ih.· hnck,,,,,k "oo'e and bclm, the H')do"
opening <1r~ ;ndic"ted by broken l111e,. Cnns,de'ratlnn shnukl be' ,l!i'cn to tht' .11.e of
th.· bricks to be u.•ed ,,,,d the lk~i"'d th,t:kn,·ss nf jOints" hen dccidiog upon lhe
~i~cs of door and" indo" OpClll11l:', Th,' widd, of ~n op~l1;ng ~hould be a multiple
,,( , brick for EnJ{I,sh bund '11Id fur d"uhle FI"mish bond (h" "idth should be "
multipl" <If 1 brick up w ,+-40 mm thick "nil ,1 multipll' "f 1I brick uftcrwards, In hrdcr
10 m'lim:l,n ,crt;e,,] p"q""nds and the onrm;ll f,,"'~ "pp,'''nm~e of the bond uhf,"e ,md
lido" lh" "pl'ning, Thus. for En~h"h bood the si~" of th,' open111j,t m~,· be 11 S mm,
4.'10 111m, ('''5 mm, t:I()O mm, etc.. plus thl' comniol'<i thickoe~s of th,' 'crtical joints ;
fur ,n,ck ""lis built 10 d"ubk Fknllsh bond the "idth m"," b" ".10 mm, 7..8 111m
1075 n"l1. etc.. plus H'u,cul joint,; it t·..,11 II,· "otC<.i th;.t in F,)!. S the ,,-idth of the
"Indo" "iX·nin).! ,~ (1 )(2"i Illm) +(",)< ,0 mm)= Mil; nllll fur Enlo:hsh hond and
(2X2,:; m11l)+(JX102',~ 11lm)+(Oxl0 Illm)"'-'7')!! mill for Fknllsh hondo Th~
filo:uTl·d dil11<'l1S;"nS "n ""rking dTimings sh<luld indude th,' th,dncss of thl' joints,
"lthough th,' th",kn",s has nol h",'l1 <ira"n III th,' "",'n "~amr>ll'S III or"krw f~c,h,a'"
d .....uJ{htm~n~h,p. Th" h"i)!hl 'If np,'n;n,1..'" 111U~t c"nf"ml ",th thl' hrick cour~eS ,f an
"l1satisfact')~· ~ppcaTlln,,~ ;~ to he a'-oid~d (sec p_ :w)
A careful ltuuy of the uetaili> shows that either king, qUe"n or bevelled
doscrs or half, three-quarter or he'elled bati> are employed in order to prCent
continuous 'ertical joints and to ohtain the correct face appcar;Hce; notc that
any half bats and header qucen doscrs arc placed on the inner fac" at least 10Z
mm from thc sides of the opening~ in order to prerent their displacement and to
pro'idc a strong suppOrt for the t'nds of th" lintels (dct~iled in Fig. IZ).
BRICK CAVITY WALLS'
Thc hollow or caity wall is now thc mOlt usual one for domeltic huildings.
The simplest form is 275 mm thick having two loz'5 mm thick It';le~ nfbrick-
work lcparated hy a 70 mm ca'ity hut connected at inteT·al~ hv wall tie~, In
comparison with a ZI5 mm thick wall which use" the ~ame amou;1 of bricks as a
275 mm cavity ""all, the latter atfords better protection tv rain penctration to the
in~ide of the huilding and gre:lII:r resi~tant.:c 10 heat los~cs from the room. In
ordcr to exclude dampncls, the minimum thickn~ss of II ~olid wall is 3z8 mm,2
hence the 275 mm cavity wall is more' economical. The pre'ention of dampness,
impro'ed insulation and economy of the cavity wan arc substantial advantages.
It is not usual to ventilate the cayity as this seriously atf~cts the insulation
1 Some te~cher~ prd"r 10 le3,-e lh,s unlrl the ~fi:ond rur of the COUTSe. Th,' ~ubj"ct
1~ Introducrd herc and i~ consu.len:d In I:re~tcr det,,,1 in Chap. I, Vol. II. &" also p, ",.
I Thnc h,l'~ been. of cour,e. muny thousands of housu erected In the p~st ,.ith
external w"lls only 2'5 mm thIck. WIll1st much depends on the pennewbihlY of lhc bricks
3nd the ~"undneiS of the mortar. ~uch walls on exposed .;It'~ 31.' 'n,'uiubh' damp mtern_
311y, In sheltered place. in towns the :us mm Will. in many cues, has bUn salisf~ctory;
prob"bly in an equal number of cgUS dump patches h."e de'eloped.
23. "
D
to
F
ENGLlSf-+ BOND R.EBATED .JAMBS DOUBLE rLEMISI-+ BOND
1-1 - ' t·
A
R. t C!<. ' L ~ E '"
.. t .. .,
FRONT ELEVATION T I4lCK.. BR.ICK5 FWNT E.LEVATON SHOWING so TH1CK.. ~RJCI(:5
I"
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0
7
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,
R.EBATED ..JAMB5 WITI-+ 56 .. II..E.CE55E5
102 OUTE !U.VEAL5
Il..EBATE.DJAMBS - Q
WITH liS OUTE.R.. R.£VE.AL)
ENGLI~I+ eON" OOU!lL£ H.lMI5f1 IIl
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24. FOUNDATIONS 'S
of the wall, slight ventilation is provided at the drainage gaps left in certain
vertical joints as described below.
The ties used to strengthen and aid the stability of the wall are of several
kinds, the simplest being made of galvanized wire shaped as a figure of eight.
They are put in the bed joints to span the cavity. 450 mm apart vertically,
900
mm apart horizontally and staggered (Fig. 13. Vol. II). At the jambs of
openings the vcrtical spacing of the ties is reduced to 300 mm. It is important
to keep the cavity free of mortar droppings which would collect on the ties and
make a bridge for dampness to the inner leaf. T he bottom of the cavity can
be cleaned out if temporary gaps arc left at the hase of the wall.
Where the cavity is bridged as at lintels, sills and at the jambs of openings,
a d.p.c. must be provided. These are shown in Fig. 55· The lintel detail at
B shows the felt or lead d.p.c. tucked into the inner leaf and extending down-
wards to the outside; it is desirable to leave a few of the vertical joints open
in the first outer course on the lintel so that water can drain from the cavity.
(Similar gaps should also be provided at the base of the wall below the d.p.c.).
The dt'"tail at E shows the d.p.c. nailed to a groove in the timber sill and passing
to the outside of the walL The rebated jamb plan detail at D also has a d.p.c.
which is taken up the full height of the window.
The top of a cavit~ wall is preferably bridged with one or more courses of
21
5 mm bricks to increase stability and to enable the roof load to be shared
between both leaves (see E, Fig. 39 and G, Fig. 71). The base of the wall is
normally constructed as at A, Fig. 10; this has one weakness on damp sites where
a timber joisted ground floor is used, water may penetrate the two leaves and
spread over the site concrete. This action is eliminated if the cavity at the base of
the wall is filled with fine concrete to a distance 150 mm below the d.p.c. (see 0,
Fig. to).
FOUNDATIONS
tn its widest sense the term foundations may be defined as an expanded
base of a wall or pier in addition to the ground or subsoil which supports it.
The ground which receives the buitding is known as a natural foundation, and
the extended bases which are constructed of concrete or masonry are called
artificial foundations.
An artificial foundation may consist of: (I) a concrete bed only (see A, B
and D, Fig. 10), or (2) one or more courses of stone-work (see section DD at B,
Fig. 20) which are wider than the wall or pier they support and which are called
footings or (3) a concrete bed together with footings (see c, Fig. 10). Type
(I) is the most common, being known as a strip f(JUmktion.
The object of a foundation is to distribute the weight to be carried over a
sufficient area of bearing surface so as to prevent the subsoil from spreading
and to avoid unequal settlement of the structure.
Whilst slight settlement or subsidence of a building may, in some cases, be
unavoidable, it is essential that any such subsidence shall be unifonn. Unequal
settlement i~ the usual cause of cracks and similar def«:ts occu".;ng in walls,
floors, etc.
The size and type of foundation depend upon the character of the subsoil and
the .',.ei~ht which is transmitted to il.. The bearinj:( capacity of a soil means thc
maxImum load per umt of area (usually In tenns of kilonewtonsJsq. metre) which the
ground Will support without tlisplacement. As the nature of the soil varies con-
siderably it follows that the capacit)' of the soil to support loads is also variable.
SKETCH SHOWING
FOUNDATION FOI!. A
ONE ~ " ~AlF el'JCK WML
FIGURE 9
This difference in the bearing capacity of soils may be experienced on a single
building site, as frequently its character is not exactly the same throughout. Hence
it is not always possible to adopt a unifonn sitt of foundation for the whole building,
even if the walls and piers may support equal loads.
25. ,6 FOUNDATIONS
The design of foundations to support heavy loads is beyond the scope of
this volume and the following are typical details only. The requirements of
many local authorities in respect to foundations (cspeciaHy for small buildings
which transmit relatively light loads) have been modified considerably within
recent years. Briefly, the following arc the requirements of the Building
Regulations :~
The foundation shaH be
(I) Constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit these
to the ground in such a way that the pressure on it will not cause settlement which
would impair the stability of the building Of adjoining .~tT1ll"tures
(z) Taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage by swelling
or shrinking of the subsoil.
For domestic buildings where strip foundations are used the concrete shall be
composed of 50 kg of cementI to 0 · 1 mS of fine aggregate and 0·2 mS of coarse
aggregate and the regulations are satisfied if :-
(a) There is no wide variation in the type of subsoil beneath the building and
there is no weaker type of soil below that on which the foundations rest which
would sffect stability. (h) The foundation width is not less than that summarized
below and given fully in Tahle II, Vol. IV for different subsoils and loadings,
and in any case not less than the width of the wall. (c) The thickness of the
concrete is not less than its projection from the base of the wall or footing and
in no case less than 150 mm.
For a two-stOrey house the wal! load is usually not more than 33 kN/m; the
foundation width for different subsoils would then be: Rock, equal to the
wal! width; compact gravel and sand or stiff clay, 300 mm; loose sand, 600 mm
(as A, Fig. 10); soft clay, 650 mm; very soft clay, 850 mm.
Examples of foundations are given in Fig. 10; they should be at a minimum
depth, in this country, of 450 mm so as to be unaffected by frost.
The one at A shows a typical strip foundation on loose sand where the
minimum width is 600 mm for a 275 mm wall; this necessitates a 162·5 mm
thick strip to comply with (c) above.
450 mm is about the minimum width of shallow trench that can be exca-
vated by hand, but where machine excavation (see Chap. I, Vol. IV) is used,
the 305 mm wide type at Bis satisfactory in compact sand or stiff day; the who:e
of the trench is filled with concrete.
The type at D has to be used on soft clay which is liable to expansion and
contraction due to the variation in water content. At a depth of 915 mm this
action is normally absent in the U .K.
The one at c illustrates the use of a course of brick footings which were often
used in earlier days (when cement was not the reliable product it is today) to
give a gradual spread of the load. The rule illustrated is a useful one and
I From 1 January 1971 .cement is available in So kg. bags.
F 0 U N 0 A T I 0 N 5
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F IGURE 10
-
26. DAMP PROOF COURSES '7
consisted of making the concrete foundation twice th~ wall width and of a thick-
ness equal to one and one-third its projection from the footing.
The depth of the foundations varies with the character of the subsoil and
the relative importance of the work. Clay soils arc liable to expand and contract,
and such movement may cause damage to the foundations unless they are placed
at a sufficient depth; if such sites are waterlogged it may be d~irable to adopt
900 mm deep foundations. It is not necessary to 'exceed 450 mm depth in many
situations; this is the minimum to prevent damage by frost. All brickwork
below the ground level should be built in cement mortar in order to increase
its stability, and engineering bricks are preferred.
The construction of the floor shown by broken lines at c is described on
pp. S8 to 64.
Pier Foundations.- An example of a foundation suitable for a detached pier
(as illustrated in Fig. 7) is shown at E, j, K, Land M, Fig. 10. Whilst footings
may be dispensed with and the foundation designed in accordance with the
Building Regulations, it should be noted that brick footings serve a useful pur-
pose in graduallytransmitting the concentrated load from the pier to theconcrete.
Timbering to foundation trenches is described on pp. 79-80.
DAMP PROOF COURSES
One of the chief essentials in building is that the structure shall be dry. A
damp building is unhealthy to those who occupy it, it causes damage to the
contents of the building, and it gradually impairs the parts of the structure
affected. There are various causes of dampness in walls, the chief of -Which
are: (I) moisture rising up the walls from the adjacent ground, (2) rain passing
down from the tops of walls, (3) rain beating against the walls which may absorb
the water to such an extent as to show dampness on the internal faces and (4)
the absorption of water from defective rain-water pipes.
With reference to the fiut cause, the stud~nt of Building Science (a subjeo::t which
nonnally fonns part of a grouped course in Building) WIll ha"e probably studied the
tlructure of Ii porous material such as a brick; he may have carried out tests to
detennine its po~otity (the percentage of its pore spao;e), relative ptrmtablfity (its
capadty to permit the passalle of water throul(h It). and the amount of water that it
wi! absorb. He will appreciate that brickwork below the Jlround level will draw the
moisture from the ground and may impan it from one course to another for a COn-
,idenoble height. The amount of moiuurc ~b""rbed depend. upon the water <:ontent
of the soil and the quality of the bricks, mortar and workmanship.
To prevent water absorbed from the soil rising and causing dampness in the
wall and any adjacent woodwork and plaster, a continuous layer of an impervious
material is provided. This layer is known as a horizontal damp proof course
(d.p.c.) The position of such a course varies from ISO to 300 mm above the
ground level (see sections in Fig. 10). The level should not be less than ,somm
otherwise soil (forming flower beds and the like) may be deposited against the
external face of a wall at a greater height than the impervious layer and thus water
may be transmitted from it to the wall above the damp proof course.
Some of the materials used to form horizontal damp proof courses are: -
Asphalt.-The raw material is a chocolate-coloured limestone which is
impregnated with bitumen or natural pitch. It is quarried and imported from
the West Indies (Lake Trinidad), France (Seyssel), Switzerland (Val de Travers)
and Germany. Fine grit in varying proportions is added and completely
incorporated with the asphalt Jlt a vey high temperature, after which it is cast
into blocks (weighing about 25 kg each). These are received on the site, when
they are re-heated and applied in the following manner: Wood battens are
fixed horizontally along both faces of the wall with their top edges usually
13 mm above the top of the course of the wall which i$ to receive the asphalt.
The heated material is placed on the wall between the battens and finished off by
means or hand floats to the top of Lilt: battens. The asphalt is kept slightly back
from the external face of the wall so that it may be pointed with cement mortar
after the wall has been completed; this covers the dark line of the asphalt and
assists in preventing the asphalt from being squeezed out and discolouring the
brickwork, especially if it is subjected to intense action of the sun. Asphalt forms
an excellent damp proof course, it being impervious and indestructible; in
addition it does not fracture, if, on acCount of unequal settlement, cracks are
caused in the brickwork.
Fibrous Asphalt Felt.-There are many varieties of this damp proof course,
one of which consists of a base of tough hessian (woven jute cloth) or felt which
is impregnated with and covered by a layer of hot natural bitumen, and sanded
on the surface or covered with talc to prevent the layers from adhering to each
other. It is obtained in rolls, 22 m long and in various widths from 102'S 10m to
9IS m:n. In laying it in position, a thin layer of mortar is spread on the brick-
work and the damp proof course is bedded on it. It should be lapped 75 mm
where joints occur and lapped full width at all crossings and angles. It should be
pointed in cement mortar.
This type of damp proof course is extensively used, it being easily handled
and, provided it is adequately impregnated with bitumen and obtained from a
reputable manufacturer, it forms a thoroughly reliable damp-resisting material.
Some of the cheaper varieties are practically worthless; they are comparatively
thin and both the bases and the bitumen are of inferior quality; such should
be avoided. It)s not suitable for certain classes of stone walling. i.t'.• I .~k...
District Masonry (described on p. 45), as the weight of the ragged undresscd
stones cuts it and produces defects through which moisture may pas~ to cause
dampness.
Slate.r.-Such a damp proof course consists of two layers of sound slates
embedded in cement mortar composed of I : 3 cement and sand. A layer of
mortar is spread over the brickwork, upon which the first layer of slates is bedded
with bUIt joints; more mortar is spread over these slates and the second layer of
slates is laid in position so as to form a half lap bond with the first course of slatcs
(when the slates are said to" break joint "); the next course of brickwork is then
bedded in cement mortar on the top layer of slates. The slates must extend the
27. 18 BRICK WALLS
full thickness ofthe wall, be at least 215 mm long, and be neatly pointed in cement
mortar. It is a very efficient damp proof course and has been used on important
buildinga.l It is used in connection with Lake District walling and simil~r
construction as it is not damaged by the sharp edges of the rough stones. This
damp proof course i. liable to be broken if unequal settlement occurs, causing
water to be absorbed through the craw. .
Lead.-This is a costly but very effective damp proof course. It consIsts
of a layer of sheet lead (see Chapter VI) which weighs from 3 to 8 lb. per sq. ft.'
embedded in lime mortar,I It is either lapped as described for fibrous asphalt
felt or the joints may be welted (see p. 144). The mortar does not adhere to it
readily unless the lead is well scored (scratched). . .
Another variety of this class of damp proof course consists of a contmuous
core of light lead (weighing only 1'22 kg/ml) covered both side1l with bitun:ainous
felt which is surfaced with talc to prevent sticking of the folds. It is made In two
or three grades of varying widths and in rolls which ~re in 8 m I~n~h~. It is
an excellent damp proof course, eapedally for damp Sites, and whilst It IS more
expensive than the above, it is more durable.
CopPt'T.-This is another excellent damp proof course. The copper should
be at least 0'022 mm thick, lapped or jointed as described for lead, and embedded
in lime or cement mortar.
Blue Staffordshire Brnks.-These provide effective damp proofcourse~, They
are built in two to four courses in cement mortar; the colour of the bncks may
render them unacceptable for general application.
P(astic.-This is a relatively new type of d.p.c. material. It is made of black
polythene, 0'5 or I mm thick in the usual walling widths and roll lengths of 30 m.
The second cause of dampness stated on p. 17 (i.e., rain passing down from
the tops of walls) may be prevented by the provision of a.horizontal damp p~f
course either immediately. below the top course of bnckwork or some httle
distance below it. Thus, in the case of boundary walls, the damp proof course
may be placed immediately under the coping (see Figs. 17 and 27), and parapet
walls may be protected by continuing the cover Bashing (see p. 143) the.rull
thickness of the wall. Similarly, a horizontal d.p.c. should be placed In a
chimney stack at its junction with a roof.
Vertical damp proof courses which are necessarf to exclude dampness in
basement, etc., walls are described in Chap. I, Vol. II.
I Horizontal slate damp proof courses are used in both the Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals 11 Liverpool. In addition, lead and blue Staffordshire briCks are
uted in. connection with the latter building. . . . . .
I 1.~., 13'5 to 35 ka/m'. Despite the change to metnc uOlu,!ead 1$ $~111 ma.de In these
Imperial weiahts but tpecified as "NO.3 lead, No... lead etc., accordlna to .ts I",penal
weight (aee p. 1"2). . .
I Certain mortars hpecu,l1y cement mortan, act upon lead II.lld ultImately dCltroy ,t;
l uch thould therefor~ not be ute<! a... bedding material for lead damp proof counes.
SURFACE OR SITE CONCRETE
The area of a building below wood floors must be covered with an impervious
material1 in order to exclude dampness. The material used may be concrete or
asphalt. The Building Regulations require a 100 mm layer of concrete consisting
of So kg of cement to not more than 0'1 m~ of fine aggregate (sand) and 0'2 m3 of
coarse aggregate (broken brick, stone, etc.), laid on a bedof broken bricks, clinker,
etc. The concrete should be well surfaced with the back of the shovel (known as
" spade finished "); its top surface must not be below the level of the ground
outside the wall of the building. Surface concrete Is shown in Fig. 10. Besides
excluding dampness, surface concrete prevents the growth of vegetable matter
and the admission of ground air.
Dwarf 102'5 mm walls, known as sleeper and fmJ~r walls (see Fig. 32), are
sometimes constructed on the surface concrete (see c, Fig 10, and R, Fig. 32) or
they may have the usual concrete fOlndations (see Q, Fig. 32). The site concrete
adjoining the walls may be finished as shown at c, Fig. 10 (this is the best method
if a separate sleeper wall as shown is to be supported), or at ... and a, Fig. 10.
Offsets.-These are narrow horizontal surfaces which have been formed by
reducing the thickness of walls. c, Fig. 10 shows 56'25 mm offsets. Wider
offsets than these may be required to support Boor joists, roof timbers, and the
like. Walls of tall buildings are formed with offsets; thus a 15 m high wall may
be +40 mm thick at the base, 215 mm thick at the top, with an intermediate
thickness of 328 mm, and the 112 nun wide ledges or shelves so fonned are
termed offsets. A broken vertical section through a portion of such a wall is
shown at A, Fig. II. The 112 mm offsets support horizontal wood members
called wall plates which receive the ends of the floor joists (see p. 60).
The plan at B, Fig. II, shows an alternative and cheaper method of sup·
porting wall plates than at A. In the latter the increased thickness of the wall
at the base to form the offset is continuous for the full length of the wall, whereas
at B the wall plate rests upon small piers which are usually not more than 790 mm
apart. Two methods of forming ~hese piers ~re shown at c and o~ the former
being the stronger as it is bonded mto the mam wall and the latter IS not. The
foundation for pier 0 is strengthened if the site concrete is formed to occupy
the space at w.
Corbels.-These are similar to offsets except that the ledges are formed by
oversailing or projecting courses (sec Fig. 11). They are constructed to support
floor beams, lintels, etc. As a load carried by a corbel tends to overturn the
wall, certain precautions arc taken to ensure a stable structure; !hese are: (1)
the maximum projection of the corbel must not exceed the thickness of the
wall, (2) each corbel course must not project more than 56'25 mm, (3) heade~s
I Vegetable loil or turf covering a aite should be rem~...ed as II. pr.eliminary building
operation' the excavated soil may be Ipnad over that panlon of the Ilt~ set apan for the
prden, e~.••nd the turf may be ltacked (rotted turf!a a valuable. ",a-':lure). The depth
of soil removed variel from ISo to 230 mm and the Ille concrete IS laid on the exposed
surface. The omiuion of the concrete has been a frequent cause of dry rot (see p. 57)·
. '
28. .1
OFFSETS
'"
SE.CTION E.F
Jll S 4G-
2111 - - U~»
_s.lS -'1I11~
LINTELS 19
must be used as they are more adequately tailed into the wall than stretchers, and
(4) only sound bricks and workmanship should be employed. The corbels
shown at L, M and N aTe continuous and that at 0 (with the sketch at p) is an
example of an isolated or non-continuous corbel. The latter is used to support
concentrated loads (as transmitted from large floor beams) and the stone pad is
provided to distribute the load more effectively.
Oversailing Courses.- These aTe frequently employed as decorative
features, as for example in the construction of comius (a crowning member of
a wall), string courstS (provided between the base and top of a wall), taves (top
of a wall adjacent to a roof) and chimnty stacks (the upper portion of brickwork
which end05es chimnp.y flues-see Figs. 38 and 75). Simple examples of brick
oversailing courses are shown at E, Fig. 17, D, Fig. 38, and j, Fig. 70. Stone
cornices etc., are detailed in Figs. 24 and 26.
Buttress Cappings.- Buttresses have been referred to on p. 13. These
arc usually completed with simple cappings (see Fig. Il). The section at Q
shows the capping to consist of two courses of splay bricks of the type illustrated
al Rand s, Fig. 2; a sketch of this capping is shown at R. The sketch at T
shows another weathered capping formed of ordinary bricks which are tilted
or tumbled into the wall; the section at s shows the cutting of the bricks
which is involved.
As mentioned on p. 13, the 'enical sides of doorways and window openings
are known as jambs. Thc top or head of such an opening consists of a lintel or
an arch, or both, amI the bottom of a window opening is called a sill whilst the
bottom of a door opening is usually provided with one or more steps or threshold.
LINTELS
A lintel is a member of wood, brick or concrete which is fixed horizontally
and used to support the structure abovc the opcning. Most lintels now are of
reinforced concrete.
,,1:,oN / :""AT'ON '''91 t~32if.;;·"~'F-~'}
" !e''''.r-~1
/ CONTINUOUS CORb£U
TaHE "E" ......~S WOlUD &1 O."'fHO
In the class In Duikhn~ $cil'"nc(' the student w,1I study the behaVIour of lintels
or beams when lo"dcd. b'pcr,ments w,1l show that If a wood beam .s loaded as
indicated at T, Fig. 12. it will chan!:" (u shape AS the load increast~. Thc b",lm wil!
bend, and ,f it is ult,mately broken it 'loll be s«n that the fibres of the upper portion
~rc cru~hed and those of the lowl'r portIOn ar" torn apart; the bending actoon tends
to contract or compress tht upper fibres and to sueteh the lower fibres. H ~nee the
statemcnt that th' " upper part is suhJ~cted to ;0 stress called (omp.ruio" and the
lower portion 10 ~ stress klln..... n as le'lsio" "; the fibre_ along the centre of Ihe bc"m
are n..ither in cornpre!isoon 110r tension ~nd this horizontal plane IS ear"d the nflliral
(....is. In addItion, the load tends to produc" ~lIh....r "erhcal, horizontal Or d"l.gonal
crach which ind,e;lIC fa!lur~ In she",. Lintels must of course be sufficiently slrong
to re$lst fa,lu r.. b~' comprl'ss,on, lC!lS,nn. sheH and defll'Cl,un.
BUTTRESS CAPPINGS
.- Hl:'
:lEe -
nUN :5ECTION
SPLAYED CAPPING ·TUMBLE.rJ IN" CAPPING
{Food Linfeh.- Thesc are usually of redood (sec p. 59). The size depends
upon the thickness of the all, the "pan (di",tanee between opposite jambs) and
tlic weight to be ~upported . The deptll i~ :lpproximatcly onc-twelfth of the
span with a minimttm of 75 mm; the width may equal the full thick.ness of the
F!Gl"RF. (t
29. 20 BR I CK WAL L S
wall-as is necessary for internal door openings (see s, Fig. 52)---or the width
of the inner reveal as shown at B, Fig. 12. A further example of a wood lintel
is illustrated in Fig. 44.
Built-up lintels may be used for larger spans; the section at Il, Fig. 12, shows
such a lintel which comprises three 175 mm by 7S mm pieces bolted together
with 13 mm diameter bolts near the ends and at every 380 rom of its length; a
part elevation is shown at c and indicates the bolts which are provided with the
necessary nuts and washers (see j , Fig. 80). An alternative to this built-up lintel
is shown a~ H; this consists of two 175 mm by 50 mm pieces (which bridge the
opening and have a 150 mm bearing or wall-hold at each end) and 50 min thick
packing or distance pieces at the ends and at 380 mm centres; holes are bored
through the continuous pieces and packing pieces through which bolts an: passed
to secure them and ensure that the pieces will act as one unit. the elelation or
lintel )I is similar to that at c except that the packin? pieces would be indicated
by broken lines at each bolt, as shown at J.
The ends of the lintels have a J 75 mm wall-hold and are bedded on mortar
so as to ensure a level and firm bearing. rood lintels afford a ready means of
securing the heads of door and window frames (see p. 98).
Brick l.intels. As is implied, a brick lintel is a horizontal member consi~ting
of bricks which are generally laid on end and occasionally cn edge. It is a
relatively weak form of construction and is quite unsuited t~ support hea,y
loads. They ~hould therefor<.: he used to ~pall small openings only (unless they
arc to receive .ldditional support as expldlOed later) dnd the Sp;lI ;;.hould not
exceed 900 mm.
A section and part elevation of a brick lintel arc sh()1 n at .~ and B, Fig. 12.
Cement mortar should be used, and pressed bricks hal'ing d frog on each b~d
are better than ",ire-cuts. The term joggled brick lintel is sOlnetires applied
to .his type when bricks baying flOgs are used, the Joggle or notch being formeo
by the widened joint at each frog: the joggle assists in re~i!jting the sliding or
shearing action to which the lintel is subjected.
The hnt,,1 is con$truet,'d un n te"'porar)' wood ~upport known ~s a tunlln:.! I'''·e....
(sec p. Ikl); lTon~r IS $pread O'er Ihc low....r, hack .and front cdl<:es of c.«-h hr1<:k
beforc be1ll~ plJced 10 posmon; wh"n all of the bricks han~ ben, laId. .l:ro...t (sn'
p. 2) IS poured Ihrough the hules 'Ih,ch haH prc";oush hn'nfonned;1t Ihc top umll
~~ch fwg 's c",""pl.·tdy filled wllh Ihc l"IU'u 1ll0rtM; 1. Fa:. 12, show1" ~"Cl!on
throu/!h ~ bnc~-on."nd 1101..1 Ilth the frOI<: and Ih" h(ll" ~I the top "I<.hcdled hy
bT<Jk~n lmes. If "routml/ ,~ nOI auopH'd e~,<' mu,t be taken to I:nsurc that Ih~ jnmts
are prup<..-l) t'l ..d and flu<hc,j w,th mortar
The depth of th~ lintel dcpen(ls upon the ~t7C of the opening and rhe al'pe;r-
anCe reqll!rcd; it I'arics from 102'5 mm til 215 min. For the $oake 01 appearance
it is e%ential that the top of the lintel shall (;oim;idc with :I. horizontal joint of thc
general "ailing (~cc and G, Fig. 12), othcTliS(" a p:tnial cnuTse of hrickwork
would be required between thc tOp of the ltntelllnd the bed joint of the 11;11
above it; ruck a spllt (uuru is musf flnslghtly. A common depth i~ that whil'h
is (4Ua1 to twO COUT!>es of the adjoining brickwork (set" t:); onc trod of c3eh brick
is carefully removed (usually with a hammer and bolster--see 35. Fig. 19) and
the bricks are placed in position with the cut ends uppermost ; the grouting
operation is facilitated as the frogs are exposed at the top.
An alternative method of forming the ends of a brick lintel, which has a
somewhat stronger ap:>earance, is shown at F in the elevation It, Fig. 12.
L
C K
TEL
N T E L 5
P,4f1"T F,(ONT EUVj.TION 5£CTtON"DE' PAP..T SACi'. ELEVATION
ALHF,NATtVE TO'F'
• .... W"'Ll·I;O~Dol
t STON,
-,-, ~ LINTEL
FfI,ONT ELEVAT!ON
MI(I(.. tiNl"Et5
Kj L M '~Y1(O)-KfI"ETEltNHLrWNfO'(foeYI2"'"
_ -~ lAM ~AfI,~ 115-S0 Ih.. DIAM SOLlS
~~~' ..~__ BtLi ,ff ..""gl:H
....... ~"'u .....'D Tl>fj ,~~".! .:'"~ S l (T 0 !.- P l A N
SUPPOR.TS FOR BUllT·UP W()OD liNTEL
BI'-ICK LINTELS
P Q
.'; '.
T
F[(;lIRlo 12
Urick lintels arc sOlTlctilTll'S ktWIJ1;1S" soldier :ITches" presumably becau~e
of the upright aprear;!K'~ of the hrick~. This i~:t mhllmlleT. for sl1ch does not
comply lith the re(luiH:menh of a trHe ;tTl-h a" Jdillt:d bdow. lne:dentally
great carc "hould be taken to ensure that each brick is placed ahsolutely vertical
J~ the appearance is spoilt if one or two of them show a depJrtore from the
n:rtical, howcer slight. EX,Hllpll"s of stH;h alt "arch" are shown at -', Fig. +4,
and H, Fig. 54.
.'>'uppurrs fur BriCR Llille/s. :ddltional suppurt must be provided if a brick
,-
,
