Building suerface finishes

1. CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES
Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement, sand and water.
Hydrated lime is often added to make the mortar easier to
work. It is applied in three coats:
- scratch and brown coats are mixed in the proportion of
1 part Portland cement to 3 parts of sand, with about
10lbs. of hydrated lime.
- The finish coat is usually richer in the proportion of
1 part of Portland cement to 2 parts of sand.
- Coarse sand is used for the base coats and fine sand
for the finish coat.
Before applying the stucco or cement plaster, the concrete
(or masonry) surface should be roughened to ensure good
bonding.
Old concrete surfaces are roughened with a bush hammer
or small pick, and then washed thoroughly with acid and
water to remove all dirt and loose particles.
New concrete can be roughened with a heavy wire brush or
a special scoring tool.
1.01 STUCCO OR CEMENT PLASTER FINISH

The scratch coat is then trowelled onto the wall surface.
Just as soon as the first coat is but not hard, it is scratched
with a small rake to form a key for the second coat.
Average thickness of the scratch coat is 3/8”.
The brown coat is applied a few days after the first coat
has set firm and hard, also to a thickness of 3/8”. It is
applied with a wood float and leveled to a flat, even and
relatively smooth surface.
The finish coat is applied over the brown coat after all work
is free from waves and cracks, and set and dry. Thickness
of the finish coat is 1/8” minimum and rarely exceeds ¼”
except for finishes requiring rough texture. The finish coat
should be kept damp but not wet for a few days, to prevent
hairline cracks.
1.01 STUCCO OR CEMENT PLASTER FINISH

This consists of grinding down the surface of the
concrete a day or two after it is poured, using a brick of
carborundum, emery or soft natural stone.
With the rubbing, which is done with a circular motion, a
thin grout of cement and sand is applied to the surface
and well rubbed in to fill surface imperfections, and the
work afterward washed down with clean water.
If fine sand is used instead of a grout, the method is
called a sand-float finish .
1.02 RUBBED FINISH

This type of finish is obtained by scrubbing or brushing
the concrete surface with fiber or wire brushes and water
to remove the surface film or mortar, leaving the coarse
aggregate exposed.
This should be done while the concrete surface is still
green and just as soon as it is possible to do so without
removing particles of the aggregate.
The appearance of a brushed finish can be improved by
washing with a diluted solution of acid applied with a
brush. The acid thoroughly cleans the surface of the
aggregate, thereby intensifying the color and texture of
the same.
The surface should be thoroughly washed after the acid
treatment as otherwise it will have a mottled, streaky
appearance.
1.03 BRUSHED FINISH

Concrete surfaces may be finished by tooling by any of
the methods employed for dressing or finishing natural
stone.
Bush hammering, either by hand or by pneumatic tool, is
the most popular method used in tooling concrete
surfaces. The best results are obtained on surfaces
which are thoroughly hard.
The concrete should preferably be about 2 months old.
Only small-sized aggregate should be used in the facing
material, as it is hard to dress and obtain uniform results
where large angular stones are encountered.
Tooling cannot ordinarily be performed satisfactorily on
gravel concrete, as the pebbles will be dislodged before
being chipped.
1.04 TOOLED FINISH

A sand-blast finish is very much the same in appearance
as that obtained by brushing the concrete while it is still
green.
Sand blasting produces a granulated finish somewhat
similar to sandstone but not so uniform, because the
aggregates are likely to be brought out irregularly.
The concrete should be thoroughly hardened before
sand-blasting.
A clean, sharp, thoroughly dried silica sand or crushed
quartz is most effective for sand-blasting. A 3/8”nozzle
may be used, but under ordinary conditions ¼” or even
1/8” have been found to give good results.
The best results are obtained on a thoroughly hardened
concrete surface at least a month old, and for such work
a nozzle pressure of from 50 to 80 lbs. will be required.
1.05 SAND-BLAST FINISH

The color is obtained from exposed aggregate and not
by adding coloring material to the mixture.
Facing plaster of I part Portland cement, 1-1/2 parts
sand, and 3 parts of special screenings or pebbles of the
desired color shall be placed against the forms to a
thickness of about 1 inch sufficiently in advance of the
body concrete to prevent the latter from coming into
contact with the forms.
1.06 EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH
Such colored or other
special aggregate used
for finish shall be exposed
by scrubbing as in 1.03.

1.06 EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH

After the concrete aggregate is forced below the surface,
the surface is leveled with a straight wood screed, and
given a wood float finish. Before the concrete finally sets,
the entire surface is steel-trowelled
1.08 STEEL TROWELLED FINISH
When the concrete is still green but surface water is
gone, the surface is leveled with a straight wood screed.
Then a finish coat of 1:3 plaster is applied. This finish
coat is leveled with a wood screed, given a wood float
finish and then steel-trowelled
1.09 INTEGRAL COLORED-CEMENT FINISH

2. GRANOLITHIC and TERRAZZO FLOOR FINISHES
This consists of a topping with a mixture of 1 part cement,
1 part sand and 1 part finely crushed stone. It is called
granolithic because fine aggregate chips were originally
used in the aggregate.
Finely ground corundum may also be a part of the
aggregate to produce an enduring and non-slip surface .
2.01 GRANOLITHIC FINISH
Terrazzo is a mixture of cement, marble chip aggregates
and water laid as a topping or as a wall finish, and ground
to a fine, smooth surface.
It is used for floor and bases where durability, resistance to
wear, and minimal maintenance are necessary. It is
available either in precast form e.g. tile, or cast-in-place
form, with either a smoothly polished or non-slip surface.
For non-slip surfaces, abrasive granules are added to the
mixture.
2.02 TERRAZZO FINISH

2. GRANOLITHIC and TERRAZO FLOOR FINISHES
The terrazzo topping shall consist of
200 lbs. of marble chip aggregate to
1 bag (94 lb.) of cement. The matrix
may either be white or gray Portland
cement as desired.
For non-slip heavy duty floors the
mixture shall consist of 150 lbs. of
marble chip aggregate and 50 lbs. of
abrasive granules to one bag of
cement.
2.02 TERRAZO FINISH
Common specifications require that 70% of the marble
aggregate for terrazzo topping must show;
- for heavy-duty non-slip topping a proportion of three
marble granules to one abrasive must show ; and
- for light-duty non-slip topping, where the abrasive is
sprinkled on the finish, a proportion of four marble to
one abrasive granule must show.
Minimum thickness of terrazzo topping is 5/8”.

3. TILE FINISHES
Cement tile is manufactured by pressing in moulds a
plastic mixture of cement and sand. Surface color of the tile
is achieved by the addition of mineral oxide colors.
Thickness of cement tile is 25mm (1”).
Common sizes are squares 200mm x 200mm (8”x8”),
300mm x 300mm (12”x12”), and 400mm x 400mm
(16”x16”).
When installing cement tile, the top of the base slab shall
be left 50mm (2”) below the finish floor.
The tiles shall be thoroughly soaked in water before laying
on a setting bed of cement mortar (1 part of Portland
cement to three parts of sand).
3.01 CEMENT TILE FINISH

3. TILE FINISHES
Ceramic tile are small surfacing units made from clay or
mixture of clay with other ceramic materials and fired
according various processes.
Tiles differ principally in:
(1) composition of the body
(2) surface finish, that is, glazed or unglazed
(3) process of manufacture; and
(4) the degree of vitrification or fusion of the tile body
after firing, as indicated by the extent to which it
absorbs moisture
3.02 CERAMIC TILE FINISH

3. TILE FINISHES
Composition:
Tiles are made of compounded and of natural clay
bodies. Those made of compound bodies contain three
principal constituents:
- the plastic, usually clays having high bonding power
and some fluxing ability
- the filler which reduces shrinkage in drying and firing
and imparts to the body a certain rigidity which
prevents deformation under heat, e.g. flint or finely
pulverized silica, kaolin, tale; and
- the flux or solvent which melts under intense heat
and fuses the heat resisting elements into a solid
mass.
The most widely used flux in floor and wall tiles is the
minimal feldspar.

3. TILE FINISHES
Finish:
Unglazed tiles are composed of the same ingredients
throughout and derive their color and texture from the
materials of which the body is made.
Glazed tiles have a glassy surface of ceramic materials
fused upon their face to give them a decorative
appearance and to make the surface impervious to
moisture.

3. TILE FINISHES
Glazes are produced in a large variety of colors, ranging
from pure white to jet black. Glaze finishes are of two
general classes in their light reflecting qualities:
1) bright glazes, which have a highly polished surface
and reflect an image clearly; and
2) matte glazes, or those which do not clearly reflect an
image or are entirely without sheen.
All degrees of semilustrous or satinlike finish may be
produced between the two extremes of reflection and
nonreflection.
In addition, glazes may have:
- Plain
- textured
- polychrome
- mottled
- stippled or
- rippled surface

3. TILE FINISHES
Manufacture:
(a) Dust-press Process. Dust-pressed tiles are shaped
in steel dies by applying heavy pressure to the damp
ceramic mix while it is in finely pulverized form. The
dust-press method of production gives greater
mechanical precision and a more regular appearance
to the tiles than other methods.
(b) Plastic Process. Plastic-made tiles are shaped from
clay rendered plastic by mixing with sufficient water.
They are made either by hand molding or by extrusion
from an auger-machine. When shaped by machine,
the extruded ribbon of clay is cut into the desired sizes
as it emerges from the die. Most types of tile made by
the plastic method vary slightly from the true geometric
forms and therefore have a more hand-made
appearance than to dust-pressed tiles.

3. TILE FINISHES
Vitrification:
Vitrification is a measure of the tile’s density and relative
absorption which depends partly on the tile’s composition
and partly on the degree of burning. There are four
degrees of vitrification:
- Nonvitreous tiles have a degree of density that permits
moisture absorption of more than 7% of the weight of
the tile but does not prevent the tile from having a high
degree of strength.
- Semivitreous tiles have a degree of density that limits
moisture absorption to from 3 to 7% of the weight of
the tile.
- Vitreous tiles have a moisture absorption of less than
3% and a body density which prevents any penetration
of dirt that cannot be easily removed.
- Impervious tiles are the hardest. Their moisture
absorption is negligible and they are readily cleansed
of stains and dirt.

3. TILE FINISHES
Types of Ceramic Tiles:
a. Glazed interior tiles
are non-vitreous product made by the dust-
press-process .

3. TILE FINISHES
b. Ceramic Mosaic Tiles
are tiles less than 6 sq.
in. in facial area,
preponderantly
unglazed, and having
fully vitrified or fairly
dense bodies.
To facilitate installation,
ceramic mosaic tiles are
usually mounted at the
factory on sheets of
paper about 2 sq. ft. in
area, individual tile units
being spaced so as to allow for the insertion of
cement between them when the paper is removed
and the face of the tiles is exposed .

3. TILE FINISHES
c. Quarry tiles
are unglazed floor tiles made from natural clays or
shales by the plastic method. They are a very durable
flooring material, being impervious to moisture, stains
and dirt, and are resistant to abrasion .
d. Pavers
are standard size unglazed tiles resembling ceramic
mosaic tiles in composition and physical
characteristics but usually having facial area of 6 sq.
in. or more. Because of their greater size, which
usually ranges from 3”x3” to 6”x6”, these tiles are
generally not pasted onto paper but are laid out
individually. When by the plastic method, it is either
vitreous and semivitreous; dust-pressed pavers are
either impervious or vitreous. All pavers are
weatherproof and are especially suitable for heavy
floor service .

4. RESILIENT FLOOR FINISHES
Resilient flooring is manufactured as tile or sheet
including:
- Asphalt
- vinyl
- rubber
- linoleum, and
- cork.
Vinyl, linoleum and rubber flooring are available also in
sheet form .
4.01 ASPHALT TILE & SHEET FINISH

This consists of thoroughly bonded composition of
thermoplastic binder (asphaltic type for standard
asphalt tile and resinous for greaseproof asphalt
tile), asbestos and other fibers, inert filler materials
(various stone dust, diatomite, mica, etc.) and inert
color pigments, formed under pressure while hot
and cut to size.
Asphalt tile is usually made in 9” squares and less
commonly in 12” squares.
Rectangular borders18”x24” are made in a limited
variety of colors and patterns. Usual thickness are
1/8” and 3/16”.

Asphalt tile may be installed on any smooth concrete
subfloor above or below grade and on any wood subfloor
with sufficient strength so that no deflection can occur.
In either case there should be no dampness:
- It should not be used out-of-doors or for interiors
subject to strong direct sunlight;
- on concrete floors where dampness or hydrostatic
pressure exists;
- on any under floor that is not smooth, even and clean
(as the flooring will reveal exactly the contours of the
under flooring surface);
- in many areas where water may be constantly
splashed on the floor, e.g. shower rooms and toilet
rooms; and
- in areas where grease can accumulate unless
greaseproof asphalt tile is used.

4.02 VINYL TILE & SHEET FINISH
Vinyl resilient flooring materials are divided into three
major types:
a. solid vinyl
b. vinyl and asbestos combined
c. a thin vinyl layer applied to other types of resilient
flooring materials .
Tiles:
Vinyl tiles (all vinyl) are made into the ff thicknesses:
- 1.5mm
- 2.0mm
- 2.5mm and
- 3mm
in squares 300mm x 300mm
Sheet:
in rolls 2.0mm and 2.5mm thick x 1.80m (6’) wide and
in 50m lengths. The thicker sheet is used in areas
where heavy traffic will be encountered.

4.02 VINYL TILE & SHEET FINISH
Vinyl flooring is recommended where a colorful,
textured, tough, durable, easily maintained, grease-
resistant type of finish flooring is required for areas of
both light and heavy human traffic.
It may be used for above-grade, on-grade and below-
grade floors.
Vinyl flooring should not be used:
- for exterior floor surfaces
- in areas where specific chemicals that attack vinyl
are used

4.03 RUBBER TILE & SHEET FINISH
Tiles:
Rubber floor tiles are as a rule made of neutral rubber
for greatest resilience.
Sizes, thicknesses, as well as methods of application
and precautions to follow in installation, are much the
same as for vinyl floor tiles
Sheet:
Rubber sheet flooring is manufactured in rolls 3’ wide,
in thicknesses of 3/32”, 1/8” and 3/16”, with 3/32” most
commonly used in home installations. Rubber sheet
flooring is applied according to the general rules given
for linoleum.

4.03 RUBBER TILE & SHEET FINISH
Advantages of rubber flooring are:
- It is the quietest floor possible with the exception of
thick cork tile;
- its color are more brilliant than those of other types.
Rubber flooring, however, is not as resistant to soap,
oil and many household solvents, as vinyl and linoleum

4.04 LINOLEUM TILE & SHEET FINISH
Linoleum is resilient, waterproof floor covering that
consists of a backing covered with a relatively thick
layer of wearing surface. This wearing surface is a
mixture that contains oxidized linseed oil processed in
a special way, combined with wood or cork flour,
various fillers, stone dust, whiting, diatomite), resins
binders, driers and inert color pigments.

Linoleum can be divided
into five classifications:
- plain
- marbled
- spatter
- straight-line inlaid, &
- molded inlaid.
It is available in three
gauges:
- service (1/16”)
- standard (3/32”), and
- heavy (1/8”).
It comes in rolls 2’ and 6’ wide and up to 30 ft. in
length, and in 9”x9” tiles for plain and marbled

Linoleum is recommended in areas:
- where a resilient, durable, colorful, greaseproof,
waterproof type of flooring is needed;
- where there is spillage of water such as baths and
toilet rooms;
- where there is spillage of grease, fruit juices, etc.
such as kitchens, cafeterias; for countertops and
desk tops where heavy wear, grease and cooking
spillage occur.
It should not be used:
- on concrete slabs below grade and subflooring
where dampness can penetrate from below;
- for exteriors;
- where any strong alkalis and acids may be present.
When specifying linoleum, the latest colors, patterns,
and textures should always be checked because many
of these are quickly discontinued

5. WOOD FLOOR FINISHES
5.01 STRIP FLOORING
This type of flooring consists of
tongue-and-grooved (T&G)
boards 6” or less in width.
Nominal sizes of strips are
- 1” x 3”, 1” x 4” and 1” x 6”;
- net (face) widths are 2-1/4”,
3-1/4”, and 5-1/4”
respectively.
- Net thickness is 7/8”.
In laying strip flooring, the strips are started square the
room against either side wall. The first strip is placed
with the grooved edge towards the wall and shall be
face-nailed as close to the wall as possible so that the
baseboard will conceal the nailing. All succeeding strips
are blind-nailed. The strips should be laid in such a
manner that joints in successive courses do not come
together.

5.01 STRIP FLOORING
Strip flooring is often laid over a concrete slab
subfloor, nailed to 2x3 or 2x4 sleepers or screeds
embedded or anchored to the concrete floor.
The sleepers should be treated with a suitable wood
preservative.
The space between the finish floor and the top of the
concrete slab is filled with cinder concrete or other
damp-proof composition fill
In laying strip flooring, the strips are started square with
the room against a wall. The first strip is placed with
the grooved edge towards the wall and shall be face-
nailed as close to the wall as possible so that the
baseboard will conceal the nailing. All succeeding strips
are blind-nailed. The strips should be laid in such a
manner that joints in successive courses do not come
together.

5.02 PLANK FLOORING
This type of flooring consists of square-edged boards
8” or more in width as are commonly found in old
Spanish- period houses.
Plank flooring is usually faced-nailed.

5.03 PARQUET TILE FLOORING
Also called block flooring, consists of square pieces or
blocks which have been built up in several layers like
plywood and having a veneered surface, or consists of
several parquet strips assembled at the factory to form
a tile.
This type of flooring may also be nailed to a wood
subfloor or set in mastic to a concrete subfloor.

Tiles are 3/8” or 5/15” in thickness,
in squares of 9-5/8” x 9-5/8”, 14-1/2” x 14-1/2”, 19-1/4”
x 19-1/4” and 24” x 24”.
For wooden subfloors, lumber must be properly kiln-
dried (or use 12mm or 19mm plywood). An 11mm
depression below the finish floor level is necessary for
10mm thick parquet tile flooring.

Concrete subfloors must be level and flat.
Freshly poured concrete should be allowed to cure for
at least two weeks before laying parquet.
Slab construction must be such that it will stay dry.
For concrete subfloors directly over fill, the base of the
surrounding slab should be above ground level and/or
finish grade. It is desirable that the slab be constructed
with a vapor-moisture barrier (see PLASTICS).
Asphalt-type underlayment, felt paper, should not be
used.

6. CEILING FINISHES
6.01 CEILING BOARD
These are shiplapped boards with a bead running
along the center of the board and along the joint,
hence it is often referred as beaded ceiling board
(B.C.B.) Thickness are 3/8 and ½ in. Widths of boards
are 4 and 6 in.

6. CEILING FINISHES
6.02 ACOUSTIC TILE
Acoustic tile is used for ceiling and wall finishes in
rooms where it is required to control sound by
absorption.

6. CEILING FINISHES
6.02 ACOUSTIC TILE
There are several types of acoustic tile:
a. Cellulose fiber tile.
These are made from compressed sugar cane or
wood fibers with perforations on the surface of the
tile.
b. Mineral wool tile.
Felted rock wool with a fissured surface. Mineral
wool tile has limited acoustic values, is flame
retardant but will not withstand rough usage and
cannot be painted. It is available in ½, 5/8, 2/4, 7/8
and 1 in. thickness. Sizes are 12”x12”, 12”x24” and
24”x24”.
c. Glass fiber tile.
These are made of glass fibers held together by
binder. Thickness is 1-1/4”. Sizes are 23-3/4” x 23-
3/4” or 47-3/4”.

7. PAINT FINISHES
7.01 TRANSPARENT FINISHES
a. Wood Stains
• Oil Wood Stains
Pigments are derived from various
earth clays. After they are dissolved
in linseed oil, the coloring particles
remain suspended between the oil
molecules. For spreading the color
particles over large surfaces, the
ground oil color is thinned with
turpentine .
• Water Stains
These are made from anilyne dyes
and mineral extracts which have
been dissolved in hot water ”.
• Spirit or Alcohol Stain
These are mixed with alcohol-
solution anilyne powders and
warmed alcohol.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Wood Stains
The method of applying wood stains:
1. Clean wood surface by planing, scraping and
sanding.
2. If water stain is to be used, sponge wood with damp
rag and allow to dry.
3. Resand with finer grit paper.
4. Fill holes, dents, cracks, etc. with crack filler colored
to match stains. When dry, sand smooth.
5. Dust and clean with benzene rags.
6. Apply stain, using brush or sponge with grain.
7. Apply shellac wash coat – 6 parts alcohol to 1 part
shellac.
8. Scuff surfaces lightly with fine sandpaper by hand.
9. Apply paste filler and wash off in 10 minutes.
10. Sand, dust and clean.
11. Apply shellac wash coat.
12. Sand, dust and clean.
13. Select any of the ff. finishes: a.) shellac and wax, b)
varnish, c.) lacquer

7. PAINT FINISHES
b. Wood Fillers
• Paste Fillers.
Composed of silex (stone dust), japan-drier, linseed
oil, turpentine, and sometimes colors ground in oil
Filler is applied with the grain and allowed to dry
“flat” for about 10 minutes. It is then wiped off across
the grain with burlap or some other coarse material.
Paste fillers requires about 24 hours for drying
before it can be sanded.
• Crack Fillers.
Plastic wood putty, stick shellac, etc. They are used
for filling nails holes, cracks and dents.

7. PAINT FINISHES
b. Shellac
Shellac is made by refining seed lac and its natural
color is orange; white shellac is obtained by bleaching.
Lac is a resin exuded by certain insects in India in the
twigs of trees. These twigs with the resin attached are
called sticklac and are crushed and washed to produce
seed lac.
Shellac is an under or a
preparatory coat for varnish
and wax finishes, but is not
satisfactory as an indepen-
dent finish because it is not
durable and turns white from
contact with water. It is also
used to cover wood knots
before a priming lead and oil
coat is applied because it kills
the resin in the knot and
prevents discoloration.

7. PAINT FINISHES
c. Varnish
It is a resolution of resin in drying oil (oil varnish) or in a
voltatile solvent such as alcohol or turpentine (spirit
varnish). It contains no pigment and hardens into a
smooth, hard and glossy coat by the oxidation of the oil
or by the evaporation of the alcohol.
The chief resins used in varnishes are
- copal of African fossil gums;
- dammar or resins from Singapore and the East
Indies;
- the residue left under the extraction of turpentine
from pine resins, and rosin esters, obtained by treating
resin with glycerine to make it waterproof when dry.

7. PAINT FINISHES
c. Varnish
In general, oil varnishes are more durable than spirit
varnishes. Spirit varnishes are either dammar varnish,
mad by treating dammar resins with turpentine, or
shellac varnish, made by dissolving white or orange
shellac in grain alcohol. They dry by the evaporation of
the solvent.
Drying time is from
4 to 24 hours.
Varnish should
never be applied
when the weather is
moist or humid.

7. PAINT FINISHES
d. Lacquer
Lacquer is made synthetically, and is closely
related to rayon or nylon fabrics. It requires a
special thinner sold by each manufacturer for his
own brand.
Average drying time is 1-1/2 hours. For fine lacquer
finishes, a special undercoat of lacquer sealer is
applied over a wash coat of shellac.
After the sealer has dried, it is sanded or steel-
wooled to give the lacquer a gripping surface

7. PAINT FINISHES
7.02 OPAQUE FINISHES
a. Paint
Paint is a mixture containing a pigment and a
vehicle.
The pigment is that solid, finely ground portion
which gives to paint the power to obscure, hide or
color the surface.
The vehicle is the fluid portion of the paint. It
carries the particles of the pigment in suspension
and by the oxidation deposits and hardening binds
them to painted surface or by evaporation deposits
them thereon.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
PIGMENTS:
may be divided into white and colored pigments.
The white pigments can, in turn, be divided further
into hiding or active pigments and extender
pigments.
• Hiding or active pigments
are those which when mixed with the drying oil,
produces an opaque finishing material.
The most widely used active pigment is white lead
which, when used alone withlinseed oil, will produce
an excellent durable paint.
Other active white pigments include:
- zinc oxide
- lithopone
- titanium dioxide.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
• Extender pigments:
are inert pigments which when mixed with the drying
oils possess very little hiding power.
They are often referred to as fillers, extenders or
suspenders. They serve to prevent the primary
pigment from settling in a hard mass at the bottom of
the paint can.
The extender pigments include:
- calcium carbonate
- silica and
- mica.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
• Extender pigments:
All paints other than white paints also contain color
pigments in addition to white pigments.
A good exterior paint should contain not less than
65% pigment by weight.
High quality exterior paints contain not more than
10% of extender pigments

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
VEHICLE:
• The vehicle or liquid portion of the paint consists of:
- a binder which forms the film
- the drier to speed up formulation of the film and
- the thinner or the volatile solvent .
The volatile solvent facilitates application and
contributes, through its evaporation, to the drying of
the paint, but is not a permanent part of the film.
The type of solvent used in a paint determines
whether it is a
- water-base paint (where the solvent is water) or
- oil-base paint (where the solvent is an
organic liquid).
The vehicle of a paint should not contain more than
35% of the paint’s volume by weight .

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
The principal paint for exterior wood surfaces is oil
paint, which contains white lead as the white paint
pigment, color pigments and extenders in a vehicle
consisting of a drying oil, usually linseed oil, dryers,
and turpentine as the solvent or thinner.
Other drying oils used are
- tung or china oil,
- soybean and
- fish oils.
Driers are added to the vehicle of paints containing
drying oils to accelerate the hardening of paint by
speeding the union of the oil with oxygen from the air.
A good paint’s vehicle will contain 85 to 95% drying oil
and the rest thinners and driers.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Driers:
may be classified into two types:
- oil driers, used in powdered or crystalline form
such as litharge (monoxide of lead),
manganese dioxide, borate; and
- liquid driers, inorganic compounds of lead,
manganese and cobalt, which are dissolved in
turpentine or benzene and which mix readily
with the oil at ordinary temperatures.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Thinners
act as a solvent both for the materials of the paint and
for the resin in the wood surface thereby providing
greater penetration and anchorage in the wood pores.
It improves the brushing and spreading qualities of the
paint and also hastens its drying by absorbing oxygen
from the air and transferring it to the drying oil. The
best thinner is turpentine, a spirit obtained by steam
distillation of the resin or gum which exudes from pine
trees. (The residue of the distillation is known as rosin,
used in the making of varnish.) Other thinners include
mineral spirits (petroleum distillation products) benzol,
solvent naptha.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Thinners
Turpentine is also added to the first or priming coat to
assist the penetration of the paint and in much smaller
quantities to the outer coats especially for exterior
work.
Because it dries without a gloss, it is mixed with the
final coats for interior finishes when a flat or dull finish
is required.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Alkyd-resin or oil-resin emulsion paints
where oil and resin emulsified in water makes a
heterogeneous finishing material by an emulsifying
agent such as casein.
A great advantage of oil resin paint is that its
viscosity can be easily reduced by the addition of
water. Water is added as a thinner for the same
reason that turpentine or mineral spirits is added to
oil paints.
Other advantages of oil-resin emulsion paints are
that it dries quickly (two coats can be applied the
same day); it is easy to apply; it is easy to recoat with
itself or other paint, and it has little tendency to fade.

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Synthetic latex (rubber-base) paints
is made from synthetic latex which acts as the pigment
binder and the film-forming material for the paint.
A careful balance of synthetic latex and alkyds resins
gives a solution that can thinned with water for
application as a continuous film with excellent adhesion
and wash ability.
Synthetic latex paints have little tendency to turn yellow
because, unlike oil paints, they absorb very little
oxygen from the air.
Latex paint is the preferred paint for the plaster,
cement, concrete and masonry

7. PAINT FINISHES
7.03 PAINT BEHAVIOR AND DEFECTS
a. Paint
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a properly
prepared surface wears by gradual “chalking” and
maintains a smooth, tough and durable film that
constitutes a satisfactory surface for repainting. Such a
paint film will remain an effective protective coating for
a period of three to five years depending upon the
locality and the characteristics of the original surface. It
requires little treatment beyond surface dusting in
preparation for repainting

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Paint
Portland cement-base paints
a water-base paint (where the solvent is water) used for
painting concrete and masonry surfaces
Enamel paints
paints which use varnish as a vehicle. They have the
ability of levelling brush marks, are more resistant to
washing and rough usage, and have a harder and
tougher film. They can have either a glossy, semi
glossy or matt finish.
Rust-inhibiting paints
protective paints for ferrous metal and are of two types:
- priming paint, e.g. red lead, litharge, lead chromate;
- finish paints, e.g., lead sulfate and zinc dust.

7. PAINT FINISHES
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a properly
prepared surface wears by gradual “chalking” and
maintains a smooth, tough and durable film that
constitutes a satisfactory surface for repainting.
Such a paint film will remain an effective protective
coating for a period of three to five years depending
upon the locality and the characteristics of the original
surface. It requires little treatment beyond surface
dusting in preparation for repainting.
Defective paint behavior and surface failures, on the
other hand, are traceable to three main causes:
1. Improper paint formulation.
2. Inadequate surface preparation and careless
application.
3. Faulty construction or building materials

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Excessive or premature chalking
• evidenced by surface
dusting and rapid
thinning of the film,
sometimes to bare
wood.
• caused by improper
formulation or paint
application.
• too high a percentage
of volatile thinner forms
a porous film subject
has completely worn
away.
Film defects may result from one or any combination
of these. The following are the various paint defects,
their causes, prevention

7. PAINT FINISHES
a. Excessive or premature chalking
1. CONCRETE
SURFACE FINISHES
1.01 Stucco or
Cement Plaster
1.02 Rubbed Finish
1.03 Brushed Finish
3. TILE FINISHES
3.01 Cement Tile
4. RESILIENT FLOOR FIN
4.01 Asphalt Tile/Sheet
1.04 Tooled Finish
1.05 Sand-blast Finish
1.06 Exposed Aggr
1.07 Wood Float Finish
1.08 Steel Trowelled
1.09 Integral Colored-
Cement Finish
3.02 Ceramic Tile
4.02 Vinyl Tile/Sheet
4.03 Rubber Tile/Sheet
4.04 Linoleum Sheet
5. WOOD FLOOR FIN
5.01 StripFlooring
5.02 Plank Flooring
5.04 Parquet Tile Floor
6. CEILING FINISHES
6.01 Ceiling Board
6.02 Acoustic Tile
7. PAINT FINISHES
7.01 Transparent Fin
7.02 Opaque Fin
2. GRANOLITHIC FINISH
2.01 Granolithic
2.02 Terrazo
7.03 Paint Defects
• too high a percentage of volatile thinner forms a
porous film subject has completely worn away.
• May be prevented by strict adherence to high
standards of paint formulation and application.

7. PAINT FINISHES
b. Sagging and running
• marked by irregular wavy lines that texture an
otherwise smooth finish film.
• cause is usually paint formulation with too low a
pigment volume, or too heavy and careless an
application of a thin-consistency paint. It occurs
sometimes when repainting an interior if an
original gloss surface has not been cut by light
sanding.
• Cure of condition necessitates sanding the
irregularities and repainting. Prevention involves
maintaining proper proportions of pigment and
linseed oil as to formulation and careful brushing
of properly thinned paint as to application

7. PAINT FINISHES
c. Storm spotting
• usually occurring after
continuous rains and
electric storms, are
characterized by
unsightly and irregular
color changes.
• Rain sometimes absorbs
nitrates and peroxides
formed by electrical
discharges and
penetrates the paint film,
changing the refractive
index of the coating.
• Cure of condition can sometimes be
accomplished by rubbing spots with alcohol.
Subsequent weathering usually restores the
original color within a month or two.

7. PAINT FINISHES
d. Washing
• is characterized by streaking on the surface,
fading color, the final exposure of the original
surface and accumulation of pigment particles
below the painted area.
• caused by water-soluble compounds in pigments
of poor paints or soluble compounds which
develop by chemical reactions in the paint are
dissolved during rain storms and wash out of the
film.
• also when paints are applied during periods of
high humidity and low temperatures, the film
structure may be injured during the drying
period.

7. PAINT FINISHES
e. Stains
• are surface discolorations which often disappear
gradually as the paint film wears. Sometimes,
however, they go through the film necessitating
its removal and subsequent repainting.
• Metal stains are sometimes caused by water
dripping from exposed metal.
• Prevention involves coating metal. Galvanized
iron should be painted with metallic zinc dust in
spar varnish or paint containing zinc oxide.

7. PAINT FINISHES
e. Stains
• Mildew stains are caused by air-borne fungi that
feed on oil and multiply rapidly. They cannot be
easily removed. Old growth should be removed
before repainting by washing with 1 lb. of tri-
sodium phosphate or sodium carbonate in 1
gallon of water.
• For prevention, the paint can be treated with
about 1/4 oz. of mercuric chloride per gallon.

7. PAINT FINISHES
f. Checking
• characterized by minute cracks on the surface of
elastic paint films. Usually it is not a serious film
defect, for checks do not extend through the film.
• cause is improper application or improper formulation
of undercoats. The finish film is applied over a body
coat not quite enough for a proper foundation.
Unequal tensions occur in drying and small surface
checks result.
• cure of condition involves wire brushing affected
areas and repainting if checking does not disappear
under influence of normal wear.
• prevention involves allowance of sufficient drying
time between coats and formulation of the body coat
with a minimum amount of oil in order to develop a
hard foundation for finish

7. PAINT FINISHES
g. Alligatoring
• an advance state of checking, varying in degree to
a coarse texturing of the finish film.
• cause involves application of a harder drying finish
over soft or slow-drying under-coats. As in
checking, poor formulation with too much linseed
oil in the priming or body coat may result in
alligatoring.
• cure of condition, if extensive, requires removal of
the film and repainting.
• prevention necessitates precautions noted above
to prevent checking

7. PAINT FINISHES
h. Cracking and scaling
• characterized by irregular cracks that subsequently
curl at the edge, flake and finally scale off. Over
wood, scaling is usually most marked in direction
of or across the grain.
• cracking is a wear characteristic of hard-drying
paints that contain large proportions of zinc oxide
pigment.
• scaling comes from the water pressure when
moisture seeps through the crack to the original
surface. The condition is common to any surface
coated with paint improperly formulated to
withstand local conditions.

7. PAINT FINISHES
h. Cracking and scaling
• cure of condition at an early stage requires
vigorous brushing and recoating with a less brittle
film.
• prevention involves formulation to produce a
tougher, more elastic film. Usually this means an
increased percentage of white lead.

7. PAINT FINISHES
i. Blistering and Peeling
• characterized by swelling of the entire film which is
usually followed by a break in the film and
subsequent peeling.
• cause is water pressure from behind the film due
to faulty construction that allows moisture seepage
or abnormal condensation. This is a mechanical
damage that may occur whatever the type or
quality of paint used.
• sometimes also results
also when damp surfaces
are covered by quick-
drying paints.
• This type of damage may
be evident on wood,
stucco or masonry
surfaces .

7. PAINT FINISHES
i. Blistering and Peeling
• cure of condition requires complete removal of the
paint and repainting as for new work.
• prevention necessitates permanent removal of the
moisture sources, often involving extensive repairs
and waterproofing.

7. PAINT FINISHES
j. Spot fading
characterized by color changes and flatting of gloss
in irregular patches on the film.
cause is from uneven oil absorption, usually a result
of insufficient coats or a priming coat improperly
formulated to penetrate and adequately seal surface
pores. It may be emphasized when “skimping” is
attempted, that is, application of two coats when
three are needed, or the use of a cheaply formulated
paint.
cure of condition is repainting.
prevention requires merely the exercise of proper
painting technique.

7. PAINT FINISHES
k. Wrinkling
not to be confused with alligatoring, is marked by a
tough, leather-like texturing.
cause is usually when paint is put on too thickly and
not well brushed out and may be contributed to by
formulation if too high a proportion of oil is used in
finish coats.
cure of condition requires only sanding and
repainting if texture is slight. Otherwise, film removal
is indicated with subsequent painting as for new work
.
prevention requires strict adherence to high
standards of paint formulation and thorough brushing
out in application

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