Boyles law
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This document describes an experiment using Boyle's law apparatus to measure atmospheric pressure. The apparatus consists of a glass tube closed at one end and connected via rubber tubing to a second glass tube. Mercury is used to alter the pressure in the system by adjusting the levels in each tube. Readings of the mercury levels and positions are taken as the pressure is varied. A graph of pressure versus inverse volume allows calculation of atmospheric pressure from the y-intercept.
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Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a barometer. The first mercury barometer was developed in 1643 by Evangelista Torricelli. Later, an aneroid barometer was invented in 1843 that functions without liquids. In 2004, Cold Energy obtained a patent for a device that generates electricity by exploiting differences in atmospheric pressure between geographic locations using a pressurized air pipeline. This concept could generate enough renewable energy to power 250,000 homes.
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1) The document discusses gas and atmospheric pressure. It explains concepts like kinetic theory of gases, atmospheric pressure, units of measurement, and how pressure is affected by factors like altitude, temperature, and volume.
2) Various instruments for measuring pressure are described, including mercury barometers, aneroid barometers, manometers, and Bourdon gauges.
3) Applications of gas pressure are outlined, such as how straws, suckers, syringes, and vacuum cleaners work based on differences in air pressure.
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Torricelli invented the barometer in 1644 using a glass tube filled with mercury, noticing that atmospheric pressure caused the mercury's level to rise and fall. The barometer works by balancing the weight of the mercury against air pressure, with higher pressure lowering the mercury level. Later refinements included a U-shaped tube and additions like a dial to read the mercury's height in inches to measure pressure changes.
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Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It has various units like pascals and pounds per square inch. High pressure can result from a small contact area like spike heels. Atmospheric pressure is caused by air weight and varies with altitude. Vapor pressure depends on temperature and indicates evaporation rate. Differential pressure is the difference between two pressures. Overpressure refers to absolute pressure above atmosphere. Manometers like U-tubes measure pressure differences using fluid columns. Laminar flow has constant velocity while turbulent flow is irregular. Pressure gauges measure vessel interior pressure.
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Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a barometer. The first mercury barometer was developed in 1643 by Evangelista Torricelli. Later, an aneroid barometer was invented in 1843 that functions without liquids. In 2004, Cold Energy obtained a patent for a device that generates electricity by exploiting differences in atmospheric pressure between geographic locations using a pressurized air pipeline. This concept could generate enough renewable energy to power 250,000 homes.
3.3 gas presssure and atmospheric pressure
Gas pressure is the force exerted by gas particles on container walls per unit area. It depends on mass and temperature of the gas - higher mass and temperature means more particle motion and higher pressure. Atmospheric pressure acts equally in all directions, is influenced by altitude (lower pressure higher up), and can be measured using various instruments like mercury barometers, Fortin barometers, aneroid barometers, manometers, and Bourdon gauges.
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Liquids and gases exert pressure equally in all directions. Pressure increases with depth in liquids and gases due to the weight of the fluid above pressing down. Magdeburg hemispheres demonstrate that air pressure keeps spheres stuck together when the air between them is removed. The formula for calculating fluid pressure is Pressure = Density x Gravity x Height, where increasing height results in increasing pressure.
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3.3 Gas pressure & Atmospheric Pressure
1) The document discusses gas and atmospheric pressure. It explains concepts like kinetic theory of gases, atmospheric pressure, units of measurement, and how pressure is affected by factors like altitude, temperature, and volume.
2) Various instruments for measuring pressure are described, including mercury barometers, aneroid barometers, manometers, and Bourdon gauges.
3) Applications of gas pressure are outlined, such as how straws, suckers, syringes, and vacuum cleaners work based on differences in air pressure.
4) Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating gas pressure values using given measurements from manometers and barometers.
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Torricelli invented the barometer in 1644 using a glass tube filled with mercury, noticing that atmospheric pressure caused the mercury's level to rise and fall. The barometer works by balancing the weight of the mercury against air pressure, with higher pressure lowering the mercury level. Later refinements included a U-shaped tube and additions like a dial to read the mercury's height in inches to measure pressure changes.
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Solid pressure is defined as the force acting on a given area, measured in Pascals. Fluid pressure results from particle collisions within the fluid and increases with depth and density. It is described by the equation P=hρg. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude and is measured using barometers. Fluids transfer pressure equally in all directions according to Pascal's principle, which has applications in hydraulic systems. Archimedes' principle describes buoyancy as the upward force equal to the weight of fluid displaced. Bernoulli's principle states that fluid pressure decreases where velocity increases, as seen in aerofoils, venturi nozzles, and other streamlined objects.
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General Atmospheric CirculationUnit 6bGeneral Ci
General Atmospheric
Circulation
Unit 6b
General Circulation of the Atmosphere
• Single-cell model (Hadley, 1735)
• Assumes:
– non-rotating earth
– uniform surface
• Low Pressure at Equator (warm air rising)
• High Pressure at Poles (cold air sinking)
• Creates a thermal convection cell
Three Cell Model
• Due to earth’s rotation and other
dynamic factors there are typically 3
primary cells
– Hadley Cell (tropics)
– Midlatitude Cell (Ferrel)
– Polar Cell (polar zones)
Three Cell Model
Hadley Cell
Primary High & Low Pressure Areas
Equatorial Low Pressure (ITCZ)
Subtropical High Pressure
Subpolar Low Pressure
Polar High Pressure
Equatorial Low Pressure
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
±10° N & S
Thermally-induced low pressure
Clouds and rain
Limited wind (doldrums)
Seasonal shift N-S
Subtropical High Pressure
• Dynamic high pressure
– subsiding air of Hadley Cell
– between 20° - 35° N & S
• Creates hot, dry air
– Clear skies, limited wind (horse latitudes)
– e.g., Bermuda High, Hawaiian High
• Strengthen/weaken seasonally
• Shift N & S with sun’s declination
Subpolar Low Pressure
• Dynamic low pressure
– air forced to rise
– along polar front
• Cool, moist, cloudy
• Frequent cyclonic storms
– e.g., Aleutian Low, Icelandic Low
• strengthen/weaken seasonally
General Circulation
(Side-View)
General Circulation – Surface Winds
Trade Winds (tropical)
Westerlies (midlatitudes)
Polar Easterlies
Trade Winds
Trade Winds (tropical)
– from subtropical highs to equatorial lows
– northeast trades & southeast trades
Westerlies
Westerlies (midlatitudes)
– from the subtropical highs to the subpolar lows (west à
east)
– tend to be wavy (meridional flow)
Polar Easterlies
Polar Easterlies
– from polar highs to subpolar lows
– variable, cold, dry winds
www.atmo.arizona.edu
General Circulation – Upper Air Flow
(geostrophic winds)
• Westerlies
– subtropics à poles
– occur as Rossby Waves Jet Streams
– areas of high wind velocity within the westerlies
• Subtropical Jet
– 20° - 50° N & S
– 10,000 – 15,000 m
• Polar Jet
– 30° - 70° N & S
– 8,000 – 12,000 m
Jet Stream
Rossby Waves
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a0
10900/a010902/
http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/tbw/wc
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Local and Regional Winds
Land/Sea Breeze
Mountain/Valley Breeze
Katabatic Winds
Compressional Winds
Monsoons
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• thermal circulation
• best developed in summer
• land heats up during day, creates relative low
pressure forming sea breeze
• land cools off at night creates relative high pressure
forming land breeze
Mountain/Valley Breeze
• thermal circulation
• best developed in summer
• slopes heat up during the day causing an upslope
wind (valley breeze)
• slopes cool off at night causing a downslope wind
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Here are the key steps to solve these atmospheric pressure and boiling point calculation problems:
1) H = 11(760 - 721) = 429 m
2) H = 4,070 m, P = 760 - (H/11) = 760 - (4,070/11) = 390 mm Hg
3) H = 2,376 m, B.P. = 100 - (760 - P)/27 = 100 - (760 - (760 - (H/11)))/27 = 100 - (760 - (760 - (2,376/11)))/27 = 95 °C
4) P = 625 mm Hg, H = 11(760 - P) = 11(
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Sheet1Initial Popluation0Rate 10Rate 20Rate 30Time (years)Future P.docx
Sheet1Initial Popluation0Rate 10Rate 20Rate 30Time (years)Future Population for Rate 1Future Population for Rate 2Future Population for Rate 3000000000000
Sheet1
Future Population for Rate 1
Future Population for Rate 2
Future Population for Rate 3
Sheet2
Sheet3
Meteorology Name _________________________________
Thermodynamic Diagram (Stability)
I. Introduction (For this lab, PLEASE READ chapter 6 in Ahrens)
A thermodynamic diagram (also called an adiabatic chart) is a pressure-temperature graph on which is plotted an atmospheric vertical profile or “sounding.” These charts enable meteorologists to put together a vertical picture of the atmosphere. Among other things, thermodynamic charts are used to assess atmospheric stability, predict cloud base levels and estimate the chances for thunderstorms.
Here is a sample thermodynamic diagram. In the lab room you will be given two of these:
II. Reading the thermodynamic diagram
On a thermodynamic diagram, the ordinates (green horizontal lines) are lines of equal pressure known as isobars. They are labelled in millibars.
The abscissas (green vertical lines) are lines of equal temperature known as isotherms. They are labelled in Celsius degrees.
The straight green lines that slope upward to the left are called “dry adiabats.” These indicate the cooling or warming rate of dry air as it is raised or lowered. Always use the dry adiabats when raising or lowering unsaturated air. The adiabats are labelled in Kelvin degrees according to their potential temperature, which is the temperature that air would have if it were moved to 1000 mb.
The nearly straight blue lines inclined a bit to the left of the isotherms are lines of constant mixing ratio. This means that they represent the number of grams of water vapor in each kilogram of dry air (g/kg).
The sloping red lines are called moist adiabats. They represent the temperature lapse rate for saturated air as it is raised. Always use the moist adiabats when raising or lowering saturated air.
III. Useful Definitions
Air parcel: A small representative sample of air.
Adiabatic: The way to describe a process in which no heat is being added or removed.
Mixing ratio (w): In a sample of air, the mixing ratio is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air. It is expressed in grams of water vapor per kilograms of dry air (g/kg). To find the mixing ratio, go to the intersection of the dew point with the given pressure. For example, at 900 mb, a dew point of -19.5°C is equivalent to a mixing ratio of 1 g/kg, the blue line which intersects there.
Saturation mixing ratio (ws): The mixing ratio an air parcel would have if saturated. To find ws, go to the intersection of the temperature with the given pressure. For example, at 900 mb, find the temperature of -10°C. No blue mixing ratio line intersects here, but the 2 g/kg line is close. Interpolate (guess) ws to be 2.1 g/kg.
Relative Humidity (RH): The rati.
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Fluidos en reposo y fluidos en movimiento
Los fluidos en reposo o en movimiento uniforme en equilibrio deberán estar libres de esfuerzos cortantes pues no los soportan. Se define como gravedad específica de una sustancia la razón entre su densidad y la densidad del agua. También se le llama densidad específica.
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There are several types of pressure measurements. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a full vacuum and uses units like PSIA. Atmospheric pressure refers to pressure at sea level, about 14.7 PSIA. Barometric pressure measures atmospheric conditions using units like millibars. Compound pressure measures from full vacuum through atmospheric pressure to positive gauge pressure in PSIC. Differential pressure measures the difference between two pressures in PSID. Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure in PSIG. Vacuum pressure refers to pressures below atmospheric measured in PSIV or inches of mercury.
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The document discusses alveolar and arterial gases and diffusion across the respiratory membrane. It introduces key terms like PACO2, PAO2, PaCO2 and PaO2. It explains that alveolar levels determine arterial levels through diffusion. Factors like ventilation rate, oxygen concentration, and metabolism can affect both alveolar and arterial gas levels. Optimal ventilation-perfusion matching is needed for efficient gas exchange and delivery of oxygen to tissues while removing carbon dioxide.
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Daniel Bernoulli discovered Bernoulli's principle in the 1700s through experiments observing water flow. Bernoulli's principle states that as the speed of a fluid increases, the pressure decreases. It explains that the pressure is lowest where the flow speed is highest. Some applications of this principle are how aircraft wings generate lift through differences in air pressure above and below the wing, and how ventilation works through higher pressure pushing lower pressure areas.
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1) As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure of the fluid decreases.
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3) Many common devices and phenomena rely on Bernoulli's principle, including aircraft wings, venturi tubes, and spray bottles.
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Bernoulli's principle
1. Bernoulli's principle states that within a horizontal flow of fluid, the highest fluid pressure occurs where the flow speed is lowest, and lowest pressure where flow speed is highest.
2. Bernoulli's principle explains how the difference in pressure above and below a wing produces an upward force, allowing for flight. It is also applied to explain how air flows over mountains.
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General Atmospheric CirculationUnit 6bGeneral Ci
General Atmospheric
Circulation
Unit 6b
General Circulation of the Atmosphere
• Single-cell model (Hadley, 1735)
• Assumes:
– non-rotating earth
– uniform surface
• Low Pressure at Equator (warm air rising)
• High Pressure at Poles (cold air sinking)
• Creates a thermal convection cell
Three Cell Model
• Due to earth’s rotation and other
dynamic factors there are typically 3
primary cells
– Hadley Cell (tropics)
– Midlatitude Cell (Ferrel)
– Polar Cell (polar zones)
Three Cell Model
Hadley Cell
Primary High & Low Pressure Areas
Equatorial Low Pressure (ITCZ)
Subtropical High Pressure
Subpolar Low Pressure
Polar High Pressure
Equatorial Low Pressure
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
±10° N & S
Thermally-induced low pressure
Clouds and rain
Limited wind (doldrums)
Seasonal shift N-S
Subtropical High Pressure
• Dynamic high pressure
– subsiding air of Hadley Cell
– between 20° - 35° N & S
• Creates hot, dry air
– Clear skies, limited wind (horse latitudes)
– e.g., Bermuda High, Hawaiian High
• Strengthen/weaken seasonally
• Shift N & S with sun’s declination
Subpolar Low Pressure
• Dynamic low pressure
– air forced to rise
– along polar front
• Cool, moist, cloudy
• Frequent cyclonic storms
– e.g., Aleutian Low, Icelandic Low
• strengthen/weaken seasonally
General Circulation
(Side-View)
General Circulation – Surface Winds
Trade Winds (tropical)
Westerlies (midlatitudes)
Polar Easterlies
Trade Winds
Trade Winds (tropical)
– from subtropical highs to equatorial lows
– northeast trades & southeast trades
Westerlies
Westerlies (midlatitudes)
– from the subtropical highs to the subpolar lows (west à
east)
– tend to be wavy (meridional flow)
Polar Easterlies
Polar Easterlies
– from polar highs to subpolar lows
– variable, cold, dry winds
www.atmo.arizona.edu
General Circulation – Upper Air Flow
(geostrophic winds)
• Westerlies
– subtropics à poles
– occur as Rossby Waves Jet Streams
– areas of high wind velocity within the westerlies
• Subtropical Jet
– 20° - 50° N & S
– 10,000 – 15,000 m
• Polar Jet
– 30° - 70° N & S
– 8,000 – 12,000 m
Jet Stream
Rossby Waves
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a0
10900/a010902/
http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/tbw/wc
.notes/7.circ.atm/rossby_waves.htm
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Ocean Circulation
Unit 6c
Local and Regional Winds
Land/Sea Breeze
Mountain/Valley Breeze
Katabatic Winds
Compressional Winds
Monsoons
Land/Sea Breeze
• thermal circulation
• best developed in summer
• land heats up during day, creates relative low
pressure forming sea breeze
• land cools off at night creates relative high pressure
forming land breeze
Mountain/Valley Breeze
• thermal circulation
• best developed in summer
• slopes heat up during the day causing an upslope
wind (valley breeze)
• slopes cool off at night causing a downslope wind
(mountain breeze)
Katabatic Wind
Cold downslope wind
cold air = greater densit ...
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Here are the key steps to solve these atmospheric pressure and boiling point calculation problems:
1) H = 11(760 - 721) = 429 m
2) H = 4,070 m, P = 760 - (H/11) = 760 - (4,070/11) = 390 mm Hg
3) H = 2,376 m, B.P. = 100 - (760 - P)/27 = 100 - (760 - (760 - (H/11)))/27 = 100 - (760 - (760 - (2,376/11)))/27 = 95 °C
4) P = 625 mm Hg, H = 11(760 - P) = 11(
airpressure.pptx
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of air molecules in the atmosphere. It is measured using a barometer, which measures the height of a mercury column that decreases as atmospheric pressure decreases. At sea level, atmospheric pressure exerts a force of 14.7 pounds per square inch. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases by about 1 inch of mercury for every 1,000 feet gained in elevation due to the decreasing weight of the overlying air. Changes in atmospheric pressure can help forecast weather patterns, with falling pressure typically indicating approaching bad weather.
Industrial Air Controls
The document defines key terms and concepts related to industrial pneumatics, including:
- The physical states of matter and how gases differ from liquids
- Common gas laws such as Boyle's law, Charles' law, and the combined gas law
- Fundamental pneumatic terms like pressure, vacuum, and compressibility
- Primary components of compressed air systems like filters, regulators, lubricators
- Types of pneumatic valves, actuators, and motors
Sheet1Initial Popluation0Rate 10Rate 20Rate 30Time (years)Future P.docx
Sheet1Initial Popluation0Rate 10Rate 20Rate 30Time (years)Future Population for Rate 1Future Population for Rate 2Future Population for Rate 3000000000000
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Future Population for Rate 1
Future Population for Rate 2
Future Population for Rate 3
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Meteorology Name _________________________________
Thermodynamic Diagram (Stability)
I. Introduction (For this lab, PLEASE READ chapter 6 in Ahrens)
A thermodynamic diagram (also called an adiabatic chart) is a pressure-temperature graph on which is plotted an atmospheric vertical profile or “sounding.” These charts enable meteorologists to put together a vertical picture of the atmosphere. Among other things, thermodynamic charts are used to assess atmospheric stability, predict cloud base levels and estimate the chances for thunderstorms.
Here is a sample thermodynamic diagram. In the lab room you will be given two of these:
II. Reading the thermodynamic diagram
On a thermodynamic diagram, the ordinates (green horizontal lines) are lines of equal pressure known as isobars. They are labelled in millibars.
The abscissas (green vertical lines) are lines of equal temperature known as isotherms. They are labelled in Celsius degrees.
The straight green lines that slope upward to the left are called “dry adiabats.” These indicate the cooling or warming rate of dry air as it is raised or lowered. Always use the dry adiabats when raising or lowering unsaturated air. The adiabats are labelled in Kelvin degrees according to their potential temperature, which is the temperature that air would have if it were moved to 1000 mb.
The nearly straight blue lines inclined a bit to the left of the isotherms are lines of constant mixing ratio. This means that they represent the number of grams of water vapor in each kilogram of dry air (g/kg).
The sloping red lines are called moist adiabats. They represent the temperature lapse rate for saturated air as it is raised. Always use the moist adiabats when raising or lowering saturated air.
III. Useful Definitions
Air parcel: A small representative sample of air.
Adiabatic: The way to describe a process in which no heat is being added or removed.
Mixing ratio (w): In a sample of air, the mixing ratio is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air. It is expressed in grams of water vapor per kilograms of dry air (g/kg). To find the mixing ratio, go to the intersection of the dew point with the given pressure. For example, at 900 mb, a dew point of -19.5°C is equivalent to a mixing ratio of 1 g/kg, the blue line which intersects there.
Saturation mixing ratio (ws): The mixing ratio an air parcel would have if saturated. To find ws, go to the intersection of the temperature with the given pressure. For example, at 900 mb, find the temperature of -10°C. No blue mixing ratio line intersects here, but the 2 g/kg line is close. Interpolate (guess) ws to be 2.1 g/kg.
Relative Humidity (RH): The rati.
Pressure measurement
Pressure can be measured using various instruments, including bourdon tube gauges, manometers, and aneroid gauges. Manometers measure pressure by comparing it to the height of a liquid column, with mercury commonly used for its density. Absolute pressure is measured against a vacuum, while gauge pressure is against atmospheric pressure. Instruments are selected based on their required pressure range and accuracy.
Weather Theory Part I (Group C)
The document discusses the atmosphere and factors that affect it. It defines key terms like density, pressure, and the Coriolis effect. It describes the composition of the atmosphere and explains that the troposphere is the lowest level. Atmospheric circulation is driven by uneven heating from the sun and factors like Earth's rotation. Pressure decreases with altitude and this impacts aircraft performance and the human body at higher elevations.
Fluidos en reposo y fluidos en movimiento
Los fluidos en reposo o en movimiento uniforme en equilibrio deberán estar libres de esfuerzos cortantes pues no los soportan. Se define como gravedad específica de una sustancia la razón entre su densidad y la densidad del agua. También se le llama densidad específica.
3-1Air Pressure.ppt
- Air has mass and pressure due to gravity pressing down on its mass. Denser air has more pressure.
- Atmospheric pressure can be measured using barometers like mercury or aneroid barometers. Weather reports use units like inches of mercury or millibars to indicate pressure.
- Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude and elevation due to there being less air above pressing down. The higher the altitude, the less dense the air becomes.
19IN Lec 3.pptx
This document discusses various transducers used for pressure, temperature, level, and flow measurements. It describes different pressure measurement units and scales including absolute, gauge, differential, atmospheric, and vacuum pressure scales. Common pressure transducers like Bourdon gauges and capacitive transducers are explained. Temperature measurement principles of liquid-in-glass thermometers and rotary thermometers are outlined. Common temperature transducers like thermocouples, RTDs, and thermistors are also summarized along with the working principle of thermocouples based on the Seebeck effect.
Gas Laws Modified
The document provides information about different gases including oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and helium (He). It discusses which gases are important for plants (CO2), breathing (O2/CO2), combustion (O2), and balloons/dirigibles (He). The document also covers gas laws, properties of gases like pressure and volume, units of measurement, and how gases behave at different temperatures and pressures.
Gases & the Atmosphere
The document discusses the composition and properties of Earth's atmosphere. It provides details on:
- The main permanent gases that make up Earth's atmosphere, such as nitrogen and oxygen.
- Instruments used to measure gas pressure and atmospheric pressure, such as mercury barometers and manometers.
- Gas laws describing the relationships between gas pressure, volume and temperature, including Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law.
- The development of the combined gas law integrating these relationships.
notes in fluid mechanics
This document discusses fluid mechanics and hydraulics concepts including:
1. Definitions of density, specific gravity, atmospheric pressure, absolute and gauge pressure.
2. Descriptions of viscosity, laminar flow, turbulent flow, continuity equation, and steady vs unsteady flow.
3. Explanations of surface tension, capillarity, hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy, and center of pressure.
4. Discussions of manometers, energy equations, forces on submerged surfaces, and fluid static forces.
Trabajo geografia power point bien
This document discusses factors that influence atmospheric pressure and wind climate. It explains that atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer and is influenced by average pressure, altitude, and air temperature. Warm air is less dense and causes low pressure areas and precipitation, while cold, dense air causes high pressure areas. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure and blows from high to low pressure areas. The document outlines some of the most important global wind patterns like trade winds and polar winds that help transport heat between cold and warm zones.
ELEMENTS OF THE CLIMATE
This document discusses factors that influence atmospheric pressure and wind climate. It explains that atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer and is influenced by average pressure, altitude, and air temperature. Warm air is less dense and causes low pressure areas and precipitation, while cold, dense air causes high pressure areas. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure and blows from high to low pressure areas. The document outlines some of the most important global wind patterns like trade winds and polar winds that help transport heat between cold and warm zones.
Physics 1.11 - Pressure.pptx
1. Pressure is defined as force per unit area and can be calculated using the equation p=F/A.
2. Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a mercury barometer, where atmospheric pressure pushes mercury up the tube. Pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
3. Pressure increases with depth in liquids and depends on the density of the liquid. Higher density liquids exert greater pressure at the same depth.
4. Hydraulic systems use incompressible liquids to multiply force through differences in applied and reacted areas. A small force applied to a small area can produce a larger force from the same pressure over a larger area.
Force pressure n 3 principles
Forces in fluids are explained through concepts like pressure, which increases with depth underwater or elevation above sea level. Devices like hydraulic systems use confined fluids to multiply forces by changing piston sizes based on Pascal's principle. Archimedes' principle states that the buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid equals the weight of the fluid displaced, determining whether it sinks or floats based on relative densities.
Sheet1Moisture content analysis final resultsGroupValue of m3 (g)A.docx
Sheet1Moisture content analysis final resultsGroupValue of m3 (g)A21.459B25 kPa34.35950 kPa18.771C19.282D17.816E23.651F26.148GTBCH28.664
LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY
CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING: APPLICATION & THEORY (BEng)
Laboratory Experiment:
Undrained triaxial compression test (without pore water pressure measurement) BS
1377: Part 7: 1990.
Object of Experiment:
To determine the undrained shear strength of a soil using the triaxial compression test.
Theory/Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a cell, which is filled with water under pressure; the
specimen is loaded vertically, via a proving ring to measure load.
Triaxial Cell
The vertical load on the specimen is increased until failure occurs, the vertical strain
being recorded at the same time using a dial gauge. The test is repeated on different
specimens from the same soil, using different values of cell pressure.
254
Stresses on specimen in Triaxial Cell
Cell Pressure Deviator Stress =P/A 1=3+P/A
1 = major principal stress
3 = minor principal stress
Therefore, P/A = (1-3) =Deviator stress
The deviator stress is the load on the specimen, P, divided by the cross sectional area
of the specimen. However, as the sample is compressed during the test, the cross
sectional area will increase. Therefore, in calculating the deviator stress an allowance
for the change in area must be considered.
For the calculation of deviator stress, it is assumed that the volume of the specimen
remains constant and that the sample will deform as a cylinder, e.g.
100%
o
X
Strain
L
1 3
P
Deviator stress
A
where P = vertical load, which is measured by a proving ring (kN)
A = Area calculated using the following method;
( ) )o o o oVolume V A L AL A L X
255
1
o o
o
V A
or A or A
L X
Method:
1. Extrude the sample from the tube and trim to size - soil sample of 38mm
diameter and 76mm long.
2. Sleeve the sample with the rubber membrane.
3. Put the sample on the pedestal at the bottom of the cell and seal with the
rubber ring. Place the loading cap on top of the sample and seal with rubber
ring, before securing top drainage tube.
4. Mount the cell over the sample and fill as per the
Flooding Triaxial Cell checklist.
5. Set-up the test with the Clisp Studio assistant, and complete the
Pressurising Triaxial Cell checklist before running the test stages.
6. When test stages are complete, end the test via Clip Studio and complete the
Draining Triaxial Cell checklist.
Results and Calculations:
• Sketch the failure mode of each sample.
• Calculate the moisture content of the soil as per Appendix A.
• Calculate the results as follows:
(i) For each sample tested:
• Find the failure strain (either the final value or.
10.1,10.2 Properties Of Gases And Pressure
The document discusses properties of gases and gas pressure. It defines gases as consisting of particles that move rapidly and are far apart. Gas pressure is described as a force acting on an area and can be measured in units like atmospheres, mmHg, and torr. It provides conversions between these pressure units and discusses how atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude due to lower air density. A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure by indicating the height of a mercury column.
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Sheet1Moisture content analysis final resultsGroupValue of m3 (g)A.docx
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Boyles law
- 1. Use of Boyle’s lawUse of Boyle’s law apparatus to verify Boyle’sapparatus to verify Boyle’s law and to measure thelaw and to measure the pressure of the atmospherepressure of the atmosphere Experiment number (3Experiment number (3((
- 2. Atmospheric PressureAtmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressureAtmospheric pressure is the pressure exertedis the pressure exerted by a column of air fromby a column of air from the top of thethe top of the atmosphere to theatmosphere to the surface of the Earth.surface of the Earth.
- 3. Atmospheric PressureAtmospheric Pressure 1 atm = 760 mm Hg The atmosphere begins at Earth’s surface and extends upwards. The boundary where it ends and outer space begins is not clearly defined, so one method used to determine this is pressure changes. Atmospheric pressure is simply the weight of the air above. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is a weight over 1 kg per square cm. The atmospheric pressure decreases the higher up one goes.
- 4. Boyle’s LawBoyle’s Law Boyle’s LawBoyle’s Law statesstates thatthat • The pressure of a gasThe pressure of a gas is inversely related tois inversely related to its volume when T andits volume when T and n are constant.n are constant. • If volume decreases,If volume decreases, the pressurethe pressure increases.increases. P V
- 5. ApparatusApparatus A glass tube AB of uniform bore about 10 mm in diameter and closed at one end. The other end is connected by rubber tubing to a glass tube CD. When mercury is poured into the limb CD some air trapped in the closed limb AB, ruler (1000 mm) A X C Y DB L H Rubber
- 6. MethodMethod Lower the tube AB as much as possible and raise the tube CD until the mercury level X and Y are visible, record the scale readings of these levels and also the scale reading of A, the inside of the closed end of the tube AB. Alter the pressure by suitable adjustment of both limbs of the apparatus and take about ten sets of readings over the largest ranges of pressure and volume of which the apparatus is capable. A X C DB L Rubber Y Move up ward, increase 5mm for x Then Move down ward, decrease 5mm for x
- 7. Scale readings / mmScale readings / mm AA XX YY A-X=LA-X=L Y-X=HY-X=H 11//LL 695695 604604 639639 9191 3535 0.01100.0110 695695 599599 599599 9696 00 0.01040.0104 695695 594594 547547 101101 --4747 0.01000.0100 1 H = K X ------ - B L Where K is constant and equal to slope, ON = B (atmospheric pressure). H (mm) 1/L (mm-1 ) O N
- 8. Set your report as the following:Set your report as the following: 1. Title. 2. Apparatus. 3. Medical applications (try to use internet) 4. Data table. 5. Graph. 6. Calculation. 7. Discussion. Note: put answers of these questions in your discussion. • Atmospheric pressure is less than 760 mmHg, because our place is over sea level. Write theoretical atmospheric pressure for ERBIL, and then discuss the different with your experimental value. • What happened if we use water instead of mercury for determination of the atmospheric pressure? • Under sea level is the pressure increase or decrease?