Mitochondria are cellular organelles that produce energy through oxidative phosphorylation. They contain their own DNA and have a double membrane structure. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion contains electron transport chain complexes that generate a proton gradient by pumping hydrogen ions across the membrane. This gradient is used by ATP synthase to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. Mitochondria play a key role in cellular respiration and energy production and mutations in mitochondrial DNA can cause various human diseases due to their exclusively maternal inheritance pattern.
Dr.S.KARTHIKUMAR
Associate Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, K.Vellakulam-625701, TN, India
Email: skarthikumar@gmail.com
Dr.S.KARTHIKUMAR
Associate Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, K.Vellakulam-625701, TN, India
Email: skarthikumar@gmail.com
Mitochondria , its importance in neurosciencesNitish kumar
mitochondrial role in neurological sciences, its structure, major functions and the neurological diseases caused by improper functioning. complications , manifestations and further control.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
The 1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mites, and granule, condos.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
MITOCHONDRIA ,STRUCTURE ,Mt DNA ,PROTEIN TRANSPORT,ETC,OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATIONLIFE SCIENCES
introduction, structure , functions,how proteins are transported into mitochondria,functions,electron transport chain,oxidative phosphorylation with animated videos
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
Mitochondria , its importance in neurosciencesNitish kumar
mitochondrial role in neurological sciences, its structure, major functions and the neurological diseases caused by improper functioning. complications , manifestations and further control.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
The 1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mites, and granule, condos.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
MITOCHONDRIA ,STRUCTURE ,Mt DNA ,PROTEIN TRANSPORT,ETC,OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATIONLIFE SCIENCES
introduction, structure , functions,how proteins are transported into mitochondria,functions,electron transport chain,oxidative phosphorylation with animated videos
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Basavarajeeyam - Ayurvedic heritage book of Andhra pradesh
BM11 Mitochondria.ppt
1. What is a Mitochondrion?
• A cellular organelle probably of
endosymbiotic origin that resides in the
cytosol of most nucleated (eurkaryotic) cells.
• This organelle produces energy by oxidising
organic acids and fats with oxygen by the
process of oxidative phosphorylation and
generates oxygen radicals (reactive oxygen
species ROS )as a toxic by-product
2. Generation of Energy
• Millions of years ago there was no O2 available for oxidative
phosphorylation to occur
• Organisms produced energy from fermentation, still see this
today
• As O2 became available, a more efficient method of energy
production developed
– Based on the transfer of e- along the membrane
3. Organism’s Energy Source
• Small amount of ATP from glycolysis in the cytosol of cells
• Majority made by a membrane based process in 2 stages
– Stage 1 – e- transport chain
• e- transferred along e- carriers in the membrane
– Stage 2 – flow of H+ down an electrochemical gradient
to produce ATP
• Use a complex called ATP synthase
4. Stage 1
• NADH (from the Kreb’s cycle)
brings in the e- and transfers
them to the carrier molecules
• The e- moves down the chain
and looses energy at each step
– as this happens, H+ are
pumped across the membrane
• This creates an electro-chemical
gradient across the membrane
5. Stage 2
• The electrochemical gradient
is a form of stored energy – it
has the potential to do work
• The H+ can now move down
the gradient and return to the
other side of the membrane
thru ATP synthase – in this
process, generates ATP from
ADP and Pi
6. Chemiosmotic Coupling
• Once called the chemiosmotic hypothesis
– Chemi from making ATP, osmotic because of crossing the
membrane
• Now known as chemiosmotic coupling
7. Mitochondria
• Produce most of a cells ATP – acetyl groups in the Kreb’s
cycle producing CO2 and NADH
• NADH donates the e- to the electron transport chain and
becomes oxidized to NAD+
• e- transfer promotes proton pump and ATP synthesis in
process called oxidative phosphorylation
• Cells that require large amounts of energy such as the
heart have large numbers of mitochondria
8. Mitochondria
• Contain their own copies of DNA and RNA along with
transcription and translation system (ribosomes)
• Are able to regenerate themselves without the whole cell
undergoing division
• Shape and size dependent on what the cell’s function is
9. Mitochondria
• Double membrane creates 2 spaces
Matrix: large internal space
Intermembrane space:
between the membranes
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
11. Inner Membrane
• Inner membrane is the site of the e- transport chain,
across which the proton pump occurs and contains ATP
synthase
• Inner membrane is highly folded – called cristae –
increasing the surface area on which the above reactions
can take place
12. High Energy e-
• Mitochondria use pyruvate and fatty acids and convert it
to acetyl CoA in the matrix
• Citric acid cycle generates NADH and FADH2 which carry
the e- to the electron transport chain
17. Electron Transport Chain
• Resides in the inner mitochondrial membrane – also
called respiratory chain
• 15 proteins involved in the chain – grouped in 3 large
respiratory enzyme complexes
– NADH dehydrogenase complex
– Cytochrome b-c1 complex
– Cytochrome oxidase complex
• Pumps protons across the membrane as e- are
transferred thru them
19. Proton Gradient
• e- transfer is an oxidation/reduction reaction
• NADH has high-energy e- has a low electron affinity so
the e- is readily passed to NADH dehydrogenase and so
on down the chain
• Each transfer couples the energy released with the
uptake of a H+ from the matrix to the intermembrane
space setting up the electrochemical gradient
20. Proton Gradient
• Gradient of proton (H+) concentration across the inner
mitochondrial membrane – a pH gradient with the pH in
the matrix higher than in the intermembrane space
• Proton pumping also generates a membrane potential
– matrix side is negative and intermembrane space is
positive
24. Oxidative Phosphorylation
• ATP synthase is the protein complex responsible for making
ATP by creating a path for H+ thru the membrane
• ATP synthase is an enzyme
30. Mitochondrial Genetics
• Each cell contains many mitochondria,
each of which contains multiple copies
of 16.5-k-b circular DNA molecule
• The mitochondrial genome is subject to
a number of peculiarities of inheritance
31. Mitochondrial Genetics
• Interest in mitochondrial genetics
comes mostly from:
• interest in diseases caused by
mutations in mDNA
• interest in human history
• Doug Wallace.(mitochondrial
enthusiast)
32.
33. The nuclear and Mitochondrial
genetic codes are similar but not
identical
34.
35.
36. The human nuclear and mitochondrial genomes
Nuclear Genome Mitochondrial Genome
Size 3200 Mb 16.6 kb
No. of different DNA
molecules
23 (in XX cells) or 24
(in XY cells); all linear
One circular DNA
molecule
Total no. of DNA
molecules per cell
46 in diploid cells, but
varies according to
ploidy
Often several
thousands (but variable
Associated protein Several classes of
histone & nonhistone
protein
Largely free of protein
No. of genes ~ 30 000 ~35-000 37
Gene density ~ 1/100 kb 1/0.45 kb
37. Table continued……..
Repetitive DNA Over 50% of genome Very little
Transcription The great bulk of genes are
transcribed individually
Co-transcription of
multiple genes from both
the heavy and light strands
Introns Found in most genes Absent
% of coding DNA ~ 1.5% ~ 93%
Codon usage Slightly different see slide
Recombination At least once for each pair
of homologs at meiosis
No evidence for this
occurring naturally
Inheritance Mendelian for sequence on
X and autosomes; paternal
for sequence on Y
Exclusively maternal
38. The limited autonomy of the mitochondrial
genome
Mitochondrial
component
Encoded by
Mitochondrial genome
Encoded by nuclear
genome
Components of
oxidative
phosphorylation
system
13 subunits 80 subunits
Components of
protein synthesis
apparatus
24 approx 80
39. An affected woman transmits the trait to
all her children. Affected men
(represented by squares do not pass
the trait to any of their offspring
Maternal genetic
transmission
41. Concept of heteroplasmy. Both wild-type and mutant
(gray) mitochondria are included in the hundreds of
mitochondria in a cell. These mitochondria segregate
passively when the cell divides. This can lead to
variation in the proportion of affected mitochondria in
different tissues or different individuals in a family
42. Number of Mitochondria per cell
• Most somatic cells 100-10,000
• Lymphocyte 1000
• Oocytes 100,000
• Sperm few hundred
• No mitochondria in red cells and some
terminally differentiated skin cells
43. Some diseases associated with
mitochondrial mutations
MERRF (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red
Fibres
MELAS (Myopathy, Epilepsy, Lactic
acidosis,Stroke-like episodes
LHON (Leber’s Hereditary Optic atrophy)
Kearn-Sayre (eye problems,heart
block,ataxia ie loss of coordination
Leigh syndrome(rare severe brain disease
in infancy,also heart problems)
44. Myoblasts were isolated from muscle cells obtained from an
individual with MERRF. They were fused to make myotubes.Protein
production was normal in those with about 16% normal
mitochondria
45. Michael presented with muscle problems, epilepsy,lack of progress at
school,difficulty with vision and hearing.
Diagnosed as MERRF aged 12 after muscle biopsy.At postition 8344 he
has a change from A-G in most of the mitochondrial DNA from muscle
and lymphocytes.The other relatives have different proportions of the
same mutation,which is in the tRNA for lysine (MT-TK)
46. Another mtDNA synthesis mutation
3243(A>G) in the tRNALeu gene
(MT-TL1)
If this mutation is present in 10-30% of the
mtDNA in white blood cells the patient may have
type II diabetes with or without deafness .
If the same mutation is in more than 70% of the
mtDNA the full MELAS syndrome is likely
47. Deletions of mitochondrial DNA
in muscle biopsies from
individuals with Kearns-Sayre
syndrome. DNA was digested
with Pvull, which cuts the
mitochondrial genome at one
site, resulting in a 16.5-kb
fragments that is detected with
a probe to the mitochondrial
DNA by southern analysis.
Each individual with the
syndrome has two populations
of mitochondrial DNA: one of
normal size and one of smaller
size form Zeiani M, Moraes CT
DiMauro S et al. Deletions of
mitochondrial DNA in Kearns-
Sayre syndrome. Neurology
1988; 38: 1339-1346)
48. Three pedigrees of rare families having infants with fatal mitochondrial
disorders showing mtDNA depletion;caused by mutations in nuclear
encoded mitochondrial genes eg TK2 encoding mitochondrial Thymidine
kinase
49.
50. mtDNA contribution to the reconstruction
of human history
Depends on:-
•High mutation rate (especially in
D loop region)
•Maternal transmission
•No recombination
This allows the origins of female ancestors to be deduced
54. Adaptive mutations
Some of the mtDNA variants are found more
frequently in humans in cold climates such as Siberia
and they are thought to alter the balance of
production of energy (ATP) versus Heat per calorie
consumed.
It is also suggested that that the selection of mtDNA
variants which allowed energy production even in
time of food shortage (tight coupling to maximum
ATP production) may now expose us in the presence
of excess calories in food to excess ROS (reactive
oxygen species). This in turn may cause mtDNA
damage and mitochondrial decline that contributes to
metabolic and degenerative diseaes,ageing and
cancer(Wallace 2005)
57. References
Strachan and Read HMG3 p240-244
Bruce Korf. Human Genetics A Problem-based
approach. chapter 7
and for the enthusiast
http://www.mitomap.org/
and Wallace DC. A Mitochondrial Paradigm of
Metabolic and degenerative diseases,Ageign and
cancer: A Dawn for Evolutionary Medicine
Ann Rev Genet 2005;39.359-407