Blood Typing Lab Report

Blood Typing Lab Report
Stimulated ABO and Rh Blood Typing
Abigail Taylor
Anatomy and Physiology Lab 11
Dr. Bah. Boubacar
4/14/2016
Abstract
The purpose of this experiment is to identify the different blood types through the antigen and
antibody reaction by using the anti– A, Anti– B and Anti– Rh serums we will be able to identify the
different blood types. We will also discuss how this can be used in the clinical setting of this blood
typing procedure, by doing so we will know how antigens and antibodies relate to the blood typing
procedure in the real world settings.
Introduction
For this experiment student will identify the individual blood types through the antigen and antibody
reaction by using the anti– A, Anti– B and Anti– Rh serums we will be able to identify the different
types of blood. Red blood cells also known as erythrocyte are small cells shaped like an oval
however they have a plasma membrane but no nucleus. Hemoglobin is the protein that allows the
red blood cells to bind easily with oxygen. While hematopoiesis is known as blood cell formation.
The independent variable would be the Red blood cells. While the dependent variable would be the
Antibodies and the antigens
Hypothesis – With the antigen and antibody reaction we can determine ABO and Rh blood types by
using certain antiserums. If an AAntigen ever comes in contact with an Anti a antibody then the
blood will have a reaction. Also if a B Antigen comes in contact with a B anti body then the blood
will
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Transport In Living Organisms Essay
CH 12 TRANSPORT IN LIVING ORGANISMS EXERCISE 1. FILL IN THE BLANKS (i) The
principal physiological requirement of all organisms is the maintenance of ........................ (ii) The
type of diffusion against the concentration gradient (up hill movement) involving the expenditure of
energy is called...................... (iii) The cell walls of the plants cells keep the...............within limit.
(iv) The content of the vacuole of plant cell is called................ (v) The internal pressure exerted on
the cell wall by the water moving into the cell is called.............. (vi) A concentration gradient is
establishment between the root hairs and the soil water because of the ............... (vii) The root
pressure can move the water to only .................. (viii) Pull or suction force ... Show more content on
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Each question is followed by four options .encircle the correct answer i) The complexity of transport
system is related to? a) Size and the metabolic rate of an organism b) The type of food taken by an
organism c) To the habitat of the organism d) All of the above ii) The transport system facilitates? a)
The elimination of metabolic wastes of each cell b) Help to adjust in the habitat c) Movement from
place to place d) All of the above iii) The diffusion of molecules of some substances with the help of
carrier proteins is called? a) Active transport b) Osmosis c) Facilitated diffusion d) Cyclosis iv)
Chemically the carrier substances in facilitated diffusion are? a) Proteins b) Lipids c) Carbohydrates
d) Nucleic acids v) The movement of water into the plants cell produces..........in the cell? a) Turgor
b) Flaccid state c) None of the a and b d) Both a and b vi) The internal pressure exerted on the cell
wall by the water moving into the cell is called? a) Root pressure b) Water potential c) Turgor
pressure d) Osmotic pressure vii) The loss of water from cells of the leaves makes their cells? a)
Turgid b) Flaccid c) None of the a and b d) Shrinked viii) Because of transpiration pull and cohesion
or adhesion of water molecules, the water moves in the xylem vessels as a) Packages of water b) An

The Detection Of Clinically Significant Antibodies
The detection of clinically significant antibodies is a crucial step in pre–transfusion testing. There
are more than 300 human blood groups, all of which can cause an incompatibility reaction. (Knight
2012) Exposure to incompatible blood groups can also lead to the production of alloantibodies. The
two most clinically significant human blood groups are the ABO group and the Rh group. Both of
these systems can cause severe and often fatal transfusion reactions, and in the case of the Rh group,
due to an incompatibility between mother and the unborn child, it can cause haemolytic disease of
the foetus and newborn (HDN). Second only to the ABO group in clinical significance, the Rh group
is coded for by two complex, polymorphic genes, RHD and ... Show more content on
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(Lewis et al, 2012) The RHCE protein contains the C, c, E and e antigens. The RHCDE antigen has
fewer mutations than the RHD but is no less immunogenic, with the E and c antigens being far more
immunogenic than C and e.
Rh group antibodies are usually IgG1 or IgG3 class or a mixture of the two. It is very rare for Rh
group antibodies to activate the complement cascade, nor is it known for Rh group antibodies to be
naturally acquired. Anti–c and anti–E are the most often Rh group antibodies found post transfusion.
Anti–c is also the second leading cause of HDN in the UK. Anti–c is also implicated in more severe
haemolytic transfusion reactions. (Knight 2012)
Current antigen/antibody detection tests are based on agglutination reactions. Agglutination is the
clumping of antigen–antibody complexes to form insoluble and visible aggregates. Agglutination
occurs in two steps. The first step is sensitization, where the antibody present in the serum binds to
the antigen sites on the RBC. The second step is "bridge formation". Antibodies will form cross
linking attachments to each other to bind the cells together. The strength and development of the
attachments is affected by the class of antibody. IgM class antibodies are large pentameters, they can
easily bridge the space between cells and with five arms the can form multiple attachments. Unlike
IgG class antibodies, which are monomers and much smaller in size making it more difficult for
them to bridge the gaps between cells

Methods And Contributions Of The ABO Antigen
Another group of antigens that is of much less importance than the HLA antigens is the ABO
antigens. This is because, in mixed leukocyte cultures, ABO incompatibility does not cause
stimulation. However, they are still important since ABO incompatibility can cause acute rejection
of grafts with primary blood supply such as the kidney and the heart. This is mainly due to the high
degree of expression ABO blood group antigens in internal organs. Secondly, antibodies to the blood
group antigens are present and pre–formed in mismatched recipients. However, there have been
advances in medicine that have prevented rejection of the grafts by suppressing the immune system.
These have made it possible for organ transplants to be performed across ... Show more content on
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The serum is tested for the possible presence of antibodies to either the ABO antigens or the HLA
antigens. The presence of antibodies has been known to cause hyperacute renal graft rejection. As
such, a positive serologic crossmatch contraindicates renal transplantation (Chinen & Buckley
2012). However, there are strategies being used in case the mismatch is unavoidable. This includes
techniques such as plasmapheresis. The degree of HLA matching is directly related to the possibility
of long–term survival.
Mechanisms of Graft Rejection Both cellular and humoral immunity is involved in the response to
the graft. The main cells involved in the rejection of grafts are the T cells. First, the hosts' CD4 and
CD8 T cells recognize antigens on the donor cells through their T–cell receptors. The T–cell
receptor interacts with the antigens presented by the MHC molecules and the interaction between
the ligand and receptor on the surface of the T–cell lead to the recognition of an antigen. There are a
number of factors such as peripheral tolerance which ensure that these complexes are not recognized
by the immune system of the host. As a result, the host does not have an autoimmune reaction.
Alternatively, the T cells of the host may identify the MHC molecules of the graft on the graft or
donor organ cell. The MHC molecule and allo–peptide appear similar in shape to the molecules and
peptides of the donor by the host T cells. As a result, the tissue of the donor is recognized

Blood Type Lab Report
Patients' blood types are determined through blood typing similar to the above experiment. To
interpret table 1 above, blood sample 1, was concluded to be blood type A+, because, the blood
sample 1 agglutinated with anti– A and anti– Rh antibodies, but no agglutination was formed for
anti– B. This means that, blood sample 1 has both A and Rh surface antigens which clumped with
the anti– A and anti–Rh antibodies. Synthetic blood sample 4 was concluded to be blood type B–,
because, there was no agglutination for anti–A and anti– Rh antibodies, but there was agglutination
for anti– B. This means that the blood sample 4 does not have A and Rh surface antigens. Again, the
blood sample 5 was concluded to be AB– since agglutination occurred for both anti– A and anti– B,
but no agglutination for anti– Rh. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sample 8 did not agglutinate for neither of the antibodies A, B, and Rh. My group concluded that
Sample 8 was O– because there was no reaction or agglutination with any of the antibodies. Blood
type O– has no surface antigens, and therefore, there was nothing for the A, B, and Rh anti– bodies
to attack. Blood type O– has no surface antigens to be attacked by antibodies. Blood type O– is
considered a universal donor due to the absence of surface antigens. In emergency situations, blood
type O– is considered the safest blood type for transfusion across all blood types in the ABO –RH
blood groups. It is believed that there may exist some unknown surface antigens on O– blood types
RBC that may cause harm to recipients of blood type O–, it is still seen as the closest and safest
blood to transfuse to patients in emergency situations (Martini, Nath, & Bartholomew,

The Blood Type And Anti Rh Serums
Abstract
The goal of this experiment is to determine the blood types of the samples given and to learn what
interactions occurred to each blood type. Determining an individual's blood type and how it reacts
with Anti A, Anti–B, and Anti Rh serums played a crucial part in this experiment. The researcher
concluded that agglutination (clumping) occurred in some of the blood samples. For example, Mr.
Smith's blood reacted with Anti–A and Anti–Rh serums (antibodies) allowing the researcher to
determine the blood type is A. Mr. Jones's blood reacted with Anti–B serum but it did not react to
Anti–A or Anti Rh allowing the researcher to believe that the blood type is B. Mr. Green's blood
reacted with all serums and caused a reaction to occur resulting the blood type to be AB positive.
Mr. Green's blood also had a positive marker for Rh factor. However, Ms. Brown's blood had no
reaction at all and the researcher determined if no reaction occurred then the sample had no antigens
but proved to have some antibodies, resulting in blood type to be O. The purpose of this experiment
is to determine whose blood has type A, B, AB, or O.
3. Introduction
The general charactertics of blood are color, composition, and pH. The composition of blood is
determined by collecting blood from a person then it's placed in a centrifuge which shows plasma is
55% of whole blood and 45 % is erythrocytes. Another name for red blood cells is erythrocytes
which are small sacs of blood that carry oxygen and

Different Blood Types
The difference in blood types was discovered in the 1900s. Blood transfusions can only be
completed after matching blood types. Everyone does not carry the same blood type although blood
type O is the most common in the United States (US). The four blood types we know of are type A,
B, O and AB. The ABO blood type is determined genetically. Each blood type can be identified by
the absence or presence of agglutinogens. With that being said, blood type O is a universal blood
donor. Anyone with an O blood type is not a universal receiver. Those with blood type O can only
receive transfusions from like blood types. Antigens on the red blood cells have antibodies that fight
against other blood types from entering the cell. Which is why an individual's blood type is based
upon the antigens he or she has. This would mean persons with neither A nor B antigens on their red
blood cells, has both Anti–A and Anti– B antibodies, which means they have type O blood.
Later, researchers found out that there is another antigen, on red blood cells, Rh factor. When the Rh
factor is not present a person is identified as Rh– and likewise if Rh is present, a person is Rh+.
Thus, a person with Antigen A, and has the Rh factor is then labeled as blood type A+ (A positive).
It is important to match a donor's blood and a recipient's blood before a transfusion to make sure the
blood is compatible. If the recipient's blood does not match the donor's, the recipient's blood will
clot and the recipient

The 's Dieting Guide Eat Right 4 Your Type Essay
Introduction
Peter J. D'Adamo's dieting guide Eat Right 4 Your Type emphasizes the significance of blood type in
relation to healthy eating and weight loss. According to the diet, individuals with certain blood types
thrive by eating similar foods as their ancestors, because their bodies will be chemically accustomed
to that diet (D'Adamo, 1996). Reaching over seven million people ("Real Success Stories", n.d.),
D'Adamo's blood type diet is a complete success. However, such an exact yet profitable diet plan
yields questionable motives and scientific basis. Expecting a diet based solely on blood type to be
successful seems rather different from the typical one size fits all style of most fad diets. To develop
a better understanding as well as educate our peers on a popular fad diet our group will teach a
lesson in which we describe the diet and then analyse its validity. The lesson will begin by
explaining the difference between blood types, which are the types of antigens and antibodies
present in a person's blood ("Blood groups" NHS Choices, 2013). After, the blood type diet and its
origins will be introduced. The research and work of the author of the blood type diet will be
discussed, showing that in his research career, he has published no complete case studies just their
topics. From this point we will analyze cited sources from the blood type diet and show that they are
irrelevant to the book/diet. After explaining the diet and its doubtful sources, our group will

Unit 5 Assignment: Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA)
Unit 5 Assignment Case Study1 The type of anemia this patient has is Iron Deficiency Anemia. Iron
Deficiency Anemia (IDA) has been revealed to be the greatest mutual foundation of anemia
globally, and it is acknowledged that people with chronic kidney disease (CKD) progress to anemia
as their kidney function deteriorates (Wittwer, 2013). Since, the patient's blood type is B+, he can
safe and sound receive blood types B+, B–, O+, and O–. The blood types B+, B–, O+, and O– are
well–matched with this patient Type B+, and supported with the point that he merely has the B
antigen on red blood cells and an A antibody in the plasma. In the case of where the person has
blood group O means that the person has neither A nor B antigens on red cells

Leukocyte adhesion deficiencies (LAD) are autosomal...
Leukocyte adhesion deficiencies (LAD) are autosomal recessive immunodeficiency syndromes
characterized by severe and recurrent bacterial infections, impaired wound healing and leukocytosis.
Blocks in different steps in the leukocyte adhesion cascade cause different types of leukocyte
adhesion deficiencies, LAD type I, II and III.
Leukocyte adhesion deficiencies (LAD) are autosomal recessive immunodeficiency diseases
characterized by severe and recurrent bacterial infections, impaired wound healing and neutrophilia
[1]. Leukocyte adhesion and movement of leukocytes from blood stream to tissues are crucial for
rapid leukocyte accumulation at sites of inflammatory response and tissue injury [2]. Leukocyte
adhesion cascade involves several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Here, we describe two siblings with a novel mutation ın GFPT. Secundum atrial septal defect was
present in both of the patients in addition to the characteristic features.
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type II (LAD II) or congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG)
type IIc belongs to a group of CDG [7]. In LAD type II, the fucosylation of glycoconjugates is
affected. Fucose is a deoxyhexose present in a variety of organisms. In the defects of fucosylation,
many cell functions like protein folding, intracellular transport/localization, protein activity and
degradation may be affected causing defects in cellular interactions and numerous ontogenic events,
including signalling events. Fucosylation is clearly implicated in the TGF–β1, Notch, Fringe, and
selectin functions or signalling [8, 9].
The defect in LAD II is in the specific GDP–fucose transporter (GFTP) gene [10,11].
Process of fucosylation by GDP–fucose transporter in the Golgi apparatus has different steps.
GFTP translocates GDP–fucose from the cytosol through the Golgi membrane into the Golgi lumen.
Fucose required is provided via de novo pathway (90%), synthesis from mannose, or by alternate
salvage pathway (10%) from exogeneous/dietary fucose [9]. Than, fucosyl transferase transfers the
fucose to form glycolipids and glycoproteins [12], which are transported to the cell membrane.
Seven different mutations are described in the patients with LAD type II

The Black Death Era Essay
Other groups that suffered this persecution and blame in the Black Death era were lepers, those of
any other physical deformity, and beggars. Lepers were often associated with the Jews in the well
poisoning theory, and after some confessions of the deed were announced (coerced through torture
of course), many were also burned at the stake. However, this pertained to only lepers of lower
social class, as "high–born lepers... were no more inconvenienced than were noble bastards or
pederasts... they could continue to perform their offices and live among healthy people" (Le Goff
321), this was not the case for any upper classmen of the Jewish community. The extremist
Christianity at the time period dictated that those with physical ailments or sicknesses were
rightfully punished by God; they were afflicted with a proper reflection of their inward sin. When it
began to appear to the people that God was punishing society as a whole, they blamed those they
felt had brought the sin upon them. And so while the Jews were driven out of most towns as a fault
for the plague, others expelled the poor and the maimed for the epidemic.
A lack of statistical analysis and data from that period time has left a gap in understanding to the
fullest extent how the Jewish community was affected during the Black Death. However it has been
anecdotally recounted and recorded that the Jewish community was less affected by the plague,
which led to further persecution about their religious beliefs and

The Effect Of Secretion Of Abh Antigens And Other Body...
ABSTRACT
Secretion of ABH antigens in body fluids and other body secretions can be identified by using
serological technique. The aim of this work is to determine the secretor status from saliva sample by
using absorption inhibition technique. 45 samples were collected for these studies with 27 are from
male individual and 17 from female. ABO blood grouping show 65.1% O group, 18.6% B group,
4.65% A group and 11.65% AB group. 95.5% of the study population was ABH secretor and 4.5%
was non–secretor.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the present study is to determine the prevalent of secretor status in body fluid
(saliva) collected from the people residing in East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya. The aim of this
study is to generate a bio data on genetically distribution of Secretor status and Non–secretor status
respected to the individual blood type for the forensic significant that will help the forensic scientist
for identification of individual, solving maternity and paternity dispute and in medical purpose.
SAMPLE SIZE
In total 45 samples were collected. Sample was collected from both sexes ranging from the age of
10–35years old. Sample was collected in a sterile cotton and preserve in a sterile container. Sample
was collected from the khasi tribes residing in the East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya.
MATERIALS
Samples, cotton, sterile container, test tubes, slides, pipette, dropper, centrifuge, microscope,
incubator, water bath, distilled water, 0.85% NaCl, ABH monoclonal

Understanding The Abo And Rh Blood Types Essay
Introduction:
In this experiment, our objectives consisted of performing tests in order to identify blood types;
learning about the function and shapes of different blood components; and understanding the
importance of blood typing and its uses. In the world of medicine, knowing about blood typing and,
more importantly, having the ability to type blood is an indispensable tool. Medical procedures
ranging from blood transfusions to organ transplants to obstetrical interventions require a solid
understanding of blood typing. Being able to understand the ABO and Rh blood types is a
fundamental building block to learning about the complexity of blood chemistry and the wonders it
unravels.
According to Martini et al. the ABO blood types and the Rh system are based on antigen–antibody
immunological responses (650). Antigens are proteins located on the surface of red blood cells;
plasma membranes and these can trigger an immune response–a protective defense mechanism.
Immune systems recognize these antigens as "normal", and thus in a healthy individual these are
recognized as "self" or "non–foreign" and the body will ignore them. The presence of absence of
specific surface antigens on erythrocytes' plasma membranes determines blood type. From this
rationale, it is known that there are four blood types characterized by their respective surface
antigens: Type A with A antigens, Type B with B antigens, Type AB with both A and B antigens, and
Type O distinguished by its lack of

Types Of Blood Groups That Humans Have A, B, Ab, And O
There are four major types of blood groups that humans have: A, B, AB, and O. An individual's
blood type is determined by the type of antigens that are present in your blood cells; antigens are
proteins and cause an immune response on the blood cells. The Rh antigen was discovered in 1940
by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Weiner with the discovery of the cause of severe jaundice and
fetal demise. The Rh antigen was named after rhesus monkeys, because they were the first used in
the research of this antigen. The Rh blood group is the most important after the ABO blood group.
"By the Mayo Clinic Staff, Rhesus (Rh) factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of red
blood cells. If your blood has the protein, you 're Rh positive. If your blood lacks the protein, you 're
Rh negative" (Mayo Clinic). Only fifteen percent of the population is Rh negative and out of the
thirty five present human blood groups, it is one of the most complex systems. "The complexity of
the Rh blood group antigens begins with the highly polymorphic genes that encode them" (Dean).
There are two genes that have been closely linked together, RHD and RHCE, now over fifty
antigens have been discovered, and research has showed that they can cause serious complications
in the fetus of women who are Rh antigen negative. The most common antigens for Rh is D, C, E, c,
and e. We have been able to have a better understanding of the Rh antigen because of the cloning of
genes, and today we now know that the

Red Blood Group Research Paper
Blood group is the entire blood group system contains of red blood cells (RBC) antigens that
specificity controlled by a series which can be a linked very closely on the same chromosome or
allelic. Over a rhetorical period of time, the understanding on blood groups has been evolved to
wreathe not only the transfusion–related problems but also organ transplant and specific disease
affiliate with red blood cells (RBC) surface antigens. In 1900, Karl Landsteiner discovered why
some blood transfusions were successful while others could be deadly and some could result on
some serious symptoms. He also discovered the ABO blood group system by mixing the red blood
cells and serum of each of his staff. He has been credited for this discovery because

Lab Report On Blood And Blood Essay
SCIENCE LAB REPORT Esther Iona Chinna Danloor
09.14.2016
Biology 202
INTRODUCTION
Blood Typing:
By identifying the blood group of a person, we can determine which blood can transfuse in the time
of need.
Blood Alcohol:
The breathalyzer method is used to get the alcohol content in the blood.
Anatomical Positions:
Learning the anatomical position, it helps to find the proper location in the body.
Manual Differential:
This method is used to identify the WBC, RBC and platelet count in the body.
HYPOTHESIS
Determining the Blood typing, Hematology of the blood and levels of alcohol, along with the
anatomical positions of the human body.
MATERIALS
Blood Typing: Safety equipment, sterile lancets, alcohol wipes, Blood test card, Anti– A serum,
Anti– B serum, Anti– D Serum, blue mixing stick, yellow mixing stick and white mixing stick.
Manual Differential Method: Manual Cell counter designed for differential counts, microscope,
immersion oil and lens paper and blood smear slides.
Breathalyzer:
Several Types of Mouth Washes, breathalyzer, mouthpieces, watchstop watch feature.
PROCEDURE 1: Scrub the tip of the middle finger with the alcohol swap and by using the sterile
lancet prick the finger. As the blood starts to flow. Replace a drop of blood on each side of the blood
test card. Place a drop of Anti Serum–A (blue) on the test card, which is labeled as Anti–A. Put a
drop of antiserum B (yellow) on the test card, which is labeled as Anti– B. Put a drop of antiserum D

Symptoms And Treatment Of Cold Antibodies
Cold antibodies are one of the most encountered discrepancies in transfusion services. These
discrepancies can be either benign, meaning they present little harm to the patient, to pathological,
meaning they can harm the patient. Benign cold antibodies can affect the ABO typing, the Rh
typing, direct anti–globulin test, the antibody detection and identification, and compatibility testing.
Pathological cold antibodies are typically seen in cold hemagglutinin disease and certain infectious
processes. Benign cold antibodies can be detected at room temperature testing and after the anti–
globulin phase of the testing. Their effects are amplified if the temperature of the testing method is
decreased with 4 being the optimal temperature. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the case of the benign cold antibody being detected in the back type, it can make patients appear
as if they are a subgroup of A or B, which is unlikely. These sorts of discrepancies can be resolved in
a similar manner as in the forward type such as pre–warms and 37incubations. In addition, using
group O cells as a negative control can tell the technologist if they are dealing with a cold reacting
antibody or not.
The next test a benign cold antibody can affect is the Rh typing. This has similar causes as the
discrepancy seen in the forward ABO typing, which is due to excessive cold auto–agglutinin binding
to the patient's red blood cells. This discrepancy can also be resolved using the pre–warm or
37incubation. Furthermore, it should be noted that the Rh typing discrepancy has decreased
substantially sine the reagent first came onto the market. This is due to them first being a polyclonal
reagent with high protein concentrations that tended to react with the patient and control rendering
the test invalid. The reagent has been improved and is now a monoclonal reagent with low protein
which leads to less false positive results.
The third test that can be affected is the direct antibody test. This is typically seen when non–EDTA
(Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) tubes are used. This is due to these tubes not containing a
chelating agent with rids the patients serum

Cona To Citrate Experiment
Citrate is known to prevent the agglutination of red blood cells while ConA on the other hand based
on our experiment from Lab 7 we saw it was functional and was able to bind to our red blood cells.
If ConA is able to agglutinate the cells that means it is biologically active. In our experiment we
plated another variable by adding red blood cells and ConA and sugars to see whether the sugars
interfered with ConA's ability to bind we noticed that galactose did not interfere with the
agglutination but mannose did interfere with the binding, acting as a competitive inhibitor. We know
this was due to ConA's specificity for mannose and glucose. In our experiment we had 9mLs of
dilute ConA and we decreased the volume while increasing our concentration ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
This is due to the fact that ConA binds to the sugars, raises the molecular weight, and causes them to
clump and bind to each other. The addition of glucose to coagulant solution further enhances the
clumping activity of the ConA which suggests that the addition of ConA and glucose to RBC having
dilute citrate solution will cause the red blood cells to clump immediately. In general, if we add
equal concentrations of ConA and glucose it seems likely that agglutination would occur even with
the citrate presence. If we added equal amounts of ConA and galactose to a dilute suspension of
citrated red blood cells in ConA buffer again it can be seen from our data that the addition of ConA
and galactose to RBC causes clumping. RBCs + ConA + galactose ––> agglutination. This is due to
the fact that the addition of glucose further to the surface sugars of RBCs which thus causes them to
clump. It should also be noted that the anti–coagulant is present in low concentrations which should
mean that its activity should be slow. Overall, this reaction shows immediate clumping which can be
visualized even further by what we can actually see with our eyes with the thick red clump

The Characteristics Of Blood Types In The Human Body
Blood has many functions to the human body like bringing oxygen and all essential minerals to the
organs. It clots an injury so that the body has time to heal it, and it helps defend our bodies from
infections. It is essential to keeping people to live, but it can also be the death of others. Many of
those kinds of deaths are because they were inherited by their parents. Like diabetes, sickle cell
anaemia, and many more. In order for the doctors to treat those kinds of diseases they need to know
what type of blood the person is. There are four types of blood, but a person can only receive a
certain type. Each one is different and each one has their own characteristics which is why a person
can only receive or donate to a certain type. Type A blood has the A antigen on the red blood cells,
and a B antibody in the cells' plasma. Those kinds of people can only donate to other Type As and
Type ABs. Type A people can only receive blood from other Type As and Type Os. If they received
blood from anyone that doesn't have those two blood types then their body will think it's a foreign
material and attack it. Since Type A blood type can either be homozygous or recessive it can pass on
all kinds of different blood types to their children depending on who the other parent is. If the other
parent is Type B though, all four blood types are possible. Type B blood has the B antigen on the red
blood cells and an A antibody in the cells' plasma. That means those kinds of people can only donate
to other Type Bs and Type ABs. They can also only receive blood from other Type Bs and Type Os.
If they received blood from anybody else, then they would have the same repercussions as Type A
people. Since Type B people can also be homozygous or heterozygous, then their children have
probabilities for all blood types depending on the other parent. Surprisingly though, Type B is rarer
than Type A, but isn't as uncommon as Type AB blood. Type AB has the A and B antigens on the red
blood cells, but doesn't have any A or B antibodies in the cells' plasma. They can only donate to
other Type ABs, but they're called the universal recipient because they can receive blood from all the
other blood types. Since Type AB can only be

The Blood Type Of Four Unknown Synthetic Blood Samples
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lab is to correctly determine the blood type of four unknown synthetic blood
samples through the use of three antibody serums; anti–A, anti–B and anti–Rh. By successfully
determining the blood type of an individual, information such as the individual 's blood antigens and
antibodies will be known and can help determine which blood types that individual can accept or
donate. Blood, or whole blood, consists of about 55% plasma and 45% formed elements; which
include platelets, white blood cells and red blood cells or erythrocytes (Martini et al., 2015). Plasma
consists of 90% water and serves to transport minerals throughout the blood, especially clotting
platelets to the site of an injury in order to prevent loss of blood (Martini et al., 2015).
Platelets and leukocytes are less than 0.1% of formed elements but nearly 99.9% are nuclei–lacking
red blood cells, whose biconcave disk–shape increases surface area and allows for the diffusion of
oxygen (Martini et al., 2015). Erythrocytes contain hemoglobin proteins, where each protein has
four iron–containing heme groups that can bind one oxygen molecule each (Surgenor, 2013). In
other words, each hemoglobin protein can carry four oxygen molecules and there are over 250
million hemoglobin proteins per cell.
Finally, white blood cells are crucial to the immune system to serve as a defense against invaders
such as bacteria, viruses and parasites with the ability to recognize between "friend or

The International Society Of Blood Transfusion ( Isbt )
Chapter I
1– GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1–1 Overview of human blood groups
The term blood group is usually restricted to blood cell surface antigens, and generally to red cell
surface antigens. These antigens are molecules present on the red blood cells membrane, which can
trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body.
Landsteiner and his colleagues (1, 2), discovered the first blood group system (ABO) in 1901, they
observed that plasma from some individuals agglutinated the red cells from others.
For the next 45 years, only those antibodies that directly agglutinate could be studied. With the
development of the antiglobulin test by Coombs, Mourant, and Race in 1945 (3, 4), the non–
agglutinating antibodies could be detected, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Levine and Stetson identified an alloantibody in the mother serum, which react at room temperature
and 37 c with husband RBCs and with 80% of Caucasians RBCs. They postulated that this antibody
had produced against a specific factor in both fetus and father RBCs that the mother lack. Levine
and his colleague suggested that antibody had developed during the mother pregnancy after her
exposure to a foreign factor from her fetus.
A year later Landsteiner and Wiener (7), discovered an antibody in the rabbits and guinea pigs sera
after being injected with rhesus Macacus monkeys' RBCs, they noticed that the antibody agglutinate
with 85% of human RBCs. This antibody named Rh after Rhesus monkeys. Other study carried by
Levine and others (8), demonstrate that Rh antibody which was described by Landsteiner and
Wiener has the same specificities of the former antibody which was discovered in 1939, and they
thought it was belong to the same blood group. Years later, many investigations showed that it was
not the case, and each of the two antibodies belong to a different blood group. However, anti–Rh
name retained to the human–produced antibody, and the other antibody renamed anti–LW in

Blood Typing
EXPERIMENT 3 BLOOD TYPİNG ABSTRACT The purpose of this lab is to determine the blood
type of two samples. The objectives of the blood typing lab were to learn about antigens and the
consequences of incompatibility, blood typing, and to illustrate antigen–antibody complexes and
agglutination. INTRODUCTION Red blood cells have glycoproteins on their surface which act like
"flags" to identify the cells. The glycoproteins are coded for by the blood type genes A, B, and O.
Unlike Complete Dominance where one gene totally masks another (i.E. vs. t), the blood type genes,
A and B, are Co–dominant or equally dominant. Therefore, an individual with the genotype AB will
possess both A–type glycoproteins and B–type glycoproteins on their ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
If a potential donor is found to have anti–D antibodies or any strong atypical blood group antibody
by antibody screening in the blood bank, they would not be accepted as a donor (or in some blood
banks the blood would be drawn but the product would need to be appropriately labeled); therefore,
donor blood plasma issued by a blood bank can be selected to be free of D antibodies and free of
other atypical antibodies, and such donor plasma issued from a blood bank would be suitable for a
recipient who may be D positive or D negative, as long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO
compatible MATERIAL–METHOD For the blood test, lancet, microscope slide, anti–A serum, anti–
B serum, anti–Rh serum were used. First, the finger punctured with the lancet. Then one drop of
blood was touched in the left of the slide, in the middle of slide, and in the right of slide. Only three
drops of blood was used. Afterward, one drop of anti–A serum dripped onto the left of the slide, one
drop of anti–B serum dripped onto the middle of the slide, anti–Rh serum onto the right of the slide.
If the antigen is present, the erythrocytes will agglutinate but if it is not present, the solution remains
cloudy. We applied this test in our friend that is Venus. Her blood type is AB Rh+. And we saw the
agglutinate in left, middle and right of the slide. That

Determining Blood Types
Determining what blood type a person has is very important. It is important because if one were to
lose a great deal of blood in say, a car crash, the doctors would need to give him or her a blood
transfusion. In order to give one a blood transfusion, the doctors would need to know him or her
blood type. Blood types are determined by the agglutinogens, located in the red blood cells and the
agglutinin, located in the blood plasma. For example, if a person is blood type A they have A
agglutinogens and B agglutinin. If one were to have Blood type O, he or she would have neither B
nor A agglutinogens and both A and B agglutinin. If a doctor gave someone the wrong blood type,
that person's immune system would attack and destroy the new blood that was transfused. This can
cause an acute hemolytic transfusion reaction which can be fatal. ... Show more content on
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In–order–to test this hypothesis the Investigators pricked their fingers in order to bleed. Once the
investigators began to bleed they squeezed drops of blood out of the small wound on to wells on the
blood test card. The wells were labeled "anti–A," "anti–B," and "anti–D." After they bleed into the
wells, the investigators dropped one drop of anti–A serum in the well labeled "anti–A," one drop of
anti–B serum in the well labeled "anti–B," and one drop of anti–D serum in the well labeled "anti–
D." In order to test for the Rh factor, the investigators mixed, with a serial toothpick, the anti–D and
the Blood. Our hypothesis was correct with forty–five percent of the class having type A positive or
O positive

Human Blood Type Inheritance
Human Blood Type Inheritance
Introduction
The blood grouping systems commonly used include the ABO system that was first described by
Karl Landsteiner. The discovery of blood grouping systems helped to avoid unnecessary death
emanating from blood transfusion. The basics of blood grouping systems lie behind the inheritance
of genes. The possession and inheritance of blood groups attribute to the parents who combine
alleles responsible for the blood groups. The parents thus play a pivotal role in determining the
blood groups of the offspring. This paper will work towards the discussion of inheritance of human
blood groups.
An Overview of Blood Groups Blood grouping involves the use of ABO system as described by
Karl Landsteiner. The grouping came into existence in the year 1900 after discovery by Nobel Prize
winner Karl Landsteiner. He first discovered three blood types A, B, and O, but after two years he
discovered the fourth blood group AB. This discovery led to four major types of blood that includes
A, AB, B and O. The grouping depends on the presence of two chief antigens and antibodies. The
two antigens responsible for blood grouping include A and B while the antibodies include anti–A
and anti–B. The combination of the two antigens and antibodies thus determines the blood types.
The blood type A has antigen A and antibody anti–B. The blood group B express Antigen B and
antibody anti–A (Reid and Lomas, 2004). Blood group O express no antigen but possess antibodies

Why Does Martius Use Of Blood In Odysseus
The Oxford English Dictionary defines blood first and foremost as "The red fluid flowing in the
arteries, capillaries, and veins of humans and other vertebrates, carrying oxygen and nutrients to,
and carbon dioxide and waste metabolites away from, the organs and tissues of the body. Also (as a
count noun): the blood of an individual, species, etc." (OED). This is the the immediate definition
that comes to mind when I take this word into consideration, likely because when you are injured it
is the first thing you think of. If hurt, a person often first checks themselves over for any sign of
blood, and if they find that they are not they may turn to a friend and ask 'Am I bleeding?' It is how
we determine if the injury requires special attention ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Aaron the Moor, speaking of his son, says "What, must it, nurse? then let no man but I / Do
execution on my flesh and blood"(4.2.83) and "Touch not the boy, he is of royal blood"(5.1.49). The
first allusion refers directly to his own blood, Aaron is protecting the child because he is his son, his
'flesh and blood' a phrase that is still prominent in the world today. The second quote also refers to
family but instead of Aaron it is referring to the child's mother, Tamora, who is not only Queen of
the Goths but currently married to the Emperor of Rome. This means that the child is of the royal
family, thus having 'royal

Types Of Blood Group System
This deals with the heredity that bears his name by traits and offspring.
The offspring of the P generation are called F 1 ( for filial , or "offspring") generation To test this
prediction Mendel allowed the F1 generation of plants to self pollinate. He was surprised by the
results. Some of the F2 generation plants had white flowers. the studies constitute an outstanding
scientific technique.
Most of our genes comes in pair from either parents mom or dad. this also plays a role of the
dominate factor of one trumps the other. Studies have been shown in the past that udenrical twins
don't always have the same ability to roll their tongue. The reason the strong evidence is because
identical twins share the same DNA
If the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
. There are three modles for how organisms might replicate their DNA Semi conservative,
conservative and dispersive. The Semi– conservative model in which each strand of DNA serves as
a template to make a new complementary strand seemed most likely based on on DNAs Structure.
The Models were tested by Meselson and stahi, who labled the DNA of Bacteria across generation
usining isotopes of nitrogen. From the patterns of DNA lableing the saw , Meselson and Stahi
confirmed that DNA is replicated semi– conservatively. Complementary strand s of the helix might
separate during the replication , each serving as a template for the construction of a new matchjng
strand.
you must have top know the chargaff base paring rule according to this rule.; in DNA , Adenine (A)
parirs with thymine (T) in double bonds while cytosine pairs with guanie in triple bonds. In RNA,
thymine is replaced with the uracil. After knowing the basis of DNA replication the next step is to
determine how a given DNA sequence can be transcribe and translated.
in the process of translation a cell reads information for moelcule caleed a messenger RNA (mRNA)
and uses this information to build poetins. Translation is happending constantly in a normal bacterial
cell, just like most cells in your body. when you take certain antibiotics erythromycin

Red Blood Cell Is An Essential Treatment For Patients With...
Red Blood Cell (RBC) transfusion is an essential treatment for patients with the Sickle Cell Disease
(SCD). Alloimmunization to RBC antigens has remained a challenge due to the difference in antigen
prevalence, such as in the case of people of African origin and those of white descendent do not
have a similar antigen prevalence. The presence of RH heterogeneity leads to alteration of the
representation of the Rh antigen on a patient 's RBC hence increasing chances of alloimmunization.
To be able to counter this, methods such as pre–transfusion determination of extended Rh (CcEe)
and K antigen phenotypes and RBC phenotyping by hemagglutination have been attempted. RBC
phenotyping by hemagglutination has been the gold standard, but is labor–intensive and hindered by
subjectivity in interpreting agglutination reactions and transcription errors when manually
transcribing results. Testing is also limited by lack of reagents for a number of clinically significant
antigens.
10 DNA–based assays targeting single–nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with blood
group antigen expression offer an alternative. 11–14 Genotyping method provide information on
RBC antigens for which standardized serologic typing reagents are not available and are responsive
to high–throughput testing with computerized interpretation. RBC antigen phenotypes determined
by single–nucleotide polymorphism analysis was compared with serologic testing for 13 routinely
tested RBC antigens. The frequency of

Rhesus Research Paper
According to the Austrian Federal Ministry Health, the original terminology used by Karl
Landsteiner in 1900's for classification is A, B, and 0 (zero); the O (oh) that can be find in the ABO
blood group system as a matter of fact is a posterior variation occurred during the translation
process, probably due to the similar shape between the number 0 (zero) and the letter O (oh). In
1937, with the co–operation of Alexander S. Wiener to Karl Landsteiner, the discovery of Rhesus
blood group system is able to exist. And so the Development of the Coombs test in 1945, the advent
of transfusion medicine, also the understanding of ABO hemolytic disease of the new born led to the
discovery of other 33 human blood group systems are being recognized ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In terms of human blood transfusion with currently 50 defined blood group antigens out of which
only five are important. The most significant of Rhesus (RH) antigen is the D antigen because it is
the most likely to provoke an immune system responseof the five main Rhesus (Rh) antigens. Red
blood cells (RBC) surface of an individual may or may not have a Rhesus (Rh) factor or
immunogenic D antigen. The status is accordingly indicated as either Rh positive (D antigen
present) or Rh negative (D antigen absent). In contrast to the ABO blood group system, it is
common for D negative individuals not have any anti–D immunoglobulin G (IgG) or
immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies, because anti–D antibodies are not customary produced by
sensitization against environmental substances, unless the circulatory system of these individuals
has been exposed to D positive red blood cells (RBCs). These immune antibodies are
immunoglobulin G (IgG) in nature and hence, can cross the placenta. However, D negative
individuals can produce immunoglobulin G (IgG) anti–D antibodies following a sensitizing event:
possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from fetus in pregnancy or sometimes a blood
transfusion with D positive red blood cells (RBCs). Prophylaxis is given against Rhesus (Rh)
immunization using anti D Immunoglobulin for pregnant Rh–negative mothers who given birth to
Rh–positive

Essay Biography of Andrei Chikatilo
Biography of Andrei Chikatilo
One of the most gruesome serial killers of all time was Andrei Chikatilo. He was born on October
16, 1936 in Yablochnoye, a Ukrainian farming village. One of his clearest memories of his youth
was that of his mother telling him his older brother had been stolen and eaten by neighbors during a
great famine. This thought remained with him always and he later disclosed he often imagined the
torturous ending his brother must have had. At the start of World War II, his father was sent away,
captured by Germans, and didn't return until the war's end. As a child, Chikatilo spent most of his
time reading books about the Russian partisans fighting Germans. He particularly enjoyed books
about Russians who ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although his wife realized her new husband was not interested in sex, she did manage to get two
kids out of him, Lyudmilla, born in 1965 and Yuri in 1969. After graduating from the Liberal Arts
University in Russian Literature, Engineering and Marxism–Leninism in 1971, he accepted a
teaching job and Vocational school No. 32 in Novovshakhtinsk. He was very bad at his job, but
stayed there because he found the company of young children arousing. He started off just peeping
at the children in the restrooms but that eventually escalated to indecent assaults on both male and
female students. When parents complained, he was moved to other schools. He had many such
incidents at each school he taught at but was never reported to the proper authorities. Under the
Soviet regime of the time, any indiscretion by a faculty member would reflect on the entire staff.
In 1978, Chikatilo moved to Shakhty where he built a shack near the river. This was where he
frequently took his victims. His first victim was a nine–year–old by the name of Lena Zakotnova.
He lured her with promises of imported chewing gum to his shack. There he tried to rape her, but
unable to achieve an erection, pressed on her throat with his forearm while repeatedly violating her
with his fingers. He discovered that this made him orgasm like never before. When he noticed the
girl was still alive he became afraid she would tell on him and stabbed her three times in the
stomach. He then picked her and

Cardiovascular System: Blood Essays
Cardiovascular System: Blood
Laszlo Vass, Ed.D. Version 42–0007–00–01
Purpose
Explain why you did this lab and what if any safety precautions needed to be followed.
For this lab I had to prick my finger, then with the bleach solution I had to dab it and then carefully
drop the blood on the slide. Once I was finished I had to take the second slide and smear the blood. I
had to let the slide dry. Then I had to prick my finger again and make 3 more slides. Then I had to
mix the chemical with a toothpick and then look under with the microscope.
Because I had to prick my finger I had to make sure the pin was cleaned with alcohol and burned,
then I rubbed an alcohol swab on my finger. I made sure the slides were also clean. I ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Basophils– Basophils secrete serotonins and histamines which in turns speeds up blood flow and
decreases the inflaming of the infection.
Lymphocytes– These leukocytes are comprised of B and T cells. B cells secrete antibodies and the T
cells kill infections. Therefore lymphocytes aid in defending the immune system.
What did you learn making a blood smear slide?
I learned not to be so terrified of pricking my finger, how to properly create a blood smear, how to
type blood and how examine blood.
Exercise 2: Blood Typing
Observations
What is your blood and Rh type?
I have type B blood type, and my Rh is positive.
Questions

Describe how the ABO blood typing system works.
The system works because in blood there are antigens and agglutinogens. In type A, only type A
antigens on the red blood cells. Similar to this type B only has type B antigens. Type AB has both A
and B antigens, which is why it is the universal recipient. Type O has neither A or B antigens
making it the universal donor.
Why is it important for everyone to know their own blood type?
It is important for you everyone to know their blood type because people need transplants,
transfusions, and can be donors. By knowing your blood if someone needs an immediate transplant
the first step in the process is knowing your blood type. Therefore knowing your blood type can
save someones life.

Investigating The Antigens Of Blood Types
Introduction The objective of this experiment is to determine what antigens are present in each
blood sample and from there, determine what blood type that translates to. Blood types are
determined by the presence or absence of two antigens, A or B. (Martini) An antigen is a substance
that induces the production of antibodies. (Martini) Antibodies are involved with the immune
system; they will bind to an antigen and work to remove it from the body. In a blood system, there
are four blood types; A, B, AB and O. Blood type A contains A antigen and B antibodies, group B
posses the B antigen and the A antibody, AB blood group has A and B antigens but no antibodies and
O group has no antigens, but both A and B antibodies. (Martini) When an opposite blood type is
introduced, it causes agglutination, where clumps form in the blood. (Martini) These clumps form
because the antibody bonded with the opposite antigen and then thickened. (Martini) This is
dangerous for the body and this is the reason blood typing is so important while performing
transfusions.
One type of blood can only go to a certain other type of blood to prevent agglutination. Group O can
donate to anyone because of its lack of antigens, but can only donate to O. A can go to A or AB and
B can go to B or AB. AB can only go to AB because of its antibodies. (Martini) There is one other
factor in blood typing and that is determining if it is positive or negative. The presence or absence of
the RH antigen is what

What Is My Blood Type Essay
What's My Blood Type?
Many people are not aware of their blood type. You might not know what your blood type is until
you get a blood test for some reason, or you are asked to donate some blood for a loved one.
What's my blood type? Well, to answer this you need to get a blood typing test. Your blood type
depends on the genes you inherit from your parents. Blood types are grouped according to the ABO
system and the Rhesus type. For example you may have an O+ blood type (the most common) or an
AB– type (the least common).
Part 1: What's My Blood Type?
Determine Your Blood Type by Your Parents'
Your parent each contributes an allele (a half gene) to give you a full gene (which is composed of
two alleles). So your gene that determines your blood type is composed of two alleles, one from
each parent. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The A and B alleles are dominant (stronger), while O is recessive (weaker). During your conception,
if you mother gives you her A allele and your father gives you his O allele, your blood type gene
will be AO, and your blood type will be A (because A is the dominant gene). If both your parents
each give you an A allele, your blood type gene will be AA, and your blood type will still be A. This
is also true for the B and the O alleles. But if one parent gives you an A allele and the other parent
gives you a B allele, your blood type gene will be AB (they are co–dominant), and your final blood
type will be AB. If both parents each give you an O allele, our blood type gene will be OO, and you
blood type will be

What Does The Spatter Pattern?
Two related individuals.–Our DNA is more closely similar to that of our parents because our DNA is
made up of half of each of theirs.
Identical twins. – Identical twins do have identical DNA, because they came from the same
fertilized egg.
Chapter 8
Blood is a circulating tissue consisting of three types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets. These cells are suspended in a liquid known as plasma. Plasma is similar to salt water in
composition. It carries dissolved proteins, such as antibodies, hormones, and clotting factors, and
nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and minerals.
In 1894, Pitoroski wrote the earliest reference to blood–spatter analysis. In 1939, Balthazard was the
first researcher to analyze the meaning of the spatter pattern. In 1955, blood–spatter evidence was
used by the defense in the Sam Shepard case, helping to exonerate him. In 1971, Dr. Herbert
MacDonnell used blood–spatter analysis as a tool in modern forensic examinations. Today, blood–
spatter evidence is used to explain events at a violent scene.
Blood typing is a way to identify and match blood samples. Three separate tests are performed. The
patient 's blood is mixed with antibodies that bind to the A protein. If the patient 's blood clumps or
agglutinates, that means that the person 's blood contains protein A. If the blood being tested does
not react with the antibodies that bind the A protein, then that person 's blood does not contain
protein A. Similar testing

Erythroblastosis Fetalis Essay
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
Erythroblastosis fetalis, also called hemolytic disease of the newborn, hemolytic disease of the fetus
and newborn, HDN, HDFN, is a blood disorder that the fetus or newborn's red blood cells (RBCs)
are being agglutinated by antibodies which are produced by the mother.
This disease is very preventable, so catching it early is good for mother and baby. If left untreated, it
might kill the fetus.
Blood Types
There are eight different types of blood: A+, A–, B+, B–, AB+, AB–, O+, O–. Blood types are based
on the presence or absence of antigens (also called agglutinogens) which are the substances on the
membrane of the red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens are either proteins or sugars, depending on
the blood group system. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Jaundice
Hemolysis also leads to increased bilirubin level, but it is not a problem before delivery. This is
because placenta has the ability to remove the bilirubin from the baby's circulation. However, after
the baby is born, bilirubin cannot be cleared due to his or her immature liver. As a result, jaundice
(skin and eyes become yellow) happens within 24 hours after the baby's birth.
If the level of bilirubin continue to increase, acute or chronic kernicterus may occur. Kernicterus is
an abnormal accumulation in the brain, and it causes brain tissue damage.
Hepatomegaly and Splenomegaly
The baby with HDN has his or her liver and spleen in a large–than–normal size. This is because
those organs have to increase their size to produce more red blood cells. Furthermore, they lose their
functions.
Edema
Edema which is known as hydrops is another condition that the baby with HDN can experience.
Fluid accumulates in the heart, lungs, and abdomen, and causes tissues in these areas start swollen.
Hydrops fetalis is a fatal condition, and the fetus may die in the utero or soon after

Analyzing The Changing Market Of Blood Donations Essay
Thick and thin. These are terms that are integral to blood terminology, but they are also the terms
that describe the changing market of blood donations. ABO groups, Rh, antigens, and antibodies are
just some of the components of blood that must be studied before matching a donor and recipient for
a blood transfusion. Blood transfusion is a long, complex process that has a unique matching market
of its own, and it has gone through many changes throughout history. In order to determine if the
blood is a safe match, technicians check for compatible blood types, non–matching antigens, and
finally cross–matching. All of this is done in a large market with blood from millions of donors. Due
to the large number of options and room for the match to be ineffective or rejected, there are
numerous problems in this market. It is possible for there to be a mishap where the donor blood is
given to the wrong recipient, or unknown factors could arise where the donor and recipient's blood
end up not mixing. The arduous process of making a match in this market requires solutions such as
double–checking the blood before a transfusion and reading labels with extreme care and scrutiny.
First, it is most important to know about the nature and history of the blood exchange market before
moving on to an explanation of the blood transfusion market and process. Donating blood is one of
the greatest and most altruistic activities that one could participate in. The market involved here has
changed

Essay On Racial Identity
The concept of racial identity has been misunderstood and had been contested for the last few
decades. As a biological category is concerned, race is derived from any person's physical features,
Gene pools and character qualities. The Caucasoid population is often considered as having more
physical abilities and moral qualities followed by Mongoloid and the Negroid population. Racial
identity is being considered as a surface level mainstream based on what we look about the matter of
racial identities. Racial identities can adversely affect any relationship with the concept of learning
that individuals get acquired in their own environments. Today theoretically as well as literally the
manifestations of racial identity are discussed not only in the biological order but has been accepted
as a social construction, which basically refers to a sense of a particular group or the collective
identity based on one's objective that he/she shares a common heritage with any of the social group
concerned. Earlier readings have the contexts which determine that people were ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The project contains the basic differences such as the physical as well as the skeletal differences
between the races. The concept of human races is also clearly understood through the various
researches going on the races of the world. The genetic distances suggests the major races of
humans first occurred about 120,000 years ago. In the cultural sense races may have exist in the
human population for a longer period of time, but the biological meaning of the concept of race have
been implemented objectively with different molecular genetic data through the method of
hypothesis testing. Adaptive traits such as skin color have from the earlier times been used to define
the races but on a whole they only reflect the existing environmental factor to which the populations
have adapted for

The Method Of Detection Of Dna
1. Primer Annealing – temperature is lowered so that primers attach to DNA strands
2. Extension – DNA polymerase (e.g. Taq) helps to make new DNA strands.
The PCR cycle continues as DNA is copied exponentially. The original PCR methods allowed
detection of DNA growth at the end of the process; however the introduction Real Time–PCR (RT–
PCR) has allowed DNA amplification progress to be monitored throughout the assay (6).
RT–PCR is often confused with reverse–transcriptase PCR (rt–PCR), however rt–PCR is a method
of detecting RNA by utilising reverse transcriptase to synthesise cDNA by. cDNA is then amplified
and detected by PCR techniques (6).
RT–PCR has now advanced so that assays can now screen several viral DNA/RNA at once
(Multiplex PCR). The Roche – Cobas TaqScreen MPX Test v2.0 encompasses an rt–PCR stage to
allow detection of:
HIV–1 Group M (RNA)
HIV–1 Group O (RNA)
HIV–2 (RNA)
HCV (DNA)
HBV (DNA)
(5)
MPX PCR uses several gene specific primers (forward and reverse strands) within a reaction mix.
Internal controls are present within the testing kit, making the process highly efficient. By
combining several tests on one platform, this is a very lean method testing; however there is a small
risk of cross–hybridisation due to the volume of different primers used (5,6).
An added benefit of using RT–PCR to screen viral targets is that they shorten the detection window
period of some viruses. This means, even if a viral marker can be detected serologically

Ad Argument Analysis: Ad Anteequitem Stereotypes
An article written by Juliette Kellow, states that in order to lose weight, we must follow a specific
diet that our ancestors followed a long time ago and how each diet is specific to the individuals
blood type. The first blood type, type O, appeared around 50,000 B.C and around that time the
ancestors were hunter–gathers who mostly consumed meat. This article suggests all individuals with
type O blood be placed on a diet consuming high protein and low carbs. Secondly, ancestors that
lived 15,000 years ago had blood type A and were considered farmers because they "started to settle
into farming–type communities" (Kellow, 2015. When did the blood types evolve? Section, Para. 3).
Anyone with type A blood, is to be put on a strict vegetable diet. ... Show more content on
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Ad antequitem fallacy appears in this article because human ancestors are referred to throughout
"Ad antequitem fallacy: the error of concluding that because a claim is old, it must be valid"
(Lilienfeld, Landfield, 2015. Ad Antequitem Fallacy section, para. 1). This represents Ad antequitem
because it is based on the human ancestors thousands of years ago, and what their diet and way of
life was like. There was no connection shown between their blood type and what they ate. As time
went on, the ancestors began to move from place to place, and this caused them to change their diet
in order to adapt to their new environment. Even though the ancestors had various diets and blood
types, this does not mean someone will lose weight, by eating the same diet as their corresponding
ancestors' blood types. The second key warning, which appeared nine times throughout the article, is
exaggerated claims. One example of this is "Only one person in 10 has blood type B – a real shame
when you consider this blood group has the least dietary restrictions!" (Kellow, 2015. Blood Group
B section, Para. 1). This is one of the many examples depicted throughout the article because they
place more emphasis on particular notations, in order to skew the reader's attention in that

The Blood Of Blood And Blood
The ABO blood types play an integral role in conducting blood transfusions. Blood is "a complex,
living tissue that contains many cell types and proteins" (green). The average adult body is
comprised of more than five liters of blood (purple). Blood basically consists of four components,
each with a specific function. Almost half of the blood volume is red blood cells, which transport
oxygen and other nutrients to the organs and tissues, as well as remove carbon dioxide and other
wastes. White blood cells, which are used to fight infections, and platelets, which form blood clots
to prevent blood loss only make up about 1% of the total blood volume. The rest of the blood, about
55%, is plasma, the fluid that carries the blood cells, along ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
He explained that the reactions of mixing different blood are as a result of these antigens on the red
blood cells. The ABO blood group classifies two types of antigens found on the surface of red blood
cells in the body: type A and type B. The presence or absence of either of the two types of antigens
determines a person's blood type. A person with only A–antigens will have type A blood, while a
person with only B–antigens will have type B blood. A person with A and B antigens will have type
AB blood, whereas a person with neither A nor B antigens will have type O blood. Type O blood is
actually most frequent in the United States, accounting for 45% of the population. About 40% of the
population's blood type is classified as Type A, while close to 11% is Type B. Only 4% of all
Americans have both A and B antigens on the surface of their red cells, in other words type AB
blood (red). In 1910, research studies conducted by Ludwik Hirszfeld and Emil von Dungernin
proved that the ABO blood groups are inherited. The gene is found on chromosome 9 and will not
alter due to external influences (blue). A child inherits one allele for an antigen from each parent and
the combination determines his blood type. The A and B genes are dominant and the O gene is
recessive. Therefore, if a child, for example, receives a B gene from one parent and an O gene from
the other, he will have type B blood. If, on the other hand,

Blood Typing Lab Report

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Blood Typing Lab Report