Karl Landsteiner (June 14, 1868 – June 26, 1943). Austrian biologist, physician, and immunologist. Father of Transfusion Medicine . In 1900 ,Karl Landsteiner found out that the blood of two people under contact agglutinates. In 1901 ,he found that this effect was due to contact of blood with blood serum. As a result, he succeeded in identifying the three blood group A,B,and O, which he labelled as C, of human blood.  Landsteiner also found out that blood transfusion between persons with the same blood group did not lead to the destruction of blood cells, whereas this occurred between persons of different blood groups

1. BLOOD
Moderator
MR. Gaurav Pandey
Presenter
Afreen Khan

2. HISTORY
• Karl Landsteiner (June 14, 1868 – June 26, 1943).
• Austrian biologist, physician, and immunologist.
• Father of Transfusion Medicine .
• In 1900 ,Karl Landsteiner found out that the blood of two
people under contact agglutinates.
• In 1901 ,he found that this effect was due to contact of blood
with blood serum.
• As a result, he succeeded in identifying the three blood group
A,B,and O, which he labelled as C, of human blood.
• Landsteiner also found out that blood transfusion between
persons with the same blood group did not lead to the
destruction of blood cells, whereas this occurred between
persons of different blood groups

3. CONT…
• In 1907,First successful blood transfusion was performed by
Reuben Ottenberg at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York.
• In 1930, Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in recognition of these achievement.
• In 1937, Karl Landsteiner identified Rhesus factor, with
Alexander S.Wiener.
 Reference: Wikipedia

4. BLOOD
• Blood is a special fluid connective tissue consisting of
a fluid matrix, plasma and formed element.
• Why blood is consider as connective tissue?
• Blood connect different body systems, transport
oxygen and nutrients to all the parts of the body, and
removes the waste products.
• Blood has an extra cellular matrix called plasma with
formed elements floating in it
• Like other connective tissues, blood is mesodermal in
origin.

5. CONT….
• Blood cells and plasma can be separated by
centrifugation(spinning) or by gravity when blood is allowed to
stand. The cells are heavier than plasma and sink to the
bottom of any sample.
• Blood makes up about 7% of body weight (about 5.6litres in a
70 kg man). This proportion is less in women and considerably
greater in children, gradually decreasing until the adult level is
reached.
• Blood is slightly alkaline, with a
pH between 7.35 and 7.45.

6. FUNCTION OF BLOOD
•Deliver O2
•Remove metabolic wastes
•Maintain temperature, pH, and fluid volume
•Protection from blood loss- platelets
•Prevent infection- antibodies and WBC
•Transport hormones

7. BLOOD COMPOSITION

8. PLASMA
• Plasma is straw colored , viscous fluid consisting nearly 55 %of
blood
• 90-92% plasma is water ,6-8% plasma is protein.
• Major plasma protein are albumin , globulins, and fibrinogen
• Fibrinogens- These are needed for clotting or coagulation of
blood.
• Globulins- Primarily are involved in defense mechanisms of
the body.
• Albumins – It help in osmotic balance.
• Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+ ,
Ca++, Mg++, HCO3 – , Cl– , etc.

9. CONT….
• Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the
plasma as they are always in transit in the body.
• Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in
the plasma in an inactive form.
• Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
• The most abundant clotting factor is fibrinogen.
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are transported round
the body dissolved in plasma
• Metabolic waste CO2 ,Urea.

10. CELLULAR CONTENT
• Blood cells are synthesized mainly in red bone marrow. Some
lymphocytes, additionally, are produced in lymphoid tissue. In
the bone marrow, all blood cells originate from pluripotent (i.e.
capable of developing into one of a number of cell types)stem
cells
• The process of blood cell formation is called haemopoiesis.
• In adults, haemopoiesis in the skeleton is confined to flat
bones, irregular bones and the ends(epiphyses) of long bones,
the main sites being the sternum, ribs, pelvis and skull

11. FORMED ELEMENTS
• Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called
formed elements .
• They constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.

12. ERYTHROCYTES
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of
all the cells in blood.
• 99% of all blood cells are erythrocytes .
• They are biconcave discs with no nucleus, and their diameter is
about 7μm .
• Their main function is in gas transport, mainly of oxygen, but
they also carry some carbon dioxide.
• The biconcavity increases their surface area for gas exchange,
and the thinness of the central portion allows fast entry and
exit of gases.
• A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 millions to 5.5
millions of RBCs mm–3 of blood.

13. CONT…
• RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adult.
• RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they
are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
• The process of development of red blood cells from stem cells
takes about 7 days and is called erythropoiesis.
• The immature cells are released into the blood-stream as
reticulocytes, and mature into erythrocytes over day or two
within the circulation.
• During this time, they lose their nucleus and therefore become
incapable of division

14. CONT….
• They have a red colored, iron containing complex protein
called haemoglobin.
• A healthy individual has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin in every
100 ml of blood.
• These molecules play a significant role in transport of
respiratory gases.
• Both vitamin B12 and folic acid are required for red blood cell
synthesis.
• They are absorbed in the intestines, although vitamin
B12 must be bound to intrinsic factor to allow absorption to
take place

15. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION

16. HORMONAL CONTROL OF
ERYTHROPOIESIS

17. HAEMOGLOBIN
• Haemoglobin is a large, complex molecule containing a
globular protein (globin) and a pigmented iron-containing
complex called haem.
• Each haemoglobin molecule contains four globin chains and
four haem units, each with one atom of iron .
• As each atom of iron can combine with an oxygen molecule,
this means that a single haemoglobin molecule can carry up to
four molecules of oxygen.
• An average red blood cell carries about 280 million
haemoglobin molecules.
• Iron is carried in the bloodstream bound to its transport
protein, transferrin and stored in the liver.

18. STRUCTURE OF HAEMOGLOBIN

19. LEUCOCYTES
• Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) .
• They are colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin.
• They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number.
• Averages 6000-8000 mm–3 of blood.
• Leucocytes are generally short lived.
• These cells have an important function in defense and
immunity.
• They detect foreign or abnormal (antigenic)material and
destroy it, through a range of defense mechanisms.
• Leukocytes are the largest blood cells but they account for only
about 1%of the blood volume. They contain nuclei and some
have granules in their cytoplasm

20. GRANULOCYTES
• Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
• Lifespan of a granulocyte ranges from about 12 hours to 4
days.
• Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.
• Neutrophils- These are the most abundant cells of total WBCs.
• 60-65 per cent of the total WBCs are neutrophils.
• Nucleus multilobed.
• Duration of development: 6-9 days
• Life Span: 6 hours to a few days
• Neutrophils are phagocytic cells .
• Destroy foreign organisms entering the body.
• 10-12 um diameter
NEUTROPHILS

21. CONT…
• Basophils-These are the least 0.5-1 per cent of total WBCs
• Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, etc., and are
involved in inflammatory reactions.
• Nucleus lobed,10-12 um diameter
• Development: 3-7 days
• Life Span: a few hours to a few days
• Eosinophils- 2-3 per cent of total WBCs.
• Eosinophils resist infections and are also associated with
allergic reactions.
• Nucleus bilobed
• Development:6-9 days.
• Life Span: 8-12 days,12-17 um diameter
BASOPHILS
EOSINOPHILS

22. AGRANULOCYTES
• Life span of agranulocyte ranges approximately 100 to 300
days.
• The monocytes and lymphocytes make up 25 to 50% of the
total leukocyte count .
• They have a large nucleus and no cytoplasmic granules.
• Monocytes- They are 6-8 percent of total WBCs.
• These are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign organisms
entering the body.
• Nucleus U-shaped
• Development: 2-3 days
• Life Span: months
• 14-20 um diameter
MONOCYTES

23. CONT…
• Lymphocytes-They are 20-25 percent of total WBCs
• Lymphocytes are of two major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms.
• Both B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses of the body.
• Nucleus spherical or indented.
• Development: days to weeks.
• Life Span: hours to years.
• One can see both small larger than an
Rbc (7-8 um) and medium
to large (up to 12 um).
LYMPHOCYTES

24. THROMBOCYTES
• Thrombocytes are also known as platelets.
• These are very small discs, 2–4μm in diameter.
• Derived from the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in red bone
marrow.
• Although they have no nucleus, their cytoplasm is packed with
granules containing a variety of substances that promote blood
clotting, which causes haemostasis (cessation of bleeding).
• The normal blood platelet count is 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets
mm–3
• The life span of platelets is between
• 8 and 11 days

25. CONT…
• The mechanisms that regulate platelet numbers are not fully
understood, but the hormone thrombopoeitin from the liver
stimulates platelet production
• And those not used in haemostasis are destroyed by macro-
phages, mainly in the spleen. About a third of platelets are
stored within the spleen rather than in the circulation; this is
an emergency store that can be released as required to control
excessive bleeding

26. COAGULATION OF BLOOD
• Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury
or trauma.
• This is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from
the body.
• You would have observed a dark reddish brown scum formed
at the site of a cut or an injury over a period of time.
• It is a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads
called fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of
blood are trapped.
• Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in
the plasma by the enzyme thrombin.

27. CONT…
• Thrombin, in turn are formed from another inactive substance
present in the plasma called prothrombin.
• An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is required for the above
reaction.
• This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymic reactions
(cascade process) involving a number of factors present in the
plasma in an inactive state.
• An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to
release certain factors which activate the mechanism of
coagulation.
• Certain factors released by the tissues at the site of injury also
can initiate coagulation.
• Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.

28. BLOOD CLOTTING FACTORS

29. BLOOD GROUPS
Antigen- protein on the surface of a RBC membrane
Antibody- proteins made by lymphocytes in plasma which
are made in response to the presence of antigens.
They attack foreign antigens, which result in clumping
(agglutination)

30. BLOOD GROUPS
• Individual have different types of antigens on the surface of
their red blood cells.
• There antigens which are inherited, determined the individual
blood group.
• Individual can make antibodies to other antigens, but not to
their own type of antigen.
• If antigen and antibody react with each other it will causing a
potentially fatal transfusion reaction.
• Various types of grouping of blood has been done. Two such
groupings – the ABO and Rh – are widely used all over the
world.

31. THE ABO SYSTEM
• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two
surface antigens (chemicals that can induce immune response)
on the RBCs namely A and B
• About 55% of the population has either A-type antigens(blood
group A), B-type antigens (blood group B) or both(blood group
AB) on their red cell surface.
• The remaining45% have neither A nor B type antigens (blood
group O.
• Blood group A individual cannot make anti-A(therefore do not
have these antibodies in there plasma) they can make anti-B
• Blood group B individuals, for the same reasons, can make only
anti-A

32. CONT…
• Blood group AB make neither make anti-A nor anti-B.
• Blood group O make both anti-A and anti-B.
• Blood group AB people make neither anti-A nor anti-B, they
are sometime known as universal recipients
• Blood group O is known as universal donor.
• Blood group O can donate blood to A,B, AB or O type.
Blood type Antigen Antibody
A A anti-B
B B anti-A
A & B AB no anti body
Neither A or B O anti-A and anti-B

33. THE RHESUS SYSTEM
• Rh factor is a another type of antigen .
• It is called as Rhesus factor (Rh factor) since it was first seen is
Rhesus monkey .
• It is also observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly
80 per cent) of humans.
• Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in
whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific
antibodies against the Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh group should
also be matched before transfusions.
• The corresponding antibody is never present in the body but
developed after the first exposure.

34. CONT…
• If a Rh +ve blood is given to a Rh –ve person, no intermediate
reaction occur .
• But during a second transfusion the Rh –ve person develop
Anti-Rh antibody
• This further leads to clumping.

35. DISORDER
• Haemolytic disease of the newborn(ERYTHROBLASTOSIS
FOETALIS):
• A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) has been
observed between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother with
Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
• Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve
blood of the mother in the first pregnancy as the two bloods
are well separated by the placenta.
• During the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of
exposure of the maternal blood to small amounts of the Rh+ve
blood from the foetus.

36. CONT…
• In such cases, the mother’s immune system starts preparing
antibodies against Rh antigen in her blood.
• In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from
the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus
(Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs.
• This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia
and jaundice to the baby.
• in less serious circumstances, the baby is born with some
degree of anaemia, which is corrected with blood transfusion.
• This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
• This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the
mother immediately after the delivery of the first child.

37. ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETALIS
RH+ indicates protein
RH- indicates no protein
Rh+ mother w/Rh- baby– no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh+ baby– problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- father– no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- baby-- no problem

38. SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
• Describe in 1910 by Herrick
• Autosomal recessive disorder.
• In ß-chain of haemoglobin (Hb)at position 6th.
• Glutamic acid(GA)is replaced by valine.
• On the DNA chain the original sequence was CTC when
DNA undergoes transcription to mRNA the CTC changes to
GAG (code for glutamic acid).
• If CTC is replaced by CAC when this DNA undergoes in
transcription to form mRNA is will be GUG(codes for valine).
• It is called point mutation. At position 6th point mutation take
place. Glutamic acid replace by valine.
• In DNA strand T is replaced by A.

39. CONT…
• O2 holding capacity decreases of haemoglobin because
hemoglobin is defected.
• Shape of RBC changes and became sickle like.

40. HAEMOPHILIA
• Also known as Royal Disease or Bleeders disease.
• Haemophilia A-Non formation of clotting factor VIII
• Haemophilia B-non formation of clotting factor IX
• A sex linked (X linked)recessive disorder.
• In an affected individual a simple cut result in non stop
bleeding.
• Queen Victoria was a carrier of the disease.

41. ANAEMIA
• Anaemia is a condition that is present when blood
heamoglobin level is below the lower limit or lower from
normal range.
• Average level of haemoglobin in male is 13-18g/l
• In female is 11.5-15g/l.
• Anaemia is the inability of the blood to carry enough oxygen to
meet body needs.
• Usually this is because there are low levels of haemoglobin in
the blood, but some-times it is due to production of faulty
haemoglobin.

42. CONT…
• Anaemia is classified depending on the cause:
• production of insufficient or defective erythrocytes. If the
number of red blood cells being released is too lower the red
blood cells are defective in some way, anaemia may result.
Important causes include iron deficiency, vitamin B12/folic acid
deficiency and bone marrow failure.
• Blood loss or excessive erythrocyte breakdown(haemolysis).If
erythrocytes are lost from the circulation, either through loss
of blood in haemorrhage or by accelerated haemoly-sis,
anaemia can result

43. CONT…

44. REFERENCE
• NCERT BOOK
CLASS XI (CHAPTER 18, PAGE NO. 278-281)
CLASS XII (CHAPTER 5, PAGE NO. 89-90)
• ROSS AND WILSON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN HEALTH
AND ILLNESS 12TH EDITION (SECTION 2 ,CHAPTER 4,
PAGE NO. 62-76)

45. THANK YOU