Human anatomy and physiology

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Branch: B. Pharm.
Semester: I
Subject: Human Anatomy & Physiology-I
UNIT: III
Topic: Body Fluid & Blood
Mr. Prashant Kumar Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of Lucknow

2. Blood
• Blood is a type of fluid connective tissue that
originates in the mesoderm.
• "Haematology is the branch of medicine concerned
with the study of blood, blood-forming tissues, and
the disorders associated with them.“
• It is the Greek word haeme, which means blood,
and logos, which means study.

3. Functions of blood
• Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are all
essential nutrients in cells.
• In the body, it transports oxygen (O2), carbon
dioxide (CO2), and hormones.
• Pathogens, blood loss, and diseases are all
prevented.
• Helps regulate body temperature.

4. Properties of Blood
Colour Bright red in arteries & dark red in
veins
Mass 8% of the body mass
pH Slightly alkaline (pH+ 7.35 – 7.45)
Taste Salty
Temperature 38° C (100.4° F)
Viscosity 3 -4 times more viscous than water
Volume 5 – 6 liters

5. Composition of Blood
Blood
Plasma
(55 %)
Blood Cell
(45 %)

6. Plasma
• Normally 55 % of our blood is made up of plasma
• Composed of approximately 90 % water
• Plasma is a pale yellow coloured liquid component
of a blood that holds the cellular elements of blood
in suspension.
The main function of Plasma – It is helps maintain
blood pressure.

7. Constituents of Plasma
Plasma
Water
(90 %)
Proteins
(8 %)
Other
(2 %)
Albumins
Globulins
Fibrinogen
Gas
(O2,CO2,N2)
Nutrients
Waste
Products

8. Functions of Plasma constituent
Constituent Function
Water Absorbs, transports and releases
heat
Albumins Osmotic balance
Globulins Defense mechanism
Fibrinogen Blood clotting
Electrolytic ions pH buffering

9. RBC (Red Blood Cell)
• Erythrocytes are another name for red blood cells.
• Shape: biconcave Cell membrane that is elastic.
• There is no nucleus.
• Hemoglobin makes up 95 percent of RBCs (red
pigment).
• Enzymes, salts, and other protein make up the
remaining 5%.

10. Continued red blood cells
• Formed in red bone marrow
• Average life is four months
• About 2-10 million red blood cells are formed and
destroyed in every second.
• Blood of male contains 5 – 5.5 million RBC per
cubic millimeter.
• Blood of female contains 4 – 4.5 million RBC per
cubic millimeter.

11. Erythropoiesis
“The production of RBC is known as erythropoiesis.”
• Increase in number of RBC is known as polycythemia
• Decrease in number of RBC is known as erythropenia
Adult Red bone marrow of long bones (hip bone,
breast bone, vertebral Colon & ribs)
Child (up to 5 year) Bone marrow of all the bones
Foetus Liver & spleen

12. Functions of RBC
• O2 is transported from the lungs to the tissues.
• CO2 is transported from tissues to the lungs.
• Normal blood contains 13 – 15 g of Hb per
100 ml of blood
• Each molecule of Hb carries four Molecules
of oxygen

13. WBC (White blood cells)
• Leucocytes are another name for white blood cells.
• They have no colour.
• They're a lot bigger than red blood cells.
• WBCs range from 7000 to 8000 per cubic
millimetre of blood.
• Bone marrow is where it all starts.

14. Continued white blood cells
• white blood cells are abut 1% in healthy people.
• Only 2% of total WBC population circulating in
blood at a time
- Rest is in the skin, lungs and spleen.
Leucopoiesis
The production of WBC is known as leucopoiesis.
Adult Liver, spleen, tonsils, bone marrow
Foetus Liver, spleen

15. Function of WBC
• These are immune system cells that protect the body
from both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
• Increase in number of WBS is known as
leucocytosis
• Decrease in number of WBC is known as
leucopenia
• Pathological increase in number of WBC is
known as leukemia

16. Types of WBC
(a) Granulocytes
These WBC have granules in their cytoplasm.
- Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophils.
(b) Agranulocytes
These are without granules in their cytoplasm.
- These include monocytes and lymphocytes.

17. Granular WBC
Type Features Functions Location
produced
Neutrophils • Nucleus with 3-4
lobes
• Stain with neutral
dye (hematoxylin)
Destroy bacteria by
phagocytosis
Bone marrow
Eosinophils • Nucleus with 2
lobes
• Stain with acidic
dye (eosin)
Combat the effect of
histamine in allergic
reactions
Bone marrow
Basophils • Nucleus with
indistinct lobes
• Stain with basic dye
(methylene blue)
Liberate heparin and
histamine in allergic
reactions to intensify
inflammatory
response
Bone marrow

18. Agranular WBC
Type Features Functions Location
produced
Lymphocyte • Smallest of
WBC
• Large round
nucleus
Produce
antibodies
Bone marrow,
spleen, tonsils
Monocyte • Largest of
WBC
• Large kidney
shaped
nucleus
Ingest micro-
organisms
Bone marrow

19. Platelets
• Platelets are also called Thrombocytes.
• Platelets are not cells, they are fragments of large
cells.
• Nucleus are absent
• Random shaped
• 2-4 micron size
• Normal platelet count is 1.5 – 4 lakhs per drop of
blood

20. Continued platelets
• Platelets have a life span of only 5 to 9 days
• Platelets are formed in bone marrow
Function
• Stoppage of bleeding in a quick way when blood
vessels are damaged this process is also called
Hemostasis
• Prevent hemorrhage (loss of large amount of blood)

21. Blood Group: Introduction
• A blood group also called a Blood Type
• Classification of blood is based on the presence or
absence of inherited antigenic substances on the
surface of red blood cells.
• These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates,
glycoproteins, depending on the blood group
system.

22. • The ABO blood group system is the most important
blood type system (or blood group system) in
human blood transfusion.
• ABO blood types are also present in some other
animals for example rodents and apes such as
chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas.
• Determination of ABO blood groups depends upon
the immunological reaction between antigen and
antibody.
• Antigens are also called agglutinogens because of
their capacity to cause agglutination of RBCs.

23. Blood Group: History
• Karl Landsteiner discovered the ABO blood group
system in 1901.
• Jansky is credited with the first classification of
blood into the four types (A, B, AB, O) in 1907,
which remains in use today.
• Landsteiner Rule
If an antigen is present on a patients red blood cells
the corresponding antibody will NOT be present in
the patients plasma, under ‘normal conditions’.

24. ABO Basics
• Based on the presence or absence of antigen A and
antigen B, blood is divided into four groups:
‘A, B, O and AB group.
• Blood having antigen A belongs to ‘A’ group. This
blood has beta- antibody in the serum.
• Blood with antigen B and alpha- antibody belongs
to ‘B’ group.

25. • If both the antigens are present, blood group is
called ‘AB’ group and serum of this group does not
contain any antibody.
• If both antigens are absent, the blood group is called
‘O’ group and both alpha and beta antibodies are
present in serum.

26. Table shows the four ABO phenotype
Blood Group Antigens on
RBCs
Antibodies in
Serum
A A Anti – B
B B Anti - A
AB A and B Neither
O Neither Anti – A and anti
- B

27. • The antibody of the donor and antigen of the
recipient are ignored mostly.
• Thus, RBC of ‘O’ group has no antigen and so
agglutination does not occur with any other group
of blood.
• So, ‘O’ group blood can be given to any blood
persons and the people with this blood group are
called ‘universal donors’.
• Plasma of AB group blood has no antibody. This
does not cause agglutination of RBC from any other
group of blood.

28. • People with AB group can receive blood from any blood group persons.
• So, people with this blood group are called ‘universal recipients’.

29. Rh Blood Group System

30. • This antigen was discovered by Karl Landsteiner
and Alexander Wiener in 1940.
• It was first discovered in Rhesus macaque and
hence the name ‘Rh factor’.

31. • It is the most important blood group system after
ABO.
• Rh blood group system consists of 50 defined blood
group antigens, among them there are six common
types of Rh antigens.
• Each of which is called an Rh factor.
• These types are designated C, D, E, c, d, and e.
• The type D antigen is widely prevalent in the
population and considerably more antigenic than the
other Rh antigens.
• Anyone who has this type of antigen is said to be
Rh positive, whereas a person who does not have
type D antigen is said to be Rh negative.

32. Rh antigen – C, D, E, c, d & e
• Some of us have it, some of us don’t.
• If it is present, the blood is Rh D positive, if not it’s
Rh D negative.
• So, for example, some people in group people in
group A will have it, and will therefore be classed as
A+ (or A positive).
• While the ones that don’t, are A- (or A negative).
• And so it goes for groups B, AB and O.

33. Rh antibodies
• No natural antibodies
• But are produced only when Rh+ blood is given to a
Rh – person
• 85% of the population is Rh positive, the other 15%
of the population is Rh negative.

34. Platelets
• The Platelets are the fragments of large cells called
megakaryocytes that remain in the bone marrow.
Thrombopoiesis
The production of platelets is known as
thrombopoiesis.
• Increase in number of platelets is know as
thrombocytosis
• Decrease in number of platelets is know as
thrombocytopenia

35. Hemostasis
Hemostasis is defined as arrest or stoppage of bleeding.
Coagulation
The process by which blood changes from a liquid to a
gel, forming a blood clot, resulting in hemostasis.
Clot
Blood clot is defined as the mass of coagulated blood
which contains RBC, WBC and platelets entrapped in
fibrin meshwork.

36. Stages of Hemostasis
Hemostasis involves 4 main
steps:
1. Vascular spasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation
4. Fibrinolysis

37. Vasoconstriction
• Immediately after injury, the blood vessel constricts
and decrease the loss of blood from the damages
portion.
• When the blood vessels are cut, the endothelium is
damaged and the collagen is exposed.
• Platelets adhere to this collagen and get activated.
• The activated platelets secrete serotonin and other
vasoconstrictor substances which cause constriction
of the blood vessels.

38. Platelet Plug Formation
• Platelets get adhered to the collagen of ruptured
blood vessel and secrete adenosine di phosphate
(ADP).
• These two substance attract more and more platelets
and activate them.
• Platelet aggregation is accelerated by Platelet-
Activating Factor (PAF).

39. Blood clotting
• “Blood clotting is the process in which blood looses its fluidity
and becomes a jelly like mass few minutes after it is shed out.”
• During this process, the fibrinogen is converted into fibrin.
• Three steps of blood clotting
Step 1-Formation of prothrombin activator (a) Intrinsic (b) Extrinsic
Stage 2- Conversion of Prothrombin into Thrombin
Stage 3- Fibrinogen into Fibrin

43. Anticoagulants
• The substances, which prevent or postpone
coagulation of blood, are called anticoagulants.
• Some substances are used to prevent clotting inside
the body that is in vivo and some substances used to
prevent clotting outside the body that is in vitro.

44. The various anticoagulants are as
follows
• Heparin
• Warfarin
• EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid)
• Oxalate compounds
• Citrates (sodium, ammonium or potassium citrate)

45. Anticoagulants are used
• For preservation of stored whole blood and blood
fractions (heparin and acid citrate dextrose).
• To keep laboratory blood specimens from clotting
(EDTA, citrate, oxalate and fluoride).

46. Disorder of blood
• Anemia
A condition in which there is a deficiency of
red blood cells in the blood.
Symptoms
Oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced
Fatigue, cold intolerance and paleness
Lack of oxygen for ATP and heat production

47. Leukaemia
The uncontrolled production of white blood cells
(leucocytes) is called leukaemia and its also called
blood cancer.
Symptoms
Pale skin
Tiredness
A high temperature (fever)
Weight loss

48. Treatment
• The blood of the patient should be changed
regularly
• It can be cured by Bone marrow transplant.
• It is an effective but expensive treatment.

49. Reference
• Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson, B. “Tortora’s principles
of Anatomy and Physiology” 15th ed. Noida: Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd ; 2017.
• Waugh, Anne & Grant, Allison. “Ross & Wilson
Anatomy and Physiology in health and illness” 13th
edition. Elsevier Pvt ltd.
• https://www.slideshare.net/nirmalajosephine1/blood
-clotting-32105940.

50. Thank You