1. Course no. – ENTO-221
Title- Bio-pesticides and Bio-
fertilizers
Dr. Anita Sharma
Asstt. Professor (Entomology)
2. Topic- 1. HISTORY AND CONCEPT OF BIOPESTICIDES
Biopesticide-
Bio- means involving life or living organisms.
Pesticide- includes substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest
Biopesticides may be derived from animals (e.g. nematodes), plants
(Chrysanthemum, Azadirachta) and micro-organisms (e.g. Bacillus
thuringiensis, Trichoderma, nucleopolyhedrosis virus), and include living
organisms (natural enemies) etc.
According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Biopesticides
"include naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical
pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial pesticides), and
pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic material
(plant-incorporated protectants) or PIPs".
However, biopesticides are generally less toxic to the user and are non-target
organisms, making them desirable and sustainable tools for disease and pests
management.
3. How Biopesticides work?
Biologicals are used to control pests, pathogens and weeds by a
variety of means. Microbial biocontrols may include a pathogen or
parasite that infects the target. Alternatively, they might act as
competitors or inducers of plant host resistance.
Biochemical biocontrols can also act through a variety of
mechanisms. Some act by inhibiting the growth, feeding,
development or reproduction of a pest or pathogen. Still other
biocontrols may be used to form a barrier on the host, so as to act
as a feeding or infection inhibitor.
4. History of Biopesticides
Plant extracts were likely the earliest agricultural biocontrols, as
history records that nicotine was used to control plum beetles as early
as the 17th century.
Experiments involving biological controls for insect pests in
agriculture date back as far as 1835, when Agostino Bassi
demonstrated that white muscardine fungus (Beauveria bassiana)
could be used to cause an infectious disease in silkworm.
The first, and still most, widely used biocontrols included spores of
the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). In 1901, Bt was isolated from a
diseased silkworm by Japanese biologist Shigetane Ishiwata.
In 1909 Dr. Ernst Berliner in Thuringen, Germany, then rediscovered
it in a diseased caterpillar of flour moth. The Bt pathogen was classified
in 1911 as type species Bacillus thuringiensis and remains the most
widely used biocontrols to this day.
5. In the early 1920s, the French began to use Bt as a biological
insecticide. The first commercially available Bt product, Sporeine,
appeared in France in 1938.
The first Bt strain was commercialized and marketed as
‘Thuricide’ in 1960.
In the latter half of the 20th century, research and development
continued at a low level because of the widespread adoption of
cheaper but more toxic synthetic chemical insecticides.
In 1973, Heliothis (Ha) NPV was granted exemption from
tolerance and the first viral insecticide, Elcar received a label in
1975.
In 1977, Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (toxic to flies) was
discovered, and in 1983 the strain tenebrionis (toxic to beetles) was
found.
6. Louis Pasteur, was the first to use fungus on grape vines in the
vine yards to control the tiny inhabiting insect.
E. Metschnikoff (1879) and J Krassiltchik (1888) produced the
fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae to control the wheat cockchafer,
Anisoplia austriacea.
In 1979, the U.S. EPA registered the first insect pheromone for
use in mass trapping of Japanese beetles.
In the 1990s, researchers began testing kaolin clay as an insect
repellent in organic fruit orchards. It was made commercially
available, particularly for use in organic systems, in 1999.
Commercial success stories from the 1980s and 1990s include
products containing Agrobacterium radiobacter for the
prevention of crown gall on woody crops and Pseudomonas
fluorescens for the prevention of fire blight in orchards where the
streptomycin had been overused and resistant pathogen
populations were abundant.
7. Some examples of biocontrols developed in more recent years
Agrobacterium radiobacter Strain K84 Agrobacterium
radiobacter Strain K84 is a naturally occurring bacterium found in
many soils and in plant root zones. This biocontrols is used in the
greenhouse and nursery environment to control crown gall, an
important plant disease.
Bacillus spp. Bacillus licheniformis, B. pumilus, and B. subtilis
are naturally occurring soil bacteria with fungicidal properties
that together have become one of the fastest growing biocontrols
in today’s market. Successes include uses as seed treatments or
dressings, foliar application and soilapplied control of diseases in
a variety of crops.
Paecilomyces lilacinus - Paecilomyces lilacinus is used to
control nematodes that attack plant roots in field crops including
many vegetables, fruit, turf, and ornamental crops.
8. Trichoderma spp. -Trichodermais a genus of fungi that helps to
control plant disease by stimulating plant host defenses and
growth, and under certain conditions, parasitizing harmful fungi
within the plant root zone.
Azadirachtin -Azadirachtin is an insect growth regulator
derived from neem tree seeds. Known to affect some 200 species
of insects, azadirachtin disrupts insect feeding and inhibits its
ability to molt as it changes from the pupa to adult stage.
Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhizium anisopliae-Beauveria
bassiana is a naturally occurring soil fungus that grows as white
mold. Metarrhizium grow as green mold. This insect pathogen
can be used to control a wide range of target pests, which
become infected and develop white muscardine disease and
green muscardine disease, killing the pest within a matter of
days.
9. HaNPV -is a viral pathogen belong to baculoviridae family is
highly useful for control the specific insect like Helicoverpa,
Spodoptera spp. Are major pest of field crops.
Cydia pomonella granulo virus (CpGV) -CpGV is a natural
pathogen of the codling moth, a major pest of tree fruits such as
apples and pears. Developed through research begun in the
1980’s, commercial use of CpGV in both organic and conventional
systems has gained in popularity over the last ten years as codling
moth has displayed resistance to many traditional insecticides.
10. Topic -2. IMPORTANCE, SCOPE AND POTENTIAL OF BIOPESTICIDE
During recent years the concept of integrated pest management is arise but still
farmers have continued to rely heavily on chemical insecticides for pest control.
The intensive and indiscriminate use of insecticides for crop protection has
created problems such as resistance of insects to insecticides, resurgence and
toxic residue in / on the crop plants and agro-ecosystem pollution etc and also
have adverse effects on the non target organisms such as pollinators, parasitoids,
predators and wild animals.
In order to overcome these problems, biological control is one of the safe
approaches for pest management. Insect control through an eco-friendly
manner is no longer a dream because many biological, botanical and natural
pesticides are promoted successfully in the world market by now. Insect
pathogens are effectively demonstrated for pest control on different crops, since
the Second World War.
11. The chemical insecticides are valuable for control of insects, but due to their
continuous and over usage during last few decades have posed several
serious problems.
Development of resistance in pests.
Resurgence of minor pests.
Toxicity in the environment, Accumulation of pesticides residues.
Biological magnification of pesticide residues through the food chain.
General environmental pollution
Biopesticides aims at suppressing the pest in environmentally safe manner
without affecting other non target organisms. It provides the most effective,
environmentally sound and socially acceptable methods of managing
diseases, pests and weeds".
Bio pesticides are living organisms, which can intervene the life cycle of
insect pests in such a way that the crop damage is minimized. The agents
employed as biopesticides, include parasites, predators and disease causing
fungi, bacteria and viruses, which are the natural enemies of pests.
12. Advantages of biopesticides over chemical pesticides:
Biopesticides are preferred over chemical pesticides for the following
reasons:
No harmful residues.
Target specific and safe to beneficial organisms like pollinators, predators,
parasites etc.
Growth of natural enemies of pests is not affected, thus reducing the
pesticide application.
Environmental friendly.
Cost effective for long term use.
Important component of IPM as 1st line and 2nd line of defense,
chemicals being the last resort.
13. Difference between chemical pesticide and biopesticide
Factors Synthetic Pesticides Bio-pesticides
Cost effectiveness Cheap but increased
spraying cost
Costlier but reduced
number of applications
Persistence and residual
effect
High Low
Knockdown effect Immediate Delayed
Handling and Bulkiness Easy but danger and
Hazardous
Bulky : Carrier based
Easy : Liquid formulation
Pest resurgence More Less
Effect on Beneficial flora More harmful Not harmful
Target specificity Mostly broad spectrum Mostly host specific
Nature of control Curative Preventive
Shelf life More Comparatively Less
***The market share of bio-pesticide is only 2% as compared to synthetic pesticide
14. Last three decade has witnessed a tremendous breakthrough in this aspect,
especially on standardization of production techniques of Trichoderma,
Gliocladium, Paecilomyces, Pseudomonas, NPV and Bacillus spp. to use them
against many insect pests and diseases. The popularity of biopesticides has
increased in recent years, as extensive and systematic research has greatly
enhanced their effectiveness. Also, techniques for the mass production, storage,
transport and application of biopesticides have been improved in recent years.
Commercial production of biopesticides:
Though there are more than about 300 biopesticide production units existing in
the country, as on today, they are able to meet the demand of only less than
10% of cropped area. There exists a wide gap, which can only be bridged by
setting up of more and more units for production of biopesticides. This requires
large-scale investment and private participation. Some of the local small-scale
industries have already started production and marketing of Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium anisopliae, Trichoderma spp., Paecilomyces lilacinus, and NPV.
There is a scope to enhance production and use of biological control agents in
the days to come as the demand is on the increase every year.
15. Few microbial pesticides marketed in India
Name of Agent/s Common Product Names
1. Bacillus thuringiensis Delfin, Halt, Dipel, Biolap etc.
2 .Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) HaNPV, SlNPV
3 .Muscardine fungi, Beauveria bassiana
and Metarhizium anisopliae Basina, Biosoft, Metarhizium, Beauveria spores
4 .Trichoderma viride T. harzianum Tricho-XP, Mnitor WP, Monitor S, Trichomycil, T- 2
Trichoderma spore powder and granules, etc.
5 .Pseudomonas fluorescence P. fluorescence wattable powder
6 .Paecilomyces lilacinus Yorker, Tcicho X-P (Combi product)
7 .Entomopathogenic nematodes Green commando, Soil commando, Steinernema sp.
16. Characteristics for development of a biopesticide:
Efficacy: A highly effective biocontrol strain or other material must be obtained
or produced. Such strains must not only have appropriate mechanisms for
biocontrol, but it should also (a) be able to compete and persist in the environment
in which it must operate, and (b) ideally, be able to colonize after application. But
better to use existing natural strains, which should be sufficiently effective.
Cost: Inexpensive or less expensive production and formulation of the biocontrol
agent or other material must be developed. The production process must result in
biomass with excellent shelf life even under adverse storage conditions.
Application: Delivery and application methods that permit the full expression of
the biocontrol agent. Delivery systems must ensure that biocontrol agents will grow
well and achieve their purpose. Delivery and application processes must be
developed on a crop by crop and application by application basis
17. Market Potential: Considering the negative effects of indiscriminate case of
pesticides, importance for organic farming and promotion of sustainable farming
practices it is estimated that there will be further scope for new units, particularly in
the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, AP, UP,
West Bengal and Karnataka, where crops such as sugarcane, pulses, cereals and
vegetable crops are grown in large scale. At present, in some states, state
government is purchasing the product from the private parties and selling it to the
individual farmers at a subsidized rate.
Future prospects for biopesticide research, production and use in India:
Due to chemical pesticide problems in India, there is an urgent need to promote
environmental friendly biopesticides in the country.
More potential industrial fermentation technique for production of biopesticides
needs to be developed to fulfill the ever increasing demand in the market.
Large-scale field demonstrations at farmer’s fields are required to increase
awareness and adoption of biopesticides for pest management.
Use of effective biopesticides should be accelerated in integrated management
and economics needs to be worked out.
Interest to be focused on developing new methods of biological control. In
particular, identification of proteins and the genes encoding them from various
microbial agents and newer microbes.
18. 3. DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIOPESTICIDE
According to the FAO definition, biopesticides include those biocontrol agents
that are passive agents, in contrast to biocontrol agents that actively seek out the
pest, such as parasitoids, predators, and many species of entomopathogenic
nematodes.
It refers to products containing biocontrol agents – i.e., natural organisms or
substances derived from natural materials (such as animals, plants, bacteria, or
certain minerals), including their genes or metabolites, for controlling pests.
Biopesticides cover a wide spectrum of potential products that can be classified
in major four groups as:
1. Microbial pesticides
2. Botanical pesticides
3. Biochemical/Semiochemical pesticides
4. Plant incorporated Protectants (PIPS)
19.
20. Classification of biopesticides
1. Microbial pesticides and other entomopathogens:
Pesticides that contain microorganisms, like bacteria, fungi, or virus, which
attack specific pest species, or entomopathogenic nematodes as active
ingredients.
These agents attack insect species (called entomopathogens; products referred
to as bioinsecticides), there are also microorganisms (i.e., fungi) that control
weeds (bioherbicides).
They suppress pest by producing a toxin specific to the pest, causing a disease or
preventing establishment of other microorganisms through competition or other
modes of action.
Microbial insecticides are a new form of pesticide that works by infecting
selected insect populations.
Microbial insecticides have no effect on animal populations, unless diminishing
a certain bug in the area interrupts the food chain. Each type usually works
against only one type of insect.
21. Types of microbial pesticides: There are five main categories of microbial
pesticides based on the active ingredient used as bellow.
1) Bacteria based:
Obligate spore producer ( B. popillae)
A. Spore producer
Facultative spore producer
Crystelliferous Non- Crystelliferous
(B. thuringiensis) (B. cereus)
B. Non-spore producer – Pseudomonas spp.
Bacterial biopesticides are probably the most widely used and cheaper than the
other methods of pest bioregulation. Insects can be infected with many species
of bacteria but those belonging to the genus Bacillus are most widely used as
pesticides.
22. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt):
B. t. firstly recorded by S. Ishiwata from diseased silk worm larvae and
referred as B. sotto.
In 1909 Dr. Berliner received diseased flour moth larvae from a mill in
Thuringen and isolated and named as B. thuringiensis.
Discovered in Japan in early 20th century and first become a commercial
product, Sporien in France in 1938.
In 1953, Crystals are responsible for insecticidal activity of B. t. was identified.
First B. t. strain was commercialized and marketed as “Thuricide” in 1960.
Control lepidopterous pests like American bollworm in cotton and stem borers
in rice.
Bt has developed many molecular mechanisms to produce pesticidal toxins i.e.
Cry and VIP; most of toxins are coded for by several cry genes.
When ingested by pest larvae as a stomach poison, Bt crystal releases a toxins
which is solublized in the alkaline PH of the mid gut of the pest and bind to
receptor in midgut epithelium. The gut is paralyzed and insect stop feeding and
die within 2 or 3 days from the effect of septicemia.
23. B. t. strain active against various group of insects
Anti- feeding effect of the active toxin is an important feature of B.t.
Commercial formulation of B. t. products are Dipel, Thuricide, Biobit, Javelin and
Halt.
Bacillus popilliae:
A naturally occurring bacterium that is used for control of white grub.
Cause ‘milky spore disease’ in the larvae of the grub or beetle and establish a
resident population capable of causing mortality over several seasons if soil
conditions are appropriate.
Bacillus popilliae was the first insect pathogen to be registered in the U.S. as
microbial control agent.
STRAIN TARGET INSECT
B. t. subspp kurstaki Lepidopteran insects
B. t. subspp israelensis Dipteran insects
B. t. subspp tenebrionis Colepteran insects
B. poppilae Japanese beetle larvae
24. 2. Entomopathogenic fungi
Agostino Bassi in 1835, first time formulated the germ theory by the use of white
muscardine fungus on the silkworm that was then named in his honor as Beauveria
bassiana and gave the idea of using insect infecting fungi for the control of insect pest
management.
Mode of action:
The development of fungal infections in terrestrial insect is largely influenced by
environmental conditions.High humidity is vital for germination of spores and
transmission of the pathogen from one insect to another.
With most entomopathogenic fungi, disease development involves following steps
which are popularly known as ‘Mycosis’:
1. Attachment of the infective units like spore or conidia or zoospores to the insect
epicuticle.
2. Germination of the infection unit on the cuticle.
3. Penetration of the cuticle, either directly with the help of hyphae produced from
the spores.
4. Multiplication of the hyphal body in the haemocoel.
26. 5. Death of the host: Growth of the mycelia phase with invasion of virtually all host
organs and penetration of the hyphae from the interior through the cuticle to the
exterior of the insect.
6. Production of infective units on the exterior of the insect.
Symptoms of mycosis:
1. Loss of appetite, irritability and paralyses.
2. Discoloured patches on integuments and increased acidity in blood.
3. The body hardens and covered by dense white mycelial mat or growth.
4. Mummified larvae/insect adheres to leaves, stem and fruiting body with upright
position on its prolegs at the time of death.
5. Death occurs within 4-7 days depending on host insects and environmental
conditions.
Types of entomopathogenic fungus:
1. Beauveria bassiana (White muscardine): They are used particularly to control
sucking pests and caterpillars infesting crop plants. These fungi are used to
control the caterpillars of yellow stem borer and leaf folder of rice, white grub of
groundnut, sugarcane pyrilla, coconut rhinoceros beetle, caterpillars of pulses,
tomato and cotton, diamond back moth, leaf eating caterpillars of tobacco and
sunflower etc. It is availabe in market as the trade name Boverin.
27. 2. Metarrhizium anisopliae (Green muscardine): This fungus is used to control
mainly coconut rhinoceros beetle, groundnut cut worm, rice brown plant
hopper, diamond back moth and early shoot borer, top shoot borer and
internode borer of sugarcane. E.g. Biomax
3. Verticillium lecanii: This fungus is mainly used to control whiteflies, aphids,
thrips, brown plant hopper, scale insects, mealy bugs and other sucking
insect pests of crops.e.g. Vertilac
Fungal formulations are usually made up of growing hyphae and spores.
Active ingredients are mixed with bentonite, kaoline clay.
Formulations are supplied as wettable powder or as a dust for spraying.
28. 3. Entomopathogenic virus
Viruses in the family Baculoviridae, a diverse family of more than 700 viruses, are the
best known of all the insect viruses. This is because they are very common in some of
our most important insect pests, disease symptoms are easily recognized and they
have the most potential for development as microbial insecticides. The major reason
for interest in baculoviruses is their environmental safety. They are often, genus or
species specific and safe to non target organisms.
30. Mode of action
The baculovirus life cycle involves two distinct forms of virus. Occlusion
derived virus (ODV) is present in a protein matrix (polyhedrin or granulin) and
is responsible for the primary infection of the host while the budded virus (BV)
is released from the infected host cells later during the secondary infection.
The initial infection occurs when a susceptible host insect feeds on plants
that are contaminated with the occluded form of the virus. The protein matrix
dissolves in the alkaline environment of the host midgut (stomach), releasing
ODV that then fuse to the columnar epithelial cell membrane of the host
intestine.
Viral transcription and replication occur in the cell nucleus and new BV
particles are budded out from the lateral side to spread the infection
systemically.
When infecting a caterpillar, the advanced stages of infection cause the host
to feed without resting, exhibit negative geotropism and then to climb to the
higher parts of trees, including exposed places they would normally avoid due
to the risk of predators. This is an advantage for the virus if (when the host
dissolves) it can drip down onto leaves which will be consumed by new hosts.
31. Symptoms
The insect stop feeding and the larvae turns into pinkish white on the ventral
side because of accumulation of polyhedral bodies.
the larvae become flaccid, skin becomes fragile and finally ruptures.
They show tree top disease.
ELCAR (H. zea NPV/SNPV), the first commercial viral pesticide.
4-6 days lapse between the time of insertion of virus and death of the host
insect.
UV protectants used to encapsulate viral bodies are Tinopal, aluminium
powder or egg albumin to ensure a longer life.
Dose of NPV expressed as larval equivalent(LE).
One LE is 6 X 109 POB and the dose recommendwd in the field for NPV is 250-
500 LE/Ha.
NPV- H. armigera, Spodoptera litura NPV
GV- Chilo infuscatellus GV, Achaea janata GV, P. opercullela GV
CPV- H. armigera
32. 4. Entomopathogenic nematodes
Entomopathogenic nematodes occur naturally in soil environments and locate
their host in response to carbon dioxide, vibration and other chemical cues.
They infect many different types of insects living in the soil like the larval forms
of moths, butterflies, flies and beetles as well as adult forms of beetles,
grasshoppers and crickets.
Species in two families, Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae have been
effectively used as biological insecticides in pest management programs.
Mode of action of EPN
The infective juvenile stage (IJ) is the only free living stage of entomopathogenic
nematodes.
The juvenile stage penetrates the host insect via the spiracles, mouth, anus, or
in some species through intersegmental membranes of the cuticle and then enters
into the hemocoel. Both Heterorhabditis and Steinernema are mutualistically
associated with bacteria of the genera Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus,
respectively.
33. The juvenile stage release symbiotic bacteria from their intestines into the
hemocoel. The bacteria multiply in the insect hemolymph and the infected host
usually dies within 24 to 48 hours. After the death of the host, nematodes
continue to feed on the host tissue, mature and reproduce.
The progeny nematodes develop through four juvenile stages to the adult.
Depending on the available resources one or more generations may occur within
the host cadaver and a large number of infective juveniles are eventually released
into environment to infect other hosts and continue their life cycle.
Symptoms
The insect cadaver becomes red if the insects are killed by heterorhabditids and
brown or tan if killed by steinernematids. The color of the host body is indicative
of the pigments produced by the monoculture of mutualistic bacteria growing in
the hosts.
Host range
The major pests that are killed using these nematodes include white grubs, black
vine weevil, turf grass pests, mole crickets, weevils and cutworms.
34. B. BIOCHEMICAL BIOPESTICIDES
1. Botanical pesticides
1. These are naturally occurring plant material that may be crude preparation of the
plant parts ground to produce a dust or powder or liquid that can be used in full
strength or dilute form in a carrier such as clay, talc or diatomaceous earth.
2. Several plant based insecticides as nicotinoids, natural pyrethrins, rotenoids,
neem products etc are used.
3. They are generally acting in one of two ways 1) Contact poison and 2) Stomach
poison. There are about 25,000 plant species evaluated among which, 2500 found
useful for pest management and around 1005 exhibited insecticidal activity
including 384 anti-feedants, 297 repellents, 27 attractants and 31 possess growth
inhibiting properties.
4. Neem tops the list of 2,500 plant species that are reported to have pesticidal
properties and is regarded as the most reliable source of eco-friendly biopesticidal
property.
35. Insect toxins derived from certain plants.
Quick action on target pests.
Broad spectrum action (non-selective).
Do not persist in the environment.
Factors Affecting Use of Botanical Pesticides:
Raw material availability
Solvent types, plant species and part of plant
Rapid degradation
State registration
Market opportunities for botanical pesticides
Weather conditions
What are Botanical insecticides?
36. The botanical pesticides are divided into two
generations:
The 1st generation included:-
Nicotine, Rotenone, Ryania, Pyrethrum.
2nd generation included:-
Synthetic Pyrethroids and Neem Products
Some Botanical Insecticides are:
37. Name Plant part used Active ingredients
Neem (Azadirachta indica) Oil and leaves Azadirachtin
Castor (Ricinus communis) Leaves and oil Ricin
Onion (Allium cepa) Bulb Oleic acid, α asarone, β
asarone
Custard apple (Annona
squamosa)
Leaves and bark Annonin, squamocin
Some plants and theirs active ingredients
38. 1. Neem (Azadirachta indica) (Meliaceae)
Neem Posses medicinal, insecticidal, insect repellent, antifeedant, growth
regulatory, nematicidal and antifungal properties.
Contains a number of components such as Azadirachtin, salannin, nimbin, epinimbin
and nimbidin. Gives insecticidal, insect repellent, ovicidal, Antifeedant and growth
regulator characters.
Azadiractitin disrupts moulting by antagonizing the insect hormone ecdysone.
Insecticidal Activity
• Dried powder of neem leaves are used against stored grain insect pests.
• Leaf extracts showed insecticidal property against Lepidopteran pests.
• Desert locust Schistocerca gregaria avoids feeding on neem leaves.
• Neem leaves are found as attractants to white grub Holotrichia adults.
• Neem seed/ kernel extract showed insecticidal properties against a number of
sucking pest. • Neem oil can be used against storage insect pests @ 1 to 2% and field
insects @ (0.2 -0.4%, 1 to 2% 5% or 10% neem oil)
• Neem products are safer to honey bees, parasitoids, predators.
• Commercial formulations of neem are available in 1000 ppm, 1500 ppm and 300
ppm in the market.
• Some of the neem formulations are Margosan, Neemark, Neemrich, Achook,
Nimbicidine etc
39. 2. Nicotine (Solanaceae)
Found in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustica from 2% to 14%.
Nicotine sulphate- contact insecticide with marked fumigant action in the control
of sucking insects.
More stable and less volatile and is a nerve poison. Highly toxic when absorbed
through the cuticle, trachea or injestion. Affects the ganglion blocking conduction at
higher levels.
Contains 40% alkaloid, is safer and is more convenient to use. Free alkaloid is
liberated by the addition of soap lime or ammonium hydroxide to the spray solution.
Dust formulation of nicotine sulphate releases nicotine in the presence of
moisture. Commercially available in market as nicotine sulfate 40% (black leaf 40).
Uses:
1. Useful for controlling aphids, thrips etc.
2. Prepared by boiling 1kg of tobacco waste in 10lts of water for 30 minutes or
steep it in cold water for a day.
3. Make it up to 30 litres and add about 90gm of soap.
4. Addition of soap improves wetting, spreading and killing properties.
5. Does not leave any harmful residue on treated surface.
6. LD50for rat oral- 50-60 mg/kg.
40. 3. Rotenone (Fabaceae)
1. From the roots of derris plant which many contain 4 to 11% rotenone.
2. Principal commercial sources are Derris elliptica and Lonchocarupus utilis.
3. Rotenone occurs in Derris roots (4-9%), Lonchocarpus (8-11%)
4. Oxidizes to non-insecticidal compound in the presence of light and air.
5. Hence rotenone residues are difficult to find after 5 to 10 days in normal
sunlight. It is contact and stomach poison.
6. Insects show a steady decline in oxygen consumption followed by paralysis and
deaths
7. Highly toxic to fishes and to most insect species (beetles and caterpillars) but
almost harmless to warm blooded animals except pigs
8. LD50 to white rat oral-130 to 1500
9. Dust or spray containing 0.5 to 1.5 per cent and 0.001 to 0.002 per cent
rotenone are used commercially
41. 4. Plumbagin
1. Naturally occurring Napthoquinone of plant origin from the roots of Plumbago
europea (Plumbaginaceae)
2. Known for its medicinal, antifertility, antimicrobial, molluscicidal, nematicidal and
other pharmacological properties
3. Yield of plumbagin ranges between 0.5-3.0 % on dry weight basis
4. The cold alcoholic extract (5%) of roots of P. zeylanica was toxic to Castor Hairy
caterpillar, Euproctis fraterna larvae as contact spray.
5. 5% petroleum ether extracts of P. zeylanica root against Spodoptera litura and
Dysdercus koenigii etc
5. Pyrethrum
From dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Asteraceae) The
actual chemical ingredients having insecticidal action are identified as five esters
They are: Pyrethrin I, Pyrethrin II, Cinerins-I and Cinerin-II and Jasmoline.
Predominately found in achenes of flowers from 0.7 to 3 %
1. Two acids – Chrysanthemic acid and Pyrethric acid
2. Three alcohols – Pyretholone, Cinerolone and Jasmolone Active principles/Esters
Pyrethrin I = Pyrethrolone + Chrysanthemc acid , Pyrethrin II = Pyrethrolone +
Pyrethric acid, Cinerin I = Cynerolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Cinerin II = Cynerolone + Pyrethric acid, Jasmolin II = Jasmolone + Pyrethric acid
42. Prepared by grinding the flowers
The powder mixed with a diluent such as talc or clay is known as pyrethrum dust
It is prepared just before use as it gets deteriorated rapidly
Also used as emulsions, solutions, and aerosols
Unstable to light, air moisture and alkali • Residues deteriorate very rapidly after
application
Powerful contact insecticides but appear to be poor stomach poisons
A characteristic action of pyrethroid is the rapid paralysis or ‘knock down’ effect and
substantial recovery that follow it
This recovery is due to rapid enzymatic detoxification in the insect
To bring about mortality equivalent to knock down effect three times increase in
dosage may be required and use a synregist PBO (piperonyl butoxide).
Properties
1. Highly unstable in light, moisture and air
2. Have no residual effect
3. Paralyse by more contact
4. Gains entry through spiracle and cuticle
5. Act on central nervous system
6. Having rapid knock down effect
7. Practically no mammalian toxicity
8. Good insecticides against household and cattle pests
43. 6. Sabadilla:
It is a alkaloid found in seeds of tropical lily Schoenocaulon officinale (fam:
Liliaceae)
The alkaloid mainly, Cevadine and Veratridine act as nerve poisions
It is primarly contact poison.
It is harmful to pollinator, honey bees
7. Ryanodine:
It is a alkaloid derived from woody stems of South American shrub, Ryania
speciosa (Fam; Flacourtaceae)
Activity: It acts as muscular poison by blocking the conversion of ADP to ATP in
strated muscle.
It acts as slow acting stomach poision and causes insects to stop feeding after they
eat it.
It is reportedly effective against thrips and worms.
It is used as dust (20-40%)
44. 2. SEMIOCHEMICALS
• Chemicals that modify behavior in any way are
referred to as semiochemicals. Not only chemicals
stimulate but they might also inhibit certain
behaviors.
• Semiochemicals can be divided in two main classes:
1.Pheromones: Chemicals that operate intra-
specifically. That is, among members of the same
species.
2.Allelochemicals: Chemicals that operate inter-
specifically. That is among members from different
species.
47. Pheromone
• A substance that is secreted by an organism to the outside
environment and causes a specific reaction in receiving
organism of the same species.
• Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the
body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of
the receiving individual.
• Their use among insects has been particularly well
documented. In addition, some vertebrates and plants
communicate by using pheromones.
48. Background
• The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter
Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959.
• Pheromone is the Greek word pherein (to
transport) and hormone (to stimulate).
• It is also called as ecto-hormones.
• German biochemist Adolf Butenandt had
characterized the first such chemical, bombykol, a
chemically well-characterized pheromone released
by the female silkworm to attract mates
49. Classification of Pheromones
• Pheromones are classified based on their function-
1) Aggregation pheromone
2) Alarm pheromone
3) Epideictic pheromone
4) Releaser pheromone
5) Signal pheromone
6) Primer pheromone
7) Territorial pheromone
8) Trail pheromone
9) Sex pheromone
10) Others pheromone
50. Sex pheromone
• Sex pheromones are involved in reproduction
by attracting the opposite sex.
• In some species female pheromones are used
to attract the male.
• In other species male pheromones are used to
attract the female.
52. Alarm pheromone
• Alarm pheromones are used to warn members
of the same species about imminent danger.
• For example the aphids were using an alarm
pheromone to inform other members of their
species that they were attacked by a lady bug!
• As soon as aphids smell this alarm pheromone
they drop from the plant. In this way, even
aphids that are not being attacked by the lady
beetle fall to the ground.
54. Aggregation pheromone
• Aggregation pheromones are use to congregate
members of the same species in relatively big
numbers.
• They are used by organisms that need help to
invade a new area or habitat or plant.
• These conifer beetles for example do a better
job, or have a higher fitness when feeding in
group than when feeding individually.
56. Trail pheromone
• Trail pheromones are used by ants to mark
their trails so they can follow each other.
• Have you ever scratch the soil under an ant
trail? Do it and you will see how the ants get
confuse and lost for a while.
58. Host-marking pheromone
• Host marking pheromones are used by
parasitoids to avoid ovipositing on hosts
they or somebody else have oviposit
already.
• Hyper parasitoids may use these marking
pheromones to find their hosts.
60. 1) Aggregation
• Aggregation pheromones
function in mate selection,
overcoming host resistance by
mass attack, and defense
against predators.
• A group of individuals at one
location is referred to as an
aggregation, whether
consisting of one sex or both
sexes.
• Aggregation pheromones have
been found in members of the
Arthropods.
Aggregation of bug nymphs
61. 1) Aggregation
• Aggregation pheromones are
among the most ecologically
selective pest suppression
methods.
• They are nontoxic and
effective at very low
concentrations
Aggregation of bug nymphs
62. 2) Alarm
• Some species release a volatile
substance when attacked by a
predator that can trigger flight
or aggression in members of
the same species.
• Pheromones also exist in
plants: Certain plants emit
alarm pheromones when
grazed upon, resulting in
tannin production in
neighboring plants.
• These tannins make the plants
less appetizing for the
herbivore.
• Exm. : ants, bees, termites.
63. 4) Releaser
• Releaser pheromones are pheromones that cause an
alteration in the behavior of the recipient.
• In general, this type of pheromone elicits a rapid
response, but is quickly degraded.
• For example, some organisms use powerful attractant
molecules to attract mates from a distance of two
miles or more.
64. 5) Signal
• Signal pheromones cause short-term changes,
such as the neurotransmitter release that
activates a response.
• For instance, GnRH molecule functions as a
neurotransmitter in rats to elicit lordosis
behavior.
65. 6) Primer
• Primer pheromones trigger a change of
developmental events (in which they differ from
all the other pheromones, which trigger a change
in behavior).
66. 7) Territorial
• Pheromones mark the boundaries and identity of
an organism's territory.
• In cats and dogs, these hormones are present in
the urine, which they deposit on landmarks
serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed
territory.
67. 8) Trail
• Trail pheromones are common in social insects.
• As long as the food source remains, the pheromone
trail will be continuously renewed.
• The pheromone must be continuously renewed
because it evaporates quickly.
• For example, ants mark their paths with these
pheromones, which are volatile hydrocarbons.
Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones
as they return to the nest with food.
• This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide.
68. 9) Sex
• In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability
of the female for breeding.
• Male animals may also emit pheromones that
convey information about their species and
genotype.
70. 4. Plant-incorporated protectants
•Plant incorporated protectants PIP’S- are plants that
have genes inserted such that they produce pesticides
within their own tissue.
•Plant-incorporated protectants are pesticidal substances
produced by plants and the genetic material necessary
for the plant to produce the substance.
•It is a form of genetic engineering i.e. direct
manipulation of an organism’s gene using rDNA
technology.
•Genetically engineered plants are called GM crops.
•PIPs is a easy, quick, efficient and safe way to ward off
harmful pests.
71. One approach, to reduce destruction of crops by phytophagous
pests, is to genetically modify plants to express genes encoding
insecticidal toxins. The adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops has
increased dramatically in the last years.
Genetically modified (GM) plants possess a gene or genes that have
been transferred from a different species.
The production of transgenic plants that express insecticidal δ-
endotoxins derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt
plants) were first commercialized in the US in 1996. The expression of
these toxins confers protection against insect.
These proteins have been commercially produced, targeting the
major pests of cotton, tobacco, tomato, potato, corn, maize and rice,
notably allowing greater coverage by reaching locations on plants
which are inaccessible to foliar sprays.
72.
73. Bt strain are highly specific in their activity-
Bt. Var kurstaki- caterpillars
Bt. Var aizwai- wax moth larvae
Bt. Var. israelensis- mosquito, black fly
Bt. Var. tenebrionis- beetles
Cry proteins
Cry-I Lepidoptera
Cry-II Lepidoptera and diptera
Cry-III Coleoptera
Cry-IV Diptera
Cry-v Lepidoptera
74. First comercial product of Bt is sporeine from France in 1938
First field release of Bt cotton in USA in 1996
Approved for commercial use in USA in 1995, China in 1997, India in
2002.
India grows the largest Bt cotton at 10.6 million hectare.
Agrobacterium was considered as the vector for plant DNA transfer.
The first experiment otransgenic plants in the field was started in
1995 .
Bt brinjal was first transgenic crop in India.
Refuge – when 20 percent of the area cultivated should be under
non Bt crop is called refuge.
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee is responsible for
monitoring of GMO crops.
75. Plant-incorporated protectants
Cry toxin
Cry gene found in the plasmid of Bacillus thuringiensis codes for delta
endotoxins which act against Arthropods
Mechanism of insecticidal action
When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the
insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with
proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal.
The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing
the digestive tract and forming a pore.The insect stops eating and starves to
death. The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for B.
thuringiensis insecticidal activity
76. Plant-incorporated protectants
Bt Maize
variant of maize that has been genetically
altered to express one or more proteins
from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
including Delta endotoxins.
Wards off the European corn borer causes
about a billion dollars in damage to corn
crops each year
Bt Cotton
Genetically modified version of cotton,
resistant to bollworm.
ineffective against plant bugs, stink bugs,
and aphids
In 2011, India grew the largest GM cotton
crop at 10.6 million hectares.
GMO crops
Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for
the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to
introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species
Mechanism of
Cotton boll (a) non Bt cotton destroyed
by bollworms (b) Bt cotton
(a
)
(b
)
77. Plant-incorporated protectants
•Advantages
- Decreased dependence on pesticides
- Increase in total yield
- Cost effective
- Protects neighboring non GMO crops as well
•Disadvantages
- Resistant pests
- Health and safety concerns
- Environmental impacts
Risk Assessment of genetically modified
plants
78. Conventional pesticides v/s
biopesticides
•Conventional biopesticide also known as
agrochemicals are synthetic lab made pesticides.
They work by directly killing or inactivating pests.
•Biopesticides, on other hand, are naturally
occurring bioactive substances/organisms.
Although biopesticides do not provide a “Quick Kill”
– but supress pest so that they can be managed
overtime.
Biopesticides decompose quickly and leave fewer
residues on food and in the environment.
79. Virulence, Pathogenicity and Symptoms of
Entomopathogenic Pathogens
1. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner – Produces a parasporal body
within its cells during sporulation.
Parasporal body contains one or more proteins, typically in a
crystalline form.
These proteins possess insecticidal properties and are called Bt
toxins, insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs).
ICPs kill insects by binding to and disrupting their midgut
epithelium membranes.
Three insecticidal toxins or gene
i) Cry I - specific for Lepidopteran insects
ii) Cry II - specific for Lepidopteran and Dipteran insects
iii) Cry III - specific for Coleopteran insects
iv) Cry IV - specific for Dipteran insects
V) Cry V- specific for Lepi. And Coleo.
80. β-exotoxin or thuringiensin is a thermostable toxin that kills insects.
The δ- endotoxin is the most widely studied of all entomocidal
toxins.
When the Bt toxins are ingested by insects , the crystalline
inclusions initially dissolve in the midgut, releasing proteins called δ-
endotoxins .
Structure of Bt toxin
Cry protein domains
•Domain A – Pore formation 6α helices (250 aas)
•Domain B -receptor binding domain, β- sheets (200 aas)
•Domain C - β sandwich (150aas) protects the toxin from protease
On the basis of sensitivity to the Bt toxin, insects have been divided
into three types –
I - Paralysis of gut and mouth parts, leading to cessation of feeding ,
regurgitation and diarrhoea followed by general body paralysis. The
death of insect occurs in 1-7 hours.
81. III – On ingestion endospores germinate in the host midgut at pH
below 9 producing bacterial cells which migrate into haemocoel
where, they multiply, invade and destroy certain tissues. The death
occurs as a result of septicaemia .
General symptoms
Larvae becomes inactive, stop feeding.
Regurgitate or have watery excrement.
The head capsule becomes large compared to body size.
The larva becomes flaccid and dies, usually within days or a week.
The body contents turn brown-blackish as they decompose
Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki used against Lepidopteran
insect.
Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki used against Lepidopteran
insects.
Bacillus thuringiensis var. Galleraie is used against wax moth
Bacillus thuringiensis var. Sandiego used against beetles and weevils
82. 2.Viral biopesticides
• Baculoviruses are infectious by mouth (per os) and exhibit efficient
horizontal transmission
• Virions are encased in protein crystals known as Occlusion Body (OB)
• OBs are consumed by insects and the proteinaceous capsule (OB) is
hydrolysed in alkaline gut, releasing the virions.
• The virions enter the midgut cell nucleus – replicate & destroy the
cell – pass through the cell into the haemocoel & infect cell nuclei of
other tissues, replicate, encapsulate & rupture the cell.
• Baculoviridae is divided into two genera – Nucleopolydedrovirus and
Granulovirus
• NPV contains many virions occluded within occlusion body called
polyhedra
• GV contains only one or rarely two virions in a occlusion body called
granules
• Nucleocapsid envelopment of occluded virion occurs either within
the nucleus (NPV)
83. • In the nuclear-cytoplasmic after rupture of the nuclear membrane(GV)
• GVs are more specific than NPVs as they have been reported only from Lepidoptera.
• The NPV enters the insect gut, lyse in the alkaline environment of the midgut &
release the virions.
• Virions invade the columnar cells of midgut epithelium & integrate DNA in the
nucleus of midgut cells.
• The virus DNA takes over the control of cellular machinery to reproduce itself.
• The progenies released into the haemocoel from the midgut cells are more
infectious than the polyhedral inclusion bodies & mediate disease spread within the
insect body.
Symptoms
A characteristic shiny-oily appearance and stop feeding.
Climb to the top of the crop canopy, become limp (proceed slowly with injury) and
hang from the upper leaves and stems – “Caterpillar wilt” or “tree top”.
They are extremely fragile (easily broken) to the touch, rupturing to release fluid
filled with infective virus particles.
Infected larvae may initially turn white and granular or very dark
84. 3.Fungal Biopesticides
When spores of the fungus come into contact with the cuticle (skin) of susceptible
insects, they germinate and penetrate the cuticle either by germ tube or infection
pegs and grow directly through the cuticle to inner body of their host.
The fungus proliferates throughout the insect's body, producing toxins and drain the
insects nutrients, eventually killing it.
Death is caused by tissue destruction and occasionally by toxins produced by the
fungus.
Once the fungus has killed it’s host it grows back out through the softer portions of
the cuticle, covering the insect with a layer of met.
Downy mold produces millions of infective spores that are released to the
environment.
Symptoms
Infected insects stop feeding and become lethargic.
Insects may die relatively rapidly, sometimes in an upright position still attach to the
leaf or stem.
The body of dead insect may be firm and “cheese like” or an empty shell but not
always with cream, green, red or brown fungus growth either envelope the body or
emerging from joints and body segments.
85. 4. Entomopathogenic Nematodes
The entomopathogenic nematodes have received increased
attention as biological control agents in recent years.
The to major groups of entomopathogenic nematodes that attack
insects are Steinernema and Heterorhabditis.
The nematode - bacterium complex has attained the status of a
potential biopesticide because of their impressive attributes.
All species of Steinernema are associated with bacteria of genus
Xerorhabdus and all Heterorhabditis with Photorhabdus species.
The only stage that survives out side of the host is the nonfeeding
third stage infective juvenile (IJ).
The infective juveniles carry cells of their bacterial symbiont in their
intestinal tract.
After locating their suitable host, the infective juveniles invade its
host through natural openings (mouth, spiracles and anus) or thin
areas of host cuticle and penetrate in the host haemocoel.
86. 5. NEMATODE-BACTERIA SYMBIOSIS
1. Xenorhabdus sp (Steinernematids- Xenorhabdus)
2. Photorhabdus sp (Heterorhabditis- Photorhabdus) bioluminescent symbiont
• The relationship between the parasitic nematodes and the bacteria is highly specific.
• Symbiotic bacteria of both genera are motile, gram negative and belonging to the
family Enterobacteriaceae.
The infective juveniles recover from their developmental arrestment, release the
symbionts, and bacteria and nematodes cooperate to host immune response.
The bacteria propagate and produce substances that rapidly kill the insect and
protect the cadaver from colonisation of other microorganisms.
The nematode starts developing, feed on the bacteria and insect tissues metabolized
by bacteria and go through 1-3 generations.
Depleting food resources in the insect cadaver leads to the development of a new
generation of infective juveniles that emerges from the cadaver in search of a new
host.
Nematodes have been applied more successfully in habitats that provide protection
from environment extremes, especially in soil, their natural habitat and in cryptic
(hidden) habitats.
87. Excellent control has been accomplished against insects that bore
into plants.
Nematodes have been evaluated for the control of a number of
coleopteran (flea beetles, root weevils, root worms), Dipteran (leaf
miners, sciarid flies) and lepidopteran (cutworms, armyworms, peach
borers, stem borers).
In India both Steinernema and Heterorhabditis are marketed by Bio
sense Crop Protection (Eco-Max Agrosystems Ltd.) Mumbai.
Steinernema is commercially available for the control of american
bollworm, pink bollworm, tobacco caterpillar, white grub, shoot borer,
stem borer, tuber moth, spotted bollworm etc.
Heterorhabditis is available for the control of white grub, flea beetle,
grey weevil and red palm weevil.
• Cadaver with Heterorhabditis will be brick red and those with
Stenermatids will be yellow to brown due to the presence of pigment
in respective bacteria.
