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Basic electrical component

This document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including definitions, atomic structure, semiconductors, diodes, transistors, and feedback amplifiers. It covers key topics such as the definition of electronics, atomic structure including atoms, electrons and protons, semiconductors including intrinsic and extrinsic types, rectification using diodes, amplification using transistors, and feedback in amplifiers. It also discusses oscillators and provides definitions and examples of different types of oscillators including sinusoidal and relaxation oscillators. The document is intended as teaching material to introduce fundamental electronics topics.

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Prepared by : Kavisa Tech Solutions
Unit –1 Basic Electronics Introduction Definition of Electronics Importance Rectification Amplification Generation Control Atomic Structure Atom Nucleus Electron Proton Neutron Session – 1
• Charge Of Electron • Mass of Electron • Radius of Electron • Valence Electron • Free Electron • Energy Band • Energy Band Theory • Valance Band • Conduction Band • Forbidden Band • Classification Of Solid Session – 1
Definition of Electronics : - The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor is known as electronics. Importance : - The electronics devices are capable of performing the following function : * Rectification * Amplification * Generation * Control Atomic Structure Atom : All the material are composed of very small particles called atoms.An atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively charged particles, called electrons revolve in different orbits.
• Nucleus • Proton : Positive charge. • Neutron : No charge. • Electron : Negative charge. • Atomic Weight : The sum of proton & neutron. • Charge of electrons : e=1.6*10-19 coulomb • Mass of Electron : m = 9.0*10-31 Kg. • Radius of Electron : r=1.9*10-15 meter. • Valence Electron : The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom. • Free Electron : The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus. • Energy Band : The range of energies possessed by an electron in solid.
Energy Band Theory Valance Band : In valance energy band, there are valance electrons. This band may be partially or completely filled with electrons. This band is never empty. In this band electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field. Therefore, the electrons in this band do not contribute to the electric current. Conduction Band : In conduction energy band, electrons are rarely present. This band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, the electrons can gain energy from external electric field. Electrons in this band contribute to the electric current Forbidden Gap : In forbidden energy gap, electrons are not found in this band. This band is completely empty. The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valance band to conduction band is called as band gap (Eg).
Classification Of Solid •Insulator e.g. Wood, Glass etc •Conductor e.g. Copper, Aluminium etc. •Semiconductor e.g. Silicon,Germanium etc.
Session – 2 Semiconductor(SC) Types of Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Types of Extrinsic SC P type SC N type SC PN Junction PN Junction Under Forward Bias PN Junction Under Reverse Bias Formation Of Depletion Layer
Semiconductor Diode Diode Characteristics Diode Current Equation Break DownVoltage KneeVoltage Peak InverseVoltage Session – 2
• Semiconductor (SC) A substance which has resistivity (10-4 to 0.5  meter) between conductors and insulators. Types of Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor : A pure sc which is free of every impurity is called intrinsic sc. The electrical conductivity of a pure sc is totally governed by the number of electrons excited from valance band to the conduction band and is called intrinsic conductivity. Germanium and silicon are the important examples of intrinsic sc which are widely used in electronic and transistor manufacturing. The electronic configuration of silicon and Germanium are as follows: Silicon(14), 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3s2 Germanium(32), 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2
Extrinsic Semiconductor : A doped semiconductor or a semiconductor with suitable impurity atoms added to it, is called extrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: N-type Semiconductors P-type Semiconductor Electro n
N-Type Semiconductor When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, say arsenic or phosphorus or antimony which have five valence electrons. Electron
P-type semiconductor When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, say Indium (In) or boron (B) Aluminums (Al) which have three valence electrons.
• PN Junction Contact surface of P-type SC and N-type SC. • Formation Of Depletion Layer
• PN Junction Under Forward Bias A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of the external battery B is connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side of p-n junction.
• PN Junction Under Reverse Bias A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the external battery B is connected to the n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-n junction.
Semiconductor Diode Diode Characteristics Forward Revers e Break Down V I
• Diode Current Equation I=Io(ev/n VT -1) where, I = Diode current Io = Reverse Saturation Current v= Applied voltage VT = Voltage equivalent of temp (T/11600) n = 1for Ge & 2 for Si at t=27oC or 300oK( Room Temp.) • Break Down Voltage : It is the reverse voltage at which PN junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current. • Knee Voltage : It is forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly. • Peak Inverse Voltage : It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied the PN-junction without damage to the junction.
Session – 3 Crystal Diode Rectifier Half Wave Rectifier Efficiency Ripple Factor Full Wave Rectifier Efficiency Ripple Factor Comparison Of Rectifier
• Crystal Diode Rectifier A PN-junction or a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to change alternating current to direct current. • Efficiency : The ratio of d.c power output to the applied input a.c. power. d.c. power output  = Input a.c power • Ripple Factor : The ratio of r.m.s value of a.c. components to the d.c. component in the rectifier output. d.c. power output  = Input a.c power • Half Wave Rectifier A.C. to be rectified is connected to the primary P1 P2 for a step-down transformer. S1 S2 is the secondary coil of the same transformer S1 is connected to the portion p of the p-n junction. S2 is connected to the portion n through load resistance R. Output is taken across the load resistance R fig.
During the positive half cycle of the input A.C., suppose P1 is negative and P2 is positive. On account of induction, S1 becomes positive. S2, become negative. The p-n junction is forward biased. The forward current flows in the direction shown by arrow heads. Thus we get output across-load. During the positive half cycle of the input A.C., P1 is positive and P2 is negative. On account of mutual induction S become negative and S1 become negative. S2 become positive. The p-n junction is reverse biased. It offers high resistance and hence there is no flow of current and thus no output across load. The process is repeated. In the output, we have current corresponding to one half is missing. The output voltage is of the type is shown in fig. That is why the process is called half wave rectification. It is not of much use. The output signal is available in bursts and not continuously. • Efficiency of HWR : 40.6%. • Ripple Factor of HWR : 121%.
• Center Tape Full Wave of Rectifier For full wave rectification, we have to use two p-n junctions. The arrangement is show in fig INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE
During the positive half of the input A.C., the upper p-n junction diode is forward biased as show in fig, and the lower p-n junction diode is reversed biased. The forward current flows on account of majority carriers of upper p-n junction diode in the direction shown. During the negative half cycle of input A.C. the upper p-n junction diode is reverse biased, and the lower p-n junction diode is forward biased, fig. The forward current flows on account of majority carriers of lower p-n junction diode. We observe that during both the halves, current through R flows in the same direction. The input and output waveforms are show in fig. The output signal voltage is unidirectional having ripples contents. i.e. D.C. components and A.C. components. It can be made D.C. by filtering is through a filter circuit, before it can be put to any value. Efficiency of FWR : 81.2% Ripple Factor of FWR : 48%.
Comparison of Rectifier S.No. Particular Half-Wave Center Tape Bridge 1 No. of Diode 1 2 4 2 Transformer Necessary No Yes No 3 Max. Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2% 4 Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48 5 Output Frequency fin 2fin 2fin 6 Peak InverseVoltage Vm 2Vm Vm
Zener Diode Zener Diode asVoltage Regulator Varactor Diode Power Supply Session – 4
• Zener Diode 1. Properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage. 2. A zener diode always reverse connected. 3. A zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage, called zener voltage. Zener diode as voltage Stabiliser
Varactor Diode Arrow Head Bar Power Supply Full Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter Voltage Regulator
Unit – 2 Bipolar Junction & Field Effect Transistor Introduction Bipolar JunctionTransistor Terminal Of BJT o Emitter o Base o Collector Types Of BJT o PNPTransistor o NPNTransistor Transistor as an Amplifier Session – 5
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) A transistor consist of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. • Terminal of BJT •Emitter : The section of on side that supplies charge carries is called emitter. The emitter is always forward bias. •Collector : The section of other side that collects the charges is called collector. The collector is always reverse bias. •Base : The middle section which form two pn-junction between the emitter & collector.
PNP Transistor The emitter base junction is forward biased. It means the positive pole of emitter base battery VBB is connected to emitter, and its negative pole to the base. Collector base junction is reverse biased i.e. the negative pole of the collector base battery VCC is connected to collector and its positive pole to the base.
• NPN Transistor In this case also, the emitter base junction is forward biased i.e., the positive pole of emitter base battery VBB is connected to base and its negative pole to emitter.
• Transistor As an amplifier
• Common Base Configuration • Input Characteristics • Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor • Common Emitter Configuration • Input Characteristics • Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor • Transistor Biasing Session – 6
• Common Base Configuration • Fig. • Input Characteristics
• Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor
• Common Emitter Configuration • Input Characteristics
• Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor
• Transistor Biasing • fig. 0 IC VCE A (mA )
Field Effect Transistor Terminal Of FET Source Base Drain Channel Types Of FET Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor(MOSFET) N Channel JFET P Channel JFET Difference Between BJT & FET Session – 7
• Field Effect Transistor It is a three terminal unipolar solid state device in which current controlled by an electric field. • Terminal Of FET • Source : It is the terminal through which majority carriers enter the bar. • Drain :It is the terminal through which majority carriers leaves the bar. • Gate : These are two internally connected heavily doped impurity region. • Channel : It is the space between two gates through which form source & drain. • Types of FET • Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET) • Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor(MOSFET)
P-CHANNEL G - D +VD D S G + D -VD D S JUNCTION FET (JFET) METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET (MOSFET ) FET DE MOSFET E-ONLY MOSFET N- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL N-CHANNEL N-CHANNELP-CHANNEL G D +VD D S - G D -VD D S + S + G + D +VD D S - G - D -VD D
NN PP N Channel JFET P Channel JFET S D N-CHANNEL G G D S S D P-CHANNEL G D G S
• Output Characteristics Of JFET Difference Between BJT & FET 1. FET operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a unipolar device where as a BJT operation depends upon the flow of both majority and minority carriers. 2. FET is simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form. 3. FET exhibit a high input resistance, typically many Mega ohms. 4. FET is noisy than BJT. VGS=- 4V=VPO 4 V 0 IDSS ID VDS VB1 2 3 VPO VBO
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET • Enhancement – only MOSFET
• Depletion - Enhancement MOSFET
Unit – 3 Feedback Amplifier & Oscillator  Introduction  Feedback  Positive Feedback  Negative Feedback  Gain of Amplifier without Feedback  Gain of Amplifier with Feedback  Advantage of Negative Feedback  Types Of Negative Feedback  Voltage Series Feedback  Voltage Shunt Feedback  Current Series Feedback  Current Shunt Feedback Session – 9
• Feedback Feedback is the process of feeding back a fraction of the output signal into input signal. • Positive Feedback : If the feed back voltage of current is so applied as to increase the input voltage. • Negative Feedback : If the feedback voltage or current is do applied as to reduce the amplifier input. The gain of amplifier without feedback VS Vo AV AV =VS /Vo + VS AVf Vo Feedback Network Vo Vin=VS+Vf The gain of amplifier with feedback AVf =AV / 1-  AV
• Advantage of Negative Feedback • Gain Stability • Reduce Non-Linear Distortion • Improve Frequency Response • Increases Circuit Stability • Increases Input Impedance and Decrease Output Impedance • Types Of Negative Feedback • Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier Gain AV Feedback Loop,  RLVS Vf
+ VS _ B + _ VBE +VCC RL + VO _ + VS _ If +VCC RC + VO _ C E Vi RS B
• Voltage Shunt Feedback Current Series Feedback Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier Gain AV Feedback Loop,  IS If RL V0
Oscillator Difference between Amplifier and An Oscillator Types of Oscillator Sinusoidal Oscillator Relaxation Oscillator Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator Damped Oscillator Undamped Oscillator Barkhausen criteria for Oscillator Generation of Sinusoidal wave by a tuned LC circuit Session – 10
• Oscillator It is a circuit which converts electric energy at d.c.(zero frequency) to electric energy at frequency varying from a few Hz to GHz. • Difference between Amplifier and An Oscillator Types of Oscillator Sinusoidal Oscillator SinWave Form Relaxation Oscillator Square or Rectangle or SawtoothWave Form Amplifier Oscillator Input Signal D.C. Power Input Output Signal Output Signal D.C. Power Input
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator • Damped Oscillator : The electrical Oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time. • Undamped Oscillator : The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remain constant with time.
• Barkhausen criteria for Oscillator An amplifier can suitably modified so that it can behave as an oscillator. The feedback network should be arranged to feedback from the output sufficient portion so as to provide the necessary input drive. Then no external drive would be necessary. Amplifier Frequency Selection Automatic Amplitude Control Feedback Outpu t
• Classification of Oscillators According to Frequency Class Of Oscillator Range of Frequency Audio Frequency a few Hz To 20Khz. Radio Frequency 20Khz To 30Mhz. Very High Frequency 30Mhz To 300Mhz. Ultra High Frequency 300Mhz to 3Ghz. Microwave 3Ghz and above. •Generation of Sinusoidal wave by a tuned LC circuit
Types of Oscillator Colpitts Oscillator Hartely’s Oscillator RC Phase Shift Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator Crystal Oscillator Session – 11
• Collpitts Oscillator CC C1 RE +VCC CC CE C2 Out Put
• The Hartley Oscillator CB RE +VCC CC CE L2L1 C
• RC Phase Shift Oscillator C C C R R ViVf R1 R2 RC RE V0 +VCC R3 vi c C1 C2 C3 R V0 Vi R1 R2 V0
• The Wien Bridge Oscillator V0 +VCC
• Crystal Oscillator CB RE +VCC CC CE RFC C1 C2 R2 R1 CRYSTAL
 Resonant Circuit  Series Resonant Circuit  Parallel Resonant Circuit  Tuned Amplifier  Single Tuned Amplifier  Double Tuned Amplifier Session – 12
• Resonant Circuit • Series Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit L R C L R ~ C ~
Tuned Amplifier • Single Tuned Amplifier L CE Vo Vin R1 CC R3R2 RFC ~
• Double Tuned Amplifier Vo LP CEVin R1 CC R3R2 CP ~ CS LS
Unit – 4 Modulation Introduction Need of Modulation Types of Modulation  Amplitude Modulation  Frequency Modulation  Phase Modulation Amplitude Modulation  Generation of Amplitude Modulation  Detection Of Amplitude Modulation Session – 13
• Modulation The process of superimposing the audio signal over the carrier signal. • Need for Modulation Audio Amplifier Amplifier RF Oscillator (Carrier) Power Amplifier RF Carrier Audio Signal Antenna
• Amplitude Modulation When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal
• Generation Of AM wave CE RF Carrier Input R1 CC R3R2 Audio Input T1 CC L C Modulated Output T2
• Demodulation The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave. • Detection Of AM OUTPUT Vs + -
Frequency Modulation • Generation of Frequency Modulation • Detection of Frequency Modulation Basis of Digital Modulation Types of Digital Modulation • Pulse Amplitude Modulation • Pulse Width Modulation • Pulse Position Modulation • Pulse Code Modulation Session – 14
• Frequency Modulation when the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance the intensity of the signal. • Generation of FM Modulating Signal L C CV Detection of FM 1. Conversion of frequency changes in the modulated carrier into corresponding amplitude changes. 2. Rectification of the modulated signal. 3. Elimination of the carrier component.
• Basis of Digital Modulation In digital modulation, the continuos waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. • Types of Digital Modulation • Pulse Amplitude Modulation • Pulse Width Modulation • Pulse Position Modulation • Pulse Code Modulation
Unit – 5 Liner ICs • Introduction • Operational Amplifier • Block Diagram of an IC OPAMP • Ideal Characteristics of an OPAMP • Basic OPAMP and Its Equivalent • Virtual Ground Concept • Application of OPAMP • Constant Gain Multiplier • Non Inverting Amplifier • Voltage Follower Session – 15
• Operational Amplifier • Basic OPAMP and Its Equivalent +VCC -VCC Inverting input Non inverting input - OPAMP + Output ~ - - V2 V1 + 2 1 Iin + Vi Ri VoAvVi
• Block Diagram of an IC OPAMP DIFF AMP DIFF AMP EMITER FOLLOWER LEVEL TRANSLATOR & OUTPUT DRINER AV 1 AV 2 AV 3=1 AV 4 + VI _ + V2 - + V3 - + V4 - R1 + V0 -
• Ideal Characteristics of an OPAMP The ideal OPAMP has the following characteristics : Input resistance Ri = Infinite Output resistance Ro = 0 Voltage Gain Av = Infinite Bandwidth = Infinite Perfect Balance : Vo=0 when vi=0 Characteristics do not drift with temperature
• Virtual Ground Concept + V0 - OPAMP + Vi -Vs + - + Vo - Rf Iin R I I Vs + - Iin= 0 VG
• Application of OPAMP • Constant Gain Multiplier OPAMP + Vi -Vs + - + Vo - Rf Iin RRf Vo= VS R
Non-Inverting Amplifier Rf Iin R OPAMP + Vi - + Vo - + VS - Rf +R Vo= VS R
Voltage Follower - OPAMP + + Vo - + VS - V o=VS
Summing Amplifier Rf Vo= VS R - OPAMP + + Vo - Rf R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3
Subtractor Amplifier - OPAMP + + Vo - Rf R1 R2 V1 V2 R3
Integrator + Vo - - OPAMP +Vs + - C R
Differentiator + Vo - - OPAMP +Vs + - R C
• Timer (IC 555) 8 5 1 2 6 4 7 3R Q _ F/F S O/P Stage VCC (2/3 )VCC (1/3 )VCC Q 2 Q 1 VCC Discharge Threshold ControlVoltage Ground Trigger Input Output Reset 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5
• Application of Timer • Multivibrator In digital systems a rectangular waveform is most desirable. The generators of rectangular waveform are referred to as multivibrators. There are Two types of multivibrators: a. Astable (or free running) multivibrators b. Monostable multivibrator (or one shot)
• Principles of Microphone and Loudspeakers A microphone is a device that converts sound energy into electrical energy. A loudspeakers is a device that convert electrical energy in to sound energy.

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Basic electrical component

  • 1.
    Prepared by :Kavisa Tech Solutions
  • 2.
    Unit –1 BasicElectronics Introduction Definition of Electronics Importance Rectification Amplification Generation Control Atomic Structure Atom Nucleus Electron Proton Neutron Session – 1
  • 3.
    • Charge OfElectron • Mass of Electron • Radius of Electron • Valence Electron • Free Electron • Energy Band • Energy Band Theory • Valance Band • Conduction Band • Forbidden Band • Classification Of Solid Session – 1
  • 4.
    Definition of Electronics: - The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor is known as electronics. Importance : - The electronics devices are capable of performing the following function : * Rectification * Amplification * Generation * Control Atomic Structure Atom : All the material are composed of very small particles called atoms.An atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively charged particles, called electrons revolve in different orbits.
  • 5.
    • Nucleus • Proton: Positive charge. • Neutron : No charge. • Electron : Negative charge. • Atomic Weight : The sum of proton & neutron. • Charge of electrons : e=1.6*10-19 coulomb • Mass of Electron : m = 9.0*10-31 Kg. • Radius of Electron : r=1.9*10-15 meter. • Valence Electron : The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom. • Free Electron : The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus. • Energy Band : The range of energies possessed by an electron in solid.
  • 6.
    Energy Band Theory ValanceBand : In valance energy band, there are valance electrons. This band may be partially or completely filled with electrons. This band is never empty. In this band electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field. Therefore, the electrons in this band do not contribute to the electric current. Conduction Band : In conduction energy band, electrons are rarely present. This band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, the electrons can gain energy from external electric field. Electrons in this band contribute to the electric current Forbidden Gap : In forbidden energy gap, electrons are not found in this band. This band is completely empty. The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valance band to conduction band is called as band gap (Eg).
  • 7.
    Classification Of Solid •Insulator e.g.Wood, Glass etc •Conductor e.g. Copper, Aluminium etc. •Semiconductor e.g. Silicon,Germanium etc.
  • 8.
    Session – 2 Semiconductor(SC) Typesof Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Types of Extrinsic SC P type SC N type SC PN Junction PN Junction Under Forward Bias PN Junction Under Reverse Bias Formation Of Depletion Layer
  • 9.
    Semiconductor Diode Diode Characteristics DiodeCurrent Equation Break DownVoltage KneeVoltage Peak InverseVoltage Session – 2
  • 10.
    • Semiconductor (SC) Asubstance which has resistivity (10-4 to 0.5  meter) between conductors and insulators. Types of Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor : A pure sc which is free of every impurity is called intrinsic sc. The electrical conductivity of a pure sc is totally governed by the number of electrons excited from valance band to the conduction band and is called intrinsic conductivity. Germanium and silicon are the important examples of intrinsic sc which are widely used in electronic and transistor manufacturing. The electronic configuration of silicon and Germanium are as follows: Silicon(14), 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3s2 Germanium(32), 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2
  • 11.
    Extrinsic Semiconductor : Adoped semiconductor or a semiconductor with suitable impurity atoms added to it, is called extrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: N-type Semiconductors P-type Semiconductor Electro n
  • 12.
    N-Type Semiconductor When asmall amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, say arsenic or phosphorus or antimony which have five valence electrons. Electron
  • 13.
    P-type semiconductor When asmall amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, say Indium (In) or boron (B) Aluminums (Al) which have three valence electrons.
  • 14.
    • PN Junction Contactsurface of P-type SC and N-type SC. • Formation Of Depletion Layer
  • 15.
    • PN JunctionUnder Forward Bias A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of the external battery B is connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side of p-n junction.
  • 16.
    • PN JunctionUnder Reverse Bias A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the external battery B is connected to the n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-n junction.
  • 17.
  • 18.
    • Diode CurrentEquation I=Io(ev/n VT -1) where, I = Diode current Io = Reverse Saturation Current v= Applied voltage VT = Voltage equivalent of temp (T/11600) n = 1for Ge & 2 for Si at t=27oC or 300oK( Room Temp.) • Break Down Voltage : It is the reverse voltage at which PN junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current. • Knee Voltage : It is forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly. • Peak Inverse Voltage : It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied the PN-junction without damage to the junction.
  • 19.
    Session – 3 CrystalDiode Rectifier Half Wave Rectifier Efficiency Ripple Factor Full Wave Rectifier Efficiency Ripple Factor Comparison Of Rectifier
  • 20.
    • Crystal DiodeRectifier A PN-junction or a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to change alternating current to direct current. • Efficiency : The ratio of d.c power output to the applied input a.c. power. d.c. power output  = Input a.c power • Ripple Factor : The ratio of r.m.s value of a.c. components to the d.c. component in the rectifier output. d.c. power output  = Input a.c power • Half Wave Rectifier A.C. to be rectified is connected to the primary P1 P2 for a step-down transformer. S1 S2 is the secondary coil of the same transformer S1 is connected to the portion p of the p-n junction. S2 is connected to the portion n through load resistance R. Output is taken across the load resistance R fig.
  • 22.
    During the positivehalf cycle of the input A.C., suppose P1 is negative and P2 is positive. On account of induction, S1 becomes positive. S2, become negative. The p-n junction is forward biased. The forward current flows in the direction shown by arrow heads. Thus we get output across-load. During the positive half cycle of the input A.C., P1 is positive and P2 is negative. On account of mutual induction S become negative and S1 become negative. S2 become positive. The p-n junction is reverse biased. It offers high resistance and hence there is no flow of current and thus no output across load. The process is repeated. In the output, we have current corresponding to one half is missing. The output voltage is of the type is shown in fig. That is why the process is called half wave rectification. It is not of much use. The output signal is available in bursts and not continuously. • Efficiency of HWR : 40.6%. • Ripple Factor of HWR : 121%.
  • 23.
    • Center TapeFull Wave of Rectifier For full wave rectification, we have to use two p-n junctions. The arrangement is show in fig INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE
  • 24.
    During the positivehalf of the input A.C., the upper p-n junction diode is forward biased as show in fig, and the lower p-n junction diode is reversed biased. The forward current flows on account of majority carriers of upper p-n junction diode in the direction shown. During the negative half cycle of input A.C. the upper p-n junction diode is reverse biased, and the lower p-n junction diode is forward biased, fig. The forward current flows on account of majority carriers of lower p-n junction diode. We observe that during both the halves, current through R flows in the same direction. The input and output waveforms are show in fig. The output signal voltage is unidirectional having ripples contents. i.e. D.C. components and A.C. components. It can be made D.C. by filtering is through a filter circuit, before it can be put to any value. Efficiency of FWR : 81.2% Ripple Factor of FWR : 48%.
  • 25.
    Comparison of Rectifier S.No.Particular Half-Wave Center Tape Bridge 1 No. of Diode 1 2 4 2 Transformer Necessary No Yes No 3 Max. Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2% 4 Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48 5 Output Frequency fin 2fin 2fin 6 Peak InverseVoltage Vm 2Vm Vm
  • 26.
    Zener Diode Zener DiodeasVoltage Regulator Varactor Diode Power Supply Session – 4
  • 27.
    • Zener Diode 1.Properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage. 2. A zener diode always reverse connected. 3. A zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage, called zener voltage. Zener diode as voltage Stabiliser
  • 28.
    Varactor Diode Arrow Head Bar Power Supply FullWave Rectifier Capacitor Filter Voltage Regulator
  • 29.
    Unit – 2Bipolar Junction & Field Effect Transistor Introduction Bipolar JunctionTransistor Terminal Of BJT o Emitter o Base o Collector Types Of BJT o PNPTransistor o NPNTransistor Transistor as an Amplifier Session – 5
  • 30.
    • Bipolar JunctionTransistor (BJT) A transistor consist of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. • Terminal of BJT •Emitter : The section of on side that supplies charge carries is called emitter. The emitter is always forward bias. •Collector : The section of other side that collects the charges is called collector. The collector is always reverse bias. •Base : The middle section which form two pn-junction between the emitter & collector.
  • 31.
    PNP Transistor The emitterbase junction is forward biased. It means the positive pole of emitter base battery VBB is connected to emitter, and its negative pole to the base. Collector base junction is reverse biased i.e. the negative pole of the collector base battery VCC is connected to collector and its positive pole to the base.
  • 32.
    • NPN Transistor Inthis case also, the emitter base junction is forward biased i.e., the positive pole of emitter base battery VBB is connected to base and its negative pole to emitter.
  • 33.
    • Transistor Asan amplifier
  • 34.
    • Common BaseConfiguration • Input Characteristics • Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor • Common Emitter Configuration • Input Characteristics • Output Characteristics • Amplification Factor • Transistor Biasing Session – 6
  • 35.
    • Common BaseConfiguration • Fig. • Input Characteristics
  • 36.
    • Output Characteristics •Amplification Factor
  • 37.
    • Common EmitterConfiguration • Input Characteristics
  • 38.
    • Output Characteristics •Amplification Factor
  • 39.
    • Transistor Biasing •fig. 0 IC VCE A (mA )
  • 40.
    Field Effect Transistor TerminalOf FET Source Base Drain Channel Types Of FET Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor(MOSFET) N Channel JFET P Channel JFET Difference Between BJT & FET Session – 7
  • 41.
    • Field EffectTransistor It is a three terminal unipolar solid state device in which current controlled by an electric field. • Terminal Of FET • Source : It is the terminal through which majority carriers enter the bar. • Drain :It is the terminal through which majority carriers leaves the bar. • Gate : These are two internally connected heavily doped impurity region. • Channel : It is the space between two gates through which form source & drain. • Types of FET • Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET) • Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor(MOSFET)
  • 42.
    P-CHANNEL G - D +VD D S G + D -VDD S JUNCTION FET (JFET) METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET (MOSFET ) FET DE MOSFET E-ONLY MOSFET N- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL N-CHANNEL N-CHANNELP-CHANNEL G D +VD D S - G D -VD D S + S + G + D +VD D S - G - D -VD D
  • 43.
    NN PP N Channel JFET PChannel JFET S D N-CHANNEL G G D S S D P-CHANNEL G D G S
  • 44.
    • Output CharacteristicsOf JFET Difference Between BJT & FET 1. FET operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a unipolar device where as a BJT operation depends upon the flow of both majority and minority carriers. 2. FET is simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form. 3. FET exhibit a high input resistance, typically many Mega ohms. 4. FET is noisy than BJT. VGS=- 4V=VPO 4 V 0 IDSS ID VDS VB1 2 3 VPO VBO
  • 45.
    • Metal OxideSemiconductor FET • Enhancement – only MOSFET
  • 46.
    • Depletion -Enhancement MOSFET
  • 47.
    Unit – 3Feedback Amplifier & Oscillator  Introduction  Feedback  Positive Feedback  Negative Feedback  Gain of Amplifier without Feedback  Gain of Amplifier with Feedback  Advantage of Negative Feedback  Types Of Negative Feedback  Voltage Series Feedback  Voltage Shunt Feedback  Current Series Feedback  Current Shunt Feedback Session – 9
  • 48.
    • Feedback Feedback isthe process of feeding back a fraction of the output signal into input signal. • Positive Feedback : If the feed back voltage of current is so applied as to increase the input voltage. • Negative Feedback : If the feedback voltage or current is do applied as to reduce the amplifier input. The gain of amplifier without feedback VS Vo AV AV =VS /Vo + VS AVf Vo Feedback Network Vo Vin=VS+Vf The gain of amplifier with feedback AVf =AV / 1-  AV
  • 49.
    • Advantage ofNegative Feedback • Gain Stability • Reduce Non-Linear Distortion • Improve Frequency Response • Increases Circuit Stability • Increases Input Impedance and Decrease Output Impedance • Types Of Negative Feedback • Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier Gain AV Feedback Loop,  RLVS Vf
  • 50.
  • 51.
    • Voltage ShuntFeedback Current Series Feedback Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier Gain AV Feedback Loop,  IS If RL V0
  • 52.
    Oscillator Difference between Amplifierand An Oscillator Types of Oscillator Sinusoidal Oscillator Relaxation Oscillator Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator Damped Oscillator Undamped Oscillator Barkhausen criteria for Oscillator Generation of Sinusoidal wave by a tuned LC circuit Session – 10
  • 53.
    • Oscillator It isa circuit which converts electric energy at d.c.(zero frequency) to electric energy at frequency varying from a few Hz to GHz. • Difference between Amplifier and An Oscillator Types of Oscillator Sinusoidal Oscillator SinWave Form Relaxation Oscillator Square or Rectangle or SawtoothWave Form Amplifier Oscillator Input Signal D.C. Power Input Output Signal Output Signal D.C. Power Input
  • 54.
    Types of SinusoidalOscillator • Damped Oscillator : The electrical Oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time. • Undamped Oscillator : The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remain constant with time.
  • 55.
    • Barkhausen criteriafor Oscillator An amplifier can suitably modified so that it can behave as an oscillator. The feedback network should be arranged to feedback from the output sufficient portion so as to provide the necessary input drive. Then no external drive would be necessary. Amplifier Frequency Selection Automatic Amplitude Control Feedback Outpu t
  • 56.
    • Classification ofOscillators According to Frequency Class Of Oscillator Range of Frequency Audio Frequency a few Hz To 20Khz. Radio Frequency 20Khz To 30Mhz. Very High Frequency 30Mhz To 300Mhz. Ultra High Frequency 300Mhz to 3Ghz. Microwave 3Ghz and above. •Generation of Sinusoidal wave by a tuned LC circuit
  • 57.
    Types of Oscillator ColpittsOscillator Hartely’s Oscillator RC Phase Shift Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator Crystal Oscillator Session – 11
  • 58.
  • 59.
    • The HartleyOscillator CB RE +VCC CC CE L2L1 C
  • 60.
    • RC PhaseShift Oscillator C C C R R ViVf R1 R2 RC RE V0 +VCC R3 vi c C1 C2 C3 R V0 Vi R1 R2 V0
  • 61.
    • The WienBridge Oscillator V0 +VCC
  • 62.
  • 63.
     Resonant Circuit Series Resonant Circuit  Parallel Resonant Circuit  Tuned Amplifier  Single Tuned Amplifier  Double Tuned Amplifier Session – 12
  • 64.
    • Resonant Circuit •Series Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit L R C L R ~ C ~
  • 65.
    Tuned Amplifier • SingleTuned Amplifier L CE Vo Vin R1 CC R3R2 RFC ~
  • 66.
    • Double TunedAmplifier Vo LP CEVin R1 CC R3R2 CP ~ CS LS
  • 67.
    Unit – 4Modulation Introduction Need of Modulation Types of Modulation  Amplitude Modulation  Frequency Modulation  Phase Modulation Amplitude Modulation  Generation of Amplitude Modulation  Detection Of Amplitude Modulation Session – 13
  • 68.
    • Modulation The processof superimposing the audio signal over the carrier signal. • Need for Modulation Audio Amplifier Amplifier RF Oscillator (Carrier) Power Amplifier RF Carrier Audio Signal Antenna
  • 69.
    • Amplitude Modulation Whenthe amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal
  • 70.
    • Generation OfAM wave CE RF Carrier Input R1 CC R3R2 Audio Input T1 CC L C Modulated Output T2
  • 71.
    • Demodulation The processof recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave. • Detection Of AM OUTPUT Vs + -
  • 72.
    Frequency Modulation • Generationof Frequency Modulation • Detection of Frequency Modulation Basis of Digital Modulation Types of Digital Modulation • Pulse Amplitude Modulation • Pulse Width Modulation • Pulse Position Modulation • Pulse Code Modulation Session – 14
  • 73.
    • Frequency Modulation whenthe frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance the intensity of the signal. • Generation of FM Modulating Signal L C CV Detection of FM 1. Conversion of frequency changes in the modulated carrier into corresponding amplitude changes. 2. Rectification of the modulated signal. 3. Elimination of the carrier component.
  • 74.
    • Basis ofDigital Modulation In digital modulation, the continuos waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. • Types of Digital Modulation • Pulse Amplitude Modulation • Pulse Width Modulation • Pulse Position Modulation • Pulse Code Modulation
  • 75.
    Unit – 5Liner ICs • Introduction • Operational Amplifier • Block Diagram of an IC OPAMP • Ideal Characteristics of an OPAMP • Basic OPAMP and Its Equivalent • Virtual Ground Concept • Application of OPAMP • Constant Gain Multiplier • Non Inverting Amplifier • Voltage Follower Session – 15
  • 76.
    • Operational Amplifier •Basic OPAMP and Its Equivalent +VCC -VCC Inverting input Non inverting input - OPAMP + Output ~ - - V2 V1 + 2 1 Iin + Vi Ri VoAvVi
  • 77.
    • Block Diagramof an IC OPAMP DIFF AMP DIFF AMP EMITER FOLLOWER LEVEL TRANSLATOR & OUTPUT DRINER AV 1 AV 2 AV 3=1 AV 4 + VI _ + V2 - + V3 - + V4 - R1 + V0 -
  • 78.
    • Ideal Characteristicsof an OPAMP The ideal OPAMP has the following characteristics : Input resistance Ri = Infinite Output resistance Ro = 0 Voltage Gain Av = Infinite Bandwidth = Infinite Perfect Balance : Vo=0 when vi=0 Characteristics do not drift with temperature
  • 79.
    • Virtual GroundConcept + V0 - OPAMP + Vi -Vs + - + Vo - Rf Iin R I I Vs + - Iin= 0 VG
  • 80.
    • Application ofOPAMP • Constant Gain Multiplier OPAMP + Vi -Vs + - + Vo - Rf Iin RRf Vo= VS R
  • 81.
  • 82.
  • 83.
    Summing Amplifier Rf Vo= VS R - OPAMP ++ Vo - Rf R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3
  • 84.
  • 85.
  • 86.
  • 87.
    • Timer (IC555) 8 5 1 2 6 4 7 3R Q _ F/F S O/P Stage VCC (2/3 )VCC (1/3 )VCC Q 2 Q 1 VCC Discharge Threshold ControlVoltage Ground Trigger Input Output Reset 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5
  • 88.
    • Application ofTimer • Multivibrator In digital systems a rectangular waveform is most desirable. The generators of rectangular waveform are referred to as multivibrators. There are Two types of multivibrators: a. Astable (or free running) multivibrators b. Monostable multivibrator (or one shot)
  • 89.
    • Principles ofMicrophone and Loudspeakers A microphone is a device that converts sound energy into electrical energy. A loudspeakers is a device that convert electrical energy in to sound energy.