The document discusses aviation safety as a complex system involving multiple stakeholders including airline operations, maintenance, and regulatory bodies focused on minimizing hazards. It outlines the role of federal regulations, safety management systems, and the impact of external factors like economics and technology on aviation safety. Additionally, the importance of continuous improvement, organizational learning, and effective risk assessment practices is emphasized to enhance safety outcomes in the commercial aviation sector.

1. Running Head: AVIATION SAFETY daveson700@gmail.com
Aviation Safety Paper
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Abstract
The aviation system is a complex and interrelated network with concern on the airline operations
safety. Safety in aviation involves airport conditions, aircraft maintenance, communication with
the system operators and route information which aims at avoiding airline hazards on and off
flights (Cushing, 1997). The Federal Aviation Regulations is a set of guidelines that are set for
airline operations to be safe, enhancing effective air traffic control, effective airline safety
measures among other safety procedures. There are also other aviation authorities that monitor
commercial and general aviation to improve safety. The industry also depends on statistical
research which justifies changes and improvements of the safety features of airlines. Safety in
aviation also depends on external factors such as economic and political environments for
effective safety measures and therefore the aerospace industry works in alliances and
partnerships with other companies and the military aviation for a safe civil aviation practice
(Cushing, 1997). Costs of operations, liability insurance covers, meteorological conditions and
human errors which are safety related factors in commercial aviation are evaluated and used to
develop safe and comfortable aviation practices in commercial aviation. In this paper, the safety
guidelines in commercial aviation and the relevant authorities that monitor aviation safety are the
significant concern especially in commercial airline companies.

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Aviation Safety
Improving the airline safety has been researched over many years as the key to
commercial airline success. Commercial activities in aviation, petrochemical and maritime
transport are among the highly-rated businesses. Commercial airlines operation is a hazardous
corporate practice that requires constant awareness and improvement (International Civil
Aviation Organization, 2016). The airline speeds mean dreadful consequences if an impact with
another object occurs with almost no time for reaction, hence risky on passenger lives. The risks,
however, do not largely influence the airline pricing, but raise concern on the safety of airline
travel and therefore need measures to avoid future occurrences. Moreover, as the traditional risks
are solved, more threats emerge in the industry with technological and operational advancements
(Ballesteros, 2016).
At some altitude, the breathing of natural oxygen is impossible, and hence, the risk of
suffocation, while the temperatures do not support human survival. Fuel is a significant load in
long air travels, almost half the whole weight, which means that there is a high risk of explosion
and never survivable, especially with very low atmospheric pressure in high altitudes. Moreover,
mechanical failure may occur in the aircraft due to temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while
the taking off and landing speeds are catastrophic. “…we can conclude that commercial aviation
is a high-risk activity and, despite this, has achieved levels of safety that constitute success
(Ballesteros, 2011) . In different time geographic zones, the nearest airports may be up to 2 hours
journey, which makes it difficult for an emergency landing. Airlines are also subject to
meteorological difficulties such as electrical charge build-up or discharge, poor visibility, and
structural impacts may occur, risking the lives of the people aboard. Some flight routes have the
risk of collisions due to congestions and the terminal points during take-off or landing.

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Organizational based learning in commercial airline companies is suggested as a strategy
to minimize safety risks. Learning has been implemented with commercial airline evolution,
which has resulted in significant advancements in aviation safety. Manufacturers and operators
of airlines are on constant limelight, mainly when accidents occur involving passenger airlines
whose devastation is always inconceivable. The same pressure on manufacturers has been
exerted on pilots and other professionals. Such cases have made organizational safety is learning
a necessity. Aviation authorities are also critically faced with questions as they have the
monitoring mandate on commercial airlines operations and thus have supported the
organizational safety learning drift (Walsh, 2011). The deviation that occurs from air travel
whenever a significant accident occurs, or from specific carrier models prone to accidents is a
vital occurrence. it helps reevaluation and improvement of safety features, with the statistics used
for reference in organizational learning and model modification and advancement.
Business and political interests in the commercial airline industry is a primary enforcer of safety
improvement as the classes are regular airline travelers, hence commercial airline companies
have the benefit of constant feedback on safety concerns. This enhances continuous
improvement and learning. Moreover, military alliances and innovations have been vital in
airline safety advancements as their technology is implemented in commercial aviation
production processes. “…it is necessary to change toward a less complex model (Ballesteros,
2016). However, there is more risk in aviation safety, which seems to be awaiting a disastrous
occurrence to advance. Since the 1970s, the safety improvements have been noted to remain
almost constant due to efficiency realization. Risk and efficiency should be perceived from
different angles in commercial airlines, as the efforts to improve safety have been assumed to be
the roles of efficiency, which is a significant misconception (Cushing, 1997).

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Aviation operations and upcoming aeronautic technologies are vital in the airline industry
safety measures as the priority in the routine procedures. The verification and review of
statistical data in the airline industry for the current and past occurrences are crucial for future
advancements and broader safety precautions. Aviation operations work with the collaboration of
various functional teams with different tasks assigned to each team for better and smooth actions
that ensure risks such as accidents are minimized and overcome. The industry also operates
under national and international safety standards set to enhance airline safety for the crew, the
pilots, and passengers (Walsh, 2011).
The main focus of the task is to determine the causes of airline accidents and evaluate the
measures in place to enhance future improvements and better operations for safety while on
aeronautical procedures. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) alongside the International
Civil Aviation Organization is the major internationally recognized aviation authorities that set
the guidelines and standards of airline operations with safety the primary concern (Walsh, 2011).
The authorities examine the airline industries and their aircraft conditions, carries out adequate
risk assessment mechanisms and the essence of scientific research and innovations in the airline
industry. “Because of this, its investigation occupies a key place in the whole safety system. A
single event can be the origin of important technological or procedural changes” (Ballesteros,
2011).
“The fundamentals of SMS, including the importance of securing top management
support for the SMS initiative, developing a safety culture, performing effective risk
assessments, and the importance of moving toward more scientific discovery and analysis
methods” (Stolzer, 2011). The Safety Management System (SMS) provided by the international
aviation authorities are vital in civil aviation management evaluation, evolving a safety-oriented

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aviation culture and analyzing the operations methods in the industry. The core principles of the
Safety Management Systems (SMS) is aviation safety powered by information and scientific
research. “And as I’ve been studying the SMS literature and our own core documentation, what
strikes me is that this high level of expertise and professionalism is based on Quest’s safety
culture.” (Stolzer et al., 2011).
The processes carried out include aviation company data mining and prediction of the
risk probability and the measures in place to handle risks. The system enhances aviation
management support, which is essential in developing and implementing safety programs in the
respective aviation companies. The chief executive officers must be safety-focused and ensure
that the task is never delegated to other parties or individuals. Moreover, for the Safety
Management Systems to be effective, the CEO must ensure that the staffs are informed of the
safety as the key concern, with a customized policy and commitment to the program, creating a
culture of safety value and a positive teamwork output. “...from front line employee to you guys
at the officer level, just gets it – professionalism is expected, information flow is encouraged,
when weaknesses are found, things are fixed” (Stolzer et al., 2011). The ideologies, values, and
standards that govern how the staff in the airline company behave and respond are essentially
provided in the safety management systems. To be effective, the safety value as a culture must be
based on information, reporting, learning, and flexibility to adapt to innovations.
In airline safety, the evaluation of the objectives of the airline company guided with tools
that guide safety such as self-assessment and organization culture. The guidelines to a productive
safety culture start with safety policy empowered by the top management, stating the safety
expectations and the strategy to achieve them (International Civil Aviation Organization, 2016).
The administration should effectively disseminate the policy statement for reference in the

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routine operations. Safety goals are clearly stated in the safety policy statement and identify who
is responsible for what task to achieve the objective. For significant aviation companies, the
safety policy is a responsibility of all the staff and not just a few in the top management.
Therefore, the alignment and description of each team's tasks among the workforce are vital, and
routine audit to determine the effectiveness of the workforce needs to be regularly carried out for
accountability.
Aviation companies perform a risk assessment to evaluate the loss that could be
associated with a safety hazard, and it enhances comparison to the effective control cost of the
risk. Each organization assesses risks in the most suitable and well-thought method for the
company, entailing the processes that are appropriate and intelligible for the organization
(Rodrigues, 2011). The size of the airline company and the aircrafts possessed determine the
risk exposures and hence the necessary risk assessment tools such as the probabilistic risk
assessment tool (PRA). Data mining, PRA, and the root cause assessment are some of the
essential tools for assessing risks among safety experts. The effectiveness depends on
reductionism to smaller units that are easier to handle and understand through scientific means to
conclude and develop strategies. Airline industry safety also relies on system-based approach
and conception through system adjustments to evade catastrophe. It involves stating the process,
the purpose, scope, available resources, and responsibilities to develop effective safety controls
with certification and record-keeping.
SMS must utilize project management skills to be successful; defining the situation,
planning the approach, implementation of the strategy, and evaluating the results (International
Civil Aviation Organization, 2016). This relies on quality organization management, which
documents processes for future application and unremitting progression. The quality

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management assures customers of the organization's commitment to their interests, such as
safety, especially when the customer feedback and suggestion platform is availed.
The operations, strategies, and services in the airline transport industry are also very vital
in evaluating safety. The financial stability and condition of an airline company enhance the
operations with efficiency in the airline facilities, quality of the services and the internal factors
such as crew teamwork and workload size to improve airline safety and obligation. This is
dependent on the cost of operations and earning patterns, which determines the capital structure
and risk assessment efficacy. Aviation authorities regulate airline companies to augment
competition and economic progression while prioritizing safety. Evaluation of the significance of
deregulation reveals that the magnitude and earning variation is influenced, increases the
industry’s risk on stock returns (Krause, 2003). The operations of airline companies are
monitored by the Airline Operations Control Center (AOCC), and the functioning complications
are solved. The organization provides airline experts that help in operations recovery by solving
aircraft problems for operational efficiency. The human experts come to recovery when the non-
human controls are unreachable or are ineffective. AOCC uses a multi-agent system that
performs corresponding tasks with intelligence while interacting with the human experts in
supervision and decision-making to the projected solution. The system has been practically
tested in operational airlines in four approaches to determine the usefulness.
The focus is also directed to modern organizational structure from the conventional
vertical integration to the upward outsourcing operation structure. It involves out-tasking
responsibilities to external experts and organizations with suitable competencies in subcontracts,
which has revolutionized the industry and made it more competitive. “Basic economic theory
posits that businesses earning abnormally high (or low) profits will not continue to do so in the

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long-run due to the forces of competition. Competition should increase or decrease in every
industry as entrepreneurs search for abnormal profits and therefore enter and exit the market”
(Walsh, 2011). For instance, airline hospitality, airport operators, security agencies, and
maintenance may be subcontracted to suitable companies. The system accelerated in the 1990s
as it is perceived operational success among airline companies with improved earnings and cost-
effectiveness (Cushing, 1997). Some operations are outsourced to suppliers that provide the
services and functions effectively and more proficiently, and the trend has been accepted and
adopted.
Organization-Motivated pricing and effective cost management are also a significant
concern in airline industry procedures. The term aviation literature discusses the cost and pricing
policies as the keystone to airline industry success. Cost-effective studies and reviews by
scholars and the suitability to the business model examine the success or failure probabilities in
the airline industry, regarding the ticket charge levels, running operational costs and load factors
and the suitable strategies that improve fragile equilibrium. The Ryanair’s corporate model is
implemented, checking on pricing competitiveness and factors that determine the air travel fares.
“For the purpose of deciding whether or not to authorize a change in fares, the CAB did not act
independently’ (Walsh, 2011).
Operational costs are high due to fuel and personnel costs. Crew employment can be
done efficiently to enhance cost-effectiveness, which may be done based on cost-based hiring.
Staff scheduling with on and off days is a pattern that airlines are adapting to improve
profitability through rostering. The fixed labor patterns hinder some services, and hence, more
scholar recommendations are sought to establish measures of useful work patterns to be adapted
by airline companies. The airline companies also operate with different carrier companies of

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varying sizes and time-routes. Data obtained from the Bureau of Transportation Statistics on
routes, tickets, and carrier variables reveal that pricing varies with the airline specifications, such
as business and tourist classes. The pricing is designed to cover the operations cost while
retaining profits for the commercial company, and hence, researching operational statistics is
vital for financial effectiveness.
Furthermore, airline organizations vary in operations and assets, as well as the
dimensions that in turn modify the efficiency, such as runway patterns, terminus hub layouts, the
flight routes, and the potential customers' characteristics; thus, multidimensional approaches to
airline safety evaluation is appropriate. Factors such as expansivity, management efficiency,
environmental restrictions, partnerships, and economic policies determine the cost-effectiveness
and the running costs for different commercial airline companies. The System Airport Efficiency
Rate (SAER), which is published every day on the Aviation System Performance Metrics
provides the appropriate criteria for evaluating airline efficiency depending on relevant factors
among the different airline operators. The analysis is based on metrics and statistical data, which
both approaches evaluate effectiveness in technical operations and empirical technology,
respectively (Krause, 2003). Each of the methods has its limitations in theory and practice
The aerodynamics theory assists in research on safety and flight operations, which have
been found to have significantly advanced between the 1980s and now. Military airline activities
have influenced advancement in commercial airlines, enhancing psychological enhancements in
air travel (Rodrigues, 2011). Aviation nursing has been advanced over the years, improving
comfortable journeys for patients with abnormal conditions. For instance, in 2002, numerous
travelers with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases were necessitated in aircraft. Medical
emergencies on airlines have been enabled, while the rates of awareness at altitude, with the

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Aerohemodynamics theory identifying the psychological adaptations that the modern airline
operations have empowered as well as medical nursing. Expert air travel personnel with
professional skills in different relevant skills at altitude has become a routine operational
arrangement in modern commercial airline companies.
Airline companies have also adopted Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a
marketing tool and the formation of the operations strategies that distinguish it from competitor
companies. The level of public relations that is happening with modern airline companies has
enhanced globalization and differentiation in commercial airline organizations. Partnerships,
sponsorships, and quality-service advertising in the airline companies have led to increased
incomes enhanced by corporate social responsibility campaigns, which raises awareness of the
airline company. Sports, education, and tourism partnerships have all been empowered by
corporate social responsibility as a marketing strategy for airline operators. Moreover, airlines
have formed alliances across continents as a strategy to expand and increase consumer
preferences. Collaborations have also enhanced customizations of services to improve more
passengers who have diversities hence improving the facilities.
As a response to aviation safety uncertainties and risks, commercial airline companies
have partnered with liability insurance companies as a measure under the aviation regulations.
Fleets of aircraft of different sizes and types that fly for different purposes have been insured as a
risk handling standard. “Because of the higher potential payouts, premiums rates are higher for
the smooth policies than for those with sub limits” (Douglas, 2016). The Aircraft Owners and
Pilots Association (AOPA) requires liability insurance cover against aviation risks as one of its
standards. However, there are some aircraft that do not have liability insurance or financial
responsibility requirements which risks irresponsibility on compensation for the passengers in

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case of an accident. it stands to reason that the events of 9/11 would cause not only a change in
the industry’s specific risk, but also a change in the industry ‘s market risk because of the change
in carrier’s financial and operating leverage” (Walsh, 2011).
In some countries, for General Aviation to have liability insurance with specifications on
the carrier determining the amount of coverage for bodily injury or death in the event of an
accident is a requirement (Krause, 2003). For instance, Canada has such a requirement for
aircrafts owners and commercial operators with airlines above 5000 pounds in weight. (Douglas,
2016) The European Union also has similar regulations concerning insurance liability cover for
aviation in member countries. Airlines also face monetary risks such as damage, and hence, the
owners and the companies are obliged to have insurance coverage policies with risks provisions.

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References
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Cushing, S. (1997). Fatal Words: Communication clashes and aircraft crashes. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Douglas, J. (2016). General Aviation: Liability Insurance Issues and Mitigation of Safety Risks.
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International Civil Aviation Organization. (2016). Aircraft accident and incident investigation:
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Krause, S. S. (2003). Aircraft Safety: Accident investigations, analyses and applications (Second
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Rodrigues, C., & Cusick, S. (2011). Commercial aviation safety (Fifth ed.). New York:
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