The document discusses various aspects of industrial safety including: 1. The development of the safety movement in India and objectives of industrial safety such as preventing accidents and injuries. 2. Key elements of safety planning like hazard identification, developing safety procedures, and emergency response. 3. The importance of formulating a clear safety policy and budget to support safety programs and training. 4. The roles and qualifications required of safety professionals to lead safety efforts in an organization.

1. MODULE I
Development of safety movement: - Need for safety-safety and productivity-planning for
safety planning procedure-safety policy-formulation of safety policy-safety budget-role and
qualification of safety professional-safety committees-need, types and functions of
committees- safety organizations.
The importance of industrial safety was realized because every year millions of
industrial accidents occur which result in either death or an in temporary disablement of the
employees and involve large amount of loss resulting from damage to property and wasted
man hours and machine hours. Now-a-days serious attentions are being paid to reduce the
rate and severity of accident. Health and safety are basic desire and instinct. The benefits of
accident prevention have been well-understood and accepted by industries throughout the
world. Industrial safety is mainly concerned with minimizing hazards in the industries.
Hazard is a state, physical or chemical having potential to injure the person or impatient of
health.
“Industrial safety is primarily a management activity which is concerned with reducing,
controlling and eliminating hazards from the industries or industrial units.”
The danger of life of human being is increasing with advancement of scientific
development in different fields. The importance of industrial safety was realized because
every millions of industrial accidents occur which result in either death or in temporary
disablement or permanent disablement of employees and involve large amount of losses
resulting from danger to property, wasted man hours and wasted hours
Development of safety movement
An organized safety movement in India was started in Bombay in 1922, which in due
course, became the first safety association of India. In 1955, the council of industrial safety
was started at Bombay by the Mill owners association. In 1965, The National Safety Council
was formed, according to the decision of the Presidents conference of Industrial Safety, by
the representatives of government, management and trade unions. The council is a voluntary
nonprofit making body. It has been setup to educate and influence society to adopt
appropriate policies and procedures for preventing and reducing human suffering and
economic loss arising from all type of accidents. National safety day is celebrated on March
4th
because on this day NSC (National Safety Council) of India was established.
More ever, from managerial perspective the importance of industrial safety in any
organization may be concluded by following facilitation:
1. Treatment: industrial safety management provides treatment for injuries and illness
at the work place.
2. Medical Examination: it carries out medical examination of staff joining the
organization or returning to work after sickness or accident.
3. Hazards identification.
4. Provision of protective devices.

2. 5. Consultancy: it provides medical advised on other condition potentially affecting
health e.g. works canteen etc.
6. Education: it provides safety and health training
Objectives of industrial safety:
1. To prevent accidents in the plant by reducing the hazard to minimum.
2. To eliminate accident caused work stoppage and lost production.
3. To achieve lower workmen’s compensation, insurance rates and reduce all other direct
and indirect costs of accidents.
4. To prevent loss of life, permanent disability and the loss of income of worker by
eliminating causes of accidents.
5. To evaluate employee’s morale by promoting safe work place and good working
condition.
6. To educate all members of the organization in continuous state of safety mind and to
make supervision competent and intensely safety minded.
A safety programmed includes mainly following four E’s.
• Engineering: i.e. safety at the design, equipment installation stage.
• Education: i.e. education of employees in safe practices.
• Enlistment: It concerns the attitude of the employees and management towards the
programmed and its purpose. It is necessary to arise the interest of employees in accident
prevention and safety consciousness.
• Encouragement: i.e. to enforce adherence to safe rules and practices
Aim of industrial safety
(1) Provide workers with a safe work environment.
(2) Conduct routine/regular workplace inspections.
(3) Provide Personal Protective Equipment.
(4) Develop and implement safe work procedures and rules.
(5) Provide on-going safety training
(6) Enforce safety rules and appropriate discipline.
(7) Provide on-going property conservation practices.
SAFTEY AND PRODUCTIVITY
There is increasing and compelling overseas evidence that providing a healthy and
safe working environment has the potential to increase labour productivity and in turn
increase company profits.
Safety culture is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions,
competencies, and patterns of behaviour that determine the commitment to and organization’s
health and safety management. It varies from one country to another. Employees may behave
differently due to their background differences in race, nation, religion, and community. To
achieve a positive safety culture, employee involvement and satisfaction must be considered,
as it drives continuous improvement, which may lead to better productivity.

3. Productivity
Productivity construct is composed of eight items, including:
1. Good working environment: A good safe behaviour results in a good working
environment.
2. Material damage: The improvement of safety culture will reduce the material damage
3. Quality of product: Quality improvement is influenced by a positive health and safety
implementation
4. Compensation cost: A positive safety culture leads to the reduction of costs of
accidents borne by the organization, such as compensation cost and plant damage.
5. Reputation: High rates of severe injuries in organizations can have detrimental
(harmful) effects on the reputation as well as performance of an organization.
6. Increased working speed: Enhancement of safety culture leads to increased working
speed.
7. Customer perception: A global concern for safety is related to an ever-increasing
consumer expectation of service excellence.
8. Accident rate: The frequency of accident occurrences may be reduced with good
safety program.
Figure below illustrates how improved worker health and safety has the potential to
increased performance with resulting effects on short-term and long-term productivity for the
company
Fig 1: Pathways to productivity
SAFETY PLANNING
A Safety Plan is a written document that describes the process for identifying the
physical and health hazards that could harm workers, procedures to prevent accidents, and
steps to take when accidents occur. The written safety plan is a blueprint for keeping workers
safe. Many organizations compile their activity-specific safety plans into a single safety
manual.
Safety planning often appears as a core requirement in safety regulations and
standards. Safety planning includes the establishment of a risk management cycle, involving

4. continuous risk identification, evaluation and control. A safety planning has been integrated
into the production planning and control process.
Safety planning diffusion was achieved mostly by training workers based on safety
plans before they started carrying out their tasks. In addition to the monthly evaluation
meetings, safety performance measures were also disseminated (spread widely) in weekly
planning meetings. Moreover, this information was posted on bulletin boards all over the site.
Each written plan includes the following basic elements:
• Policy or goals statement
• List of responsible persons
• Hazard identification
• Hazard controls and safe practices
• Emergency and accident response
• Employee training and communication
• Record keeping
The main steps for producing the safety plans are presented below:
• Establish the necessary tasks to be undertaken: Both conversion and flow activities should
be considered
• Identify existing risks: The effort to identify risks can be supported by tools such as
checklists and brainstorming, as well as the technical literature or plans from past projects
In order to establish a common language for all plans, it is also helpful to adopt a risk
classification
• Define how each risk will be controlled: Considering that safety control will be based on
what has been written down in the plans, preventive measures should not be planned if they
are not considered to be necessary or if there are not enough resources to carry them out.
Although the aim should be to have no accidents, the management should always retain
some residual risks, which must be kept within an acceptable level. Managers are the ones
who must decide what is acceptable or not, following regulations as minimal requirements.
SAFETY RULES
Safety rules list the specific activities to do or avoid for completing the job effectively and
safely. Important things to keep in mind regarding safety rules include:
� No single list of safety rules is adequate for all types of businesses.
� Develop your own list of safety rules based upon standard industry practices and your own
accident experience. Don’t rely solely on generic lists or examples from other employers.
� All rules need to be completely and clearly communicated to management and staff alike.
� All rules should be strictly and consistently enforced.
� If written safety rules are not consistently and equitable enforced, the employer’s actual
practices outside the written rules may create a legal liability if challenged in a legal or
regulatory dispute.
� Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations when creating rules for the operation of
equipment.

5. General safety rules
• All injuries must be reported as soon as possible.
• No horseplay, alcohol, or drugs allowed on premises.
• No alcohol usage allowed during lunch break.
• PPE must be worn as prescribed by management.
• All tools/equipment must be maintained in good condition.
• Only appropriate tools shall be used for specific jobs.
• All guards must be kept in place.
• No spliced electrical cords/wiring allowed.
• Only authorized personnel can operate forklift vehicles.
• Smoking allowed only in lunchroom.
• Seat belt use required of all drivers/passengers.
• All Safety Standards will be followed for job processes requiring respiratory
protection.
Sample safety rules
1. Report to work alert, rested and in good physical condition.
2. Personal protective equipment (such as safety glasses, hearing protection, protective
clothing, and footwear) must be worn when required for specific job tasks or work
areas.
3. All accidents, incidents and injuries, regardless of how minor, shall be reported
immediately to the supervisor in charge.
4. All work is to be performed in a safe manner according to our written policies and
procedures. If you have a concern about the safety of a task, bring this to the attention
of your immediate supervisor.
5. Understand your work assignments and perform only the job functions in which you are
fully trained. Discuss any unfamiliar work assignments with your supervisor prior to
beginning the task.
6. Possession of firearms or other weapons is prohibited on Company property, or while
you are on Company business.
7. Horseplay or practical jokes are prohibited.
8. Use or being under the influence of, intoxicants or drugs while on the job is prohibited
and shall be considered cause for dismissal.
9. No worker shall operate equipment unless trained and authorized for its use.
10. A worker shall not operate a machine unless the guarding mechanisms are in place and
functioning properly.
11. Always use the proper tool, equipment, or process for the job.
12. Ignoring safe work practices, policies, procedures, rules or other safety instruction
could be cause for disciplinary action up to and including termination of employment.
13. All employees shall correct an unsafe condition or practice to the extent of their
authority and/or report the hazard to their supervisor.
14. Ignoring safe work practices, policies, procedures, rules, or other safety instruction is
cause for disciplinary action up to and including termination of employment.

6. Benefits of safety planning
• It provides for a safe and healthful work environment by identifying and controlling
hazards.
• It provides a mechanism for organizing thoughts and approaches and documenting
activities. The process of “working it through” is as important as the Plan, itself.
• It provides a structure for action, especially in an emergency.
• It facilitates coordination with other University groups: Facilities Services
maintenance and delivery staff; emergency personnel; construction or remodelling
workers; Health and Safety Committees, and Environmental Health and Safety.
• It facilitates coordination with non-University organizations: Police Department,
local community organizations, county governments, Department of Ecology etc.
• It helps compliance with Federal and State regulations, helps avoid the citations and
penalties associated with non-compliance.
SAFETY POLICY
Safety policies cover broad topics and communicate company philosophy or general
guidelines. Safety policies should be written as guidelines for reference and discussed with
employees upon hire and during orientation. They provide both vision and inspiration to the
organization and highlight what is believed, valued and expected.
The policy shall include:
a) A statement, which clearly articulates the company's safety objective and goals and
management's commitment to achieve these objective and goals;
b) A clear description of duties and responsibilities of employees at all levels in promoting
and ensuring occupational safety and health in the organization;
c) Acknowledgement that employees are an important resource.
Formulation of safety policy
The development of a health and safety policy or program is the responsibility of the
employer. However, for such a policy or program to be accepted and successful it will need
the commitment and endorsement of the workers. Therefore, it is critical to involve the
workers in the early stages when developing a policy or program. This would include, but not
be limited to, the workers' health and safety representative or the occupational health and
safety committee.
A safety organization shall be established to clearly define the roles, duties,
responsibilities and accountabilities of every individual in the organization. The policy must
be endorsed (approved) by the Chief Executive Officer or the most senior management
staff of the company to demonstrate commitment of top management. The policy must be
well publicized(make widely known), made known, understood and accepted by all levels of
personnel and contractors. The policy must be reviewed and revised (if necessary) on a
regular basis and the date(s) of review and revised stated.

7. Reasons for Safety Programs or Policies in the Workplace
There are several reasons why workplaces need a health and safety policy or program,
including:
• To clearly demonstrate management's full commitment to their employee's health and
safety;
• To show employees that safety performance and business performance are compatible;
• To clearly state the company's safety beliefs, principles, objectives, strategies and
processes to build buy-in through all levels of the company;
• To clearly outline employer and employee accountability and responsibility for
workplace health and safety;
• To comply with the Occupational Health and Safety Act; and
• To set out safe work practices and procedures to be followed to prevent workplace
injuries and illnesses.
SAFETY PROCEDURES
Safety procedures cover specific safety activities. These procedures outline the steps to
be taken to implement a policy. Some procedures are specific to a job or task while others are
general descriptions of how to implement a policy.
Procedures exist for most aspects of a job whether they are formalized and written
down or not. To be effective, safety procedures should be communicated in written and
verbal form and emphasized by showing the employee the procedure and then having them
demonstrate to assure proper understanding of the procedure.
Common safety procedures may cover:
� How to report a hazard
� Step-by-step examples of how to safely complete specific work tasks
� Basic safety rules
� Personal protective equipment
� Chemical usage
� Hazard communication
� Specific equipment use and safe operation
� Sharps use and disposal procedures
� Emergency plans
SAFETY BUDGET
The safety budget is used for funding all activities that make Safety Management
System (SMS) reach the highest standard of safety. Safety training, personal protective
equipment, safety signs, machine guarding, or general safety maintenance are all areas that
should be considered and included when developing a budget.
The establishment of a separate accounting line for safety and health related purchases
is essential. This allows you to clearly track monies expended for this purpose. It also reduces
the likelihood that budget reductions in other areas will occur. In the budget planning process,
staff members should be asked to contribute suggestions for ependitures needed to maintain
safe operations and continue to improve the safety program.

8. The four main safety activities that require funding:
• Development of Safety Procedures
• Training
• Oversight
• Managing Safety Database
Development of Safety Procedures
Through reviewing and updating these procedures regularly for further improvement
and making sure that they comply with safety standards.
Training
Suitable training must be provided to staff to enhance their awareness of the safety
requirements. Depending on the nature of the task, the level of safety management training
required will vary from general safety familiarization to expert level for safety specialists.
Oversight
Funding for Monitoring safety performance and performing safety audits to provide a
better look at human performance errors, helping improve man -machine interactions to
reduce the rates of accident and incident for the industry.
Managing safety database
Improving safety depends heavily on the ability to collect and analyze safety data and
to use that information to develop safer systems and take corrective actions before accidents
occur.
Resources needed:
• Definition of Standard
• Project Specification
• Process Architecture
• Safety Manual (or other manuals)
• Implementation
• Evaluation
• Project management
• Maintenance of the system
COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH BUDGET
The various costs associated with safety are Part-time or Full-time Inspectors and
Auditors cost, pay and incentives, IT Costs, Costs of Audits and Inspections, Costs of
Accreditation (if required or desired), Costs of maintaining Accreditation (if required or
desired.
Fixed Costs
– Salaries and benefits
– IT Costs

9. – Office Space and associated utilities
– Training Costs
Variable Costs
– Number of Safety Audits
– Number of Safety Inspections
– Hotel costs
– Travel costs
– Management time
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SAFETY BUDGET
1. Training for safety - Inhouse by External Faculty, Inhouse by Internal Faculty,
2. Seminars on Safety
3. Promotional activities such as Competitions on various safety related factors
4. Celberation of Safety Day / Week and other days dedicated to Environment, Fire etc.
5. Hiring of External Consultants for Audits and studies
6. Expenses to be incurred towards internal audits by auditors from corporate or from
other group unit.
7. Expenses for liasioning(establishing) activities.
8. Expenses towards presentations to be made if applied for awards at various levels.
9. Expenses towards PPEs, Testing Instruments etc
SAFETY PROFESSIONAL/OFFICER
The role of the safety officer is in most respects advisory. It is essential however, for
the safety officer to be influential and to have technical competence and experience to be
accepted by line management. The later for their part are not likely persistently to disregard
the advice of the safety officer if he possesses these qualifications and is seen to be supported
by senior management.
The situation of the safety officer is one where there is a potential conflict between
function and status. He may have to give unpopular advice to managers more senior than
himself. It is a well understood principle of safety organization, however, that on certain
matters function carries with it authority.
The safety officer should have direct access to a senior manager, eg. Works manager,
should take advantage of this by regular meetings and should be seen to do so. This greatly
strengthens the authority of safety officer.
Although the safety officer’s duties are mainly advisory, he may have certain line
management functions such as responsibility for the fire fighting and security systems, and
his assistants often have responsibilities in respect of the permit- to-work system.
Qualifications of the safety professional
1. He should possess a recognized degree in any branch of engineering or technology or
physics or chemistry and have sufficient practical experience of working
2. Possess a degree or diploma in industrial safety recognized by the Central
Government.
3. Has adequate knowledge of the language spoken by majority of the workers in the
industry which he has appointed.

10. Duties of safety officer
i. To advice the concerned departments in planning and organizing measures necessary
for the effective control of personal injuries
ii. To advice on safety aspects on all departmental work, and to carry out detailed job
safety studies of selected work.
iii. To check and evaluate the effectiveness of the action taken or proposed to be taken to
prevent personal injuries
iv. To advice purchasing and stores departments in ensuring high quality and availability
of personal protective equipment
v. To carry out safety inspections of industry, in order to observe the physical conditions
of work and the work practices and procedures followed by workers and to render
advice on measures to be adopted for removing the unsafe physical conditions and
preventing unsafe actions by workers.
vi. To investigate the cases of occupational diseases contracted and reportable dangerous
occurrences
vii. To advice maintenance of such records as are necessary relating to accidents, dangerous
occurrences and occupational diseases.
viii. To investigate fatal and other selected accidents
ix. To promote setting up of safety committees and act as advisor and catalyst of such
committees
x. To organise in association with the concerned departments, campaigns, competitions,
contests and other activities which will develop and maintain the interest of the workers
in establishing and maintaining safe conditions of work and procedures
xi. To design and conduct either independently or in collaboration with the training
department, suitable training and educational programmes for the prevention of
accidents to industrial workers.
xii. Frame departmental safety rules and are working practices in consultation with the
various departments or authorities
xiii. Supervise and guide in respect of safety precautions to be taken while handling
dangerous operations
SAFETY COMMITTEE
The primary purpose of the Safety Committee is to promote safety awareness and
reduce the potential for injury/loss throughout a Manufacturing Company.
The Safety Committee is to be chaired by the Safety Director and include
representatives from each department (total number of committee members not to exceed five
individuals). Members can be volunteers or appointed. Membership is limited to two terms (1
year each) during any four year period.
Meetings are to be scheduled, when possible, for the same day each month. All
meetings are to take place in the conference room. Each meeting should have a set agenda
and minutes of each meeting recorded. A copy of the minutes shall be forwarded to the
Executive Vice-President within 48 hours of meeting.

11. Each Safety Committee Meeting shall include a review of the prior month’s minutes
as well as a review of the prior month’s injury/illness log and investigations of losses/claims.
Past injuries/claims/losses need to be reviewed for any patterns or trends.
General functions of the Safety Committee can include:
(1) Identifying workplace hazards
(2) Enforcement of Safety Rules
(3) Measuring safety performance
(4) Reducing frequency/severity of injuries
(5) Creating safety policies
(6) Developing and monitoring safety programs
Specific tasks of the Safety Committee can include:
(1) Conducting self-inspections of the workplace
(2) Review employee reports of hazards
(3) Assist in safety training
(4) Creating safety incentive programs
(5) Publish/distribute safety newsletter
(6) Inspect PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)
(7) Post safety posters/slogans on bulletin board
(8) Identify Light Duty Jobs
Safety Functions with Objectives and Duties
1. Management Commitment to Workplace Safety and Health
• Establish procedures for review and management's response to minutes.
• Submit written recommendations for safety/health improvement/changes and
response.
• Evaluate employer’s safety/health policies and procedures.
• Respond in writing to safety committee recommendations.
• Review corrective action taken by management.
2. Committee Meetings and Employee Involvement
• Establish procedures for employee input, i.e. to receive suggestions, report hazards,
and other pertinent safety and health information.
• Include employee input on agenda for safety committee meetings.
• Hold monthly meetings.
• Keep meeting minutes.
• Develop and make available a written agenda for each meeting.
• Take meeting minutes and distribute to management and the safety committee
members.
• Include in the meeting minutes all recommendations.

12. 3. Hazard Assessment and Control
• Establish procedures for workplace inspections to identify safety and health hazards.
• Assist the employer in evaluating the accident and illness prevention program.
• Appoint an inspection team of at least one employee representative and one employer
representative.
• Conduct workplace inspections at least quarterly.
• Make a written report of hazards discovered during inspections.
• Review corrective measures. Make written recommendation to correct the hazard,
and submit it to management for timely response.
• Identify high risk job tasks and develop written safe operating conditions.
4. Safety/Health Planning
• Establish procedures to review inspection reports and make appropriate
implementation of new safety/health rules and work practices.
• Develop/establish procedures for an annual review of the company safety and health
program.
5. Accountability
• Evaluate the company safety and health accountability program.
• Make recommendations to implement supervisor and employee account ability for
safety and health.
6. Accident/Incident Investigations
• Establish procedures for reviewing reports completed for all safety incidents,
including injury accidents, illnesses and deaths.
• Review these reports so that recommendations can be made for appropriate corrective
action to prevent recurrence.
7. Safety/Health Training for Committee-Members
• Identify and make accessible applicable OSHA standards and other codes that apply
to your particular industry.
• Provide specific training on your type of business activity. Include at a rninimum,
hazard identification of the workplace and how to perform effective accident incident
investigation.
• Identify the location of safety procedures provided with appropriate equipment and
inform employees of their location.
• Recommend training for new employees and refresher training on company,
department and work location safety practices, procedures and emergency response.
• Management should maintain (and make available to the safety committee) records on
employee safety training.

13. Workplace safety committee member duties
Chair person
• Prepare agenda for next meeting
• Arrange for meeting place
• Notify members of meeting
• Arrange program
• Set time schedule for meeting
• Arrange all seating for members
• Review previous minutes and material for meeting
• Conduct meeting
Secretary
• Record minutes of meeting
• Distribute minutes to committee member s
• Post minutes for other employees
• Report status of recommendation s
• Assume chairperson 's duties, if required
Members
• Report unsafe conditions and practices
• Attend all safety meetings
• Report all accidents or near misses
• Review injury accidents, illnesses and death investigations
• Contribute ideas and suggestions for improvement of safety
• Work safely
• Influence others to work safely
• Make or assist in inspections
SAFETY ORGANIZATIONS
A safety organization consists of a systematic procedure by means of which interest is
created and maintained and all safety activities are co-related and directed. The accident
prevention is a continuing process and hence continuous systematic efforts are necessary.
The basic objectives of safety organization are:
(i) Creating and maintaining interest.
(ii) Fact finding through periodical inspections and surveys of structures, machine tools,
equipment, processes and employee procedures, accident investigation and analysis.
(iii) Selection of remedies and corrective action with regard to unsafe acts and conditions
based upon the found facts.
The organization setup depends upon the size and complexities of the industries. In
small industry foreman or supervisor may be responsible for achievement of all the
objectives of safety. Whereas in large industries the number of positions may be involved in

14. .
the organization set up. A typical organization structure for a manufacturing g concern
employing 1000 workers is shown in the figure.
The Organization set up consists of:
1. Executive safety committee.
2. Operations safety committee.
Executive safety committee: The executive safety committee consists of presidents'
representative, the General Manager, the plant superintendent and the sales manager. The
chief function of the executive safety committee is to determine the policy and set the
standards or plan at which the safety work is to be conducted.
Specific responsibilities and activities of the executive safety committee shall include:
1. Review and action on the report s and recommendations of the operations safety
committee.
2. Periodical considerations of trends and progress in the control of accident frequency and
severity.
3. Approval for abnormal expenditures for accident prevention.
4. Approval for major changes in safety organization and of activities effecting matters of
policy.
Operations safety committee: the function of the operations safety committee is to execute
the policies sat up by the executive safety committee regarding all the phases of accident
prevention.

15. Membership shall consist of executive safety committee, the plant safety inspector,
sales supervisors and plant superintendents.
Specific responsibilities and activities of the committee include:
1. Study and discuss the principal accident producing conditions and circumstances and to
take and recommend practical effective corrective action
2. Review of and action on the reports and recommendations received from the service
engineering
3. Review of and action on the reports of the plan safety inspector.
4. Review of and action on accident investigation reports submitted by supervisors.
5. Periodical check of all authorized safety procedure and their proper functioning.
6. Approval of proposed new construction and installation of equipment, changes in
procedures and processes etc. from the safety viewpoint.
Steps taken by safety organization to control accidents
In order to control the accident the following steps must be taken by safety organization:
A. Supervisory Safety Performance:
(1) Job safety analysis.
(ii) Proper job placement.
(iii) Development of safe working conditions.
(iv) Enforcement of Safety Rules.
(v) Promotion of employee participation in safety.
B. Mental Condition of Person:
(i) Adequate induction and job training.
(ii) Safety training, safety awareness, safety promotion/publicity.
(iii) Regular safety contacts by supervisor.
(iv) Involvement/participation.
(v) Adequate communication concerning the employee.
C. Physical Conditions of Person:
(i) Pre-employment medical examination.
(ii) Periodical medical checkup.
(iii) Proper job placement.
(iv) Adequate medical facilities.
(v)Recognition of physical limitations of workers who are new on job.
How accident can be prevented by safety programme?
For setting up a safety programme the various means generally used may be:
(a) Safety code-Regarding safe working conditions, design, maintenance, inspection,
testing, training etc.
(b) Standardization-Regarding equipment, practices, protective devices.
(c) Inspection- To secure enforcement of (a) above.
(d) Investigation of Accidents-To find out the root cause(s) and remove those.
(e) Research-{a) Technical (b) Medical (c) Psychological (d) Statistical.
(f) Education/training-For all categories of personnel.
(g) Persuasion/Appeal/Counselling of employees-Motivation.

16. (h) Insurance-To cover risks.
(z) Set up full-fledged safety department-For self-regulation within the organization.
National Safety Council (India)
National Safety Council is a premier, non-profit, self-financing and tripartite apex
body at the national level in India. It is an autonomous body, which was set up by the
Government of India, Ministry of Labour and Employment in 4th March 1966 to generate,
develop and sustain a voluntary movement on Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) at the
national level. It was registered as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 and
subsequently, as a Public Trust under the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950.
The vision of NSC is to serve the society by creating a preventive culture, scientific
mind-set and organised approach to SHE issues. It is our belief that these issues are a basic
humanitarian concern.
Activities of NSC includes
• Conducting specialised training Courses, Conferences, Seminars & Workshops all
over the Nation
• Conducting consultancy studies such as Safety Audits, Hazard Evaluation,
Emergency Management Planning & Risk Assessment
• Designing and developing HSE promotional materials & publications
• Facilitating organizations in celebrating various campaigns e.g. Road safety week,
Safety Day, Fire Service Week, World Environment Day
• Organised many national and international conferences e.g. XIII World Congress
(1993) and XI APOSHO Conference (1995) and implemented many a prestigious
project

17. MODULE II
Accident prevention: - Basic philosophy of accident prevention-nature and causes of
accidents-accident proneness-cost of accidents-accident prevention methods-Domino theory-
safety education and training-training methods-motivation and communicating safety-
personal protective equipments.
ACCIDENT
The ordinary meaning of the word “Accident” as derived from lexicons is an
unforeseen of an unexpected event'. This definition covers a wide range of phenomena
including even natural catastrophes and cannot, therefore, subserve the purpose of a scientific
investigation. The term accident 'when used in industry', while in essence retaining this
popular connotation, refers to a district class of the phenomena. The American 'National
Safety Council' has defined accident as “that occurrence in a sequence of events which
usually produces unintended injury, death or the property damage”. Heinrich' has, however,
defined accident as "an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which the action or reaction
on an object, substance , person or radiation result in personal injury."
Basically accidents constitute a behavioral problem signifying disintegration in the
equilibrium of the individual in relation to the work situation. The forces that make for the
disequilibrium are mainly drawn from the stress of the work situation and the psycho- social
character of the individual involved. As soon as this filed is distributed due to the
displacement of the relatively specific situation or the appearance of new one the equilibrium
is upset, causing an interruption or disorganization in performance. By and large, therefore,
accidents are defined as "unforeseen, sudden, unintended or unconscious deviations in work,
activity tending to end or to an injury".
THEORY OF ACCIDENT OCCURENCE

18. BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION/CONTROL
Accident prevention is the tactical, sometimes relatively short-term, approach to
controlling workers, materials, tools and equipment, and the workplace for the purpose of
reducing or preventing the occurrence of accidents. This is in contrast to safety management,
which is a relatively long-term strategic approach for the overall planning, education, and
training of such activities. A good accident prevention process is an orderly approach very
similar to the methods engineering program shown in figure below.
The first step in the accident prevention process is the identification of the problem in
a clear and logical form. Once the problem is identified, the safety engineer the needs to
collect data and analyze them so as to understand the causation of the accident and identify
possible remedies to prevent it or, if not completely prevent it, at least to reduce the effects or
severity of the accident. In many cases, there may be several solutions, and the safety
engineer will need to select one of these solutions. Then the remedy will have to be
implemented and monitored to ensure that it is truly effective. If it is not effective, the
engineer may need to repeat this process and attempt another, perhaps better remedy. This
monitoring effectively closes the feedback cycle and ensures a continuous improvement
process for accident prevention.
ACCIDENT CAUSES
It is established that the accidents are caused, they do not happen out of nothing.
Whenever there occurs an accident, there must be some cause, which may be obvious, or
difficult to trace.
The causes of accidents may be classified into two categories:
1. Technical causes – Unsafe conditions
(a) Mechanical factors
(b) Environmental factors
2. Human factors
(a) Unsafe Act
(b) Unsafe personal factors
Mechanical factors:
1. Continued use of old, poorly maintained or unsafe equipment, this is generally
accompanied by failure to have regular plant safety and preventive inspection of all

19. production facilities in accordance with a properly designed time schedule. For example:
If crane elevator cables are not regularly inspected and promptly replaced when
dangerously worn.
2. Unguarded or improper guarded machines or equipment, guards of improper height,
strength, mesh etc.
3. Unsafe process, mechanical, chemical, electrical etc.
4. Improper material handling system
5. Improper plant layout
6. Violation of prescribes safety practices
7. Unsafely clothed, no goggles, gloves and masks, smoking in no smoking areas, wearing
high heal shoes etc.
Environmental factors
1. Temperature and humidity: Low temperature causes shivering. Too high temperature
causes head-ache and sweating, this causes fatigue to the operator.
2. Defective and inadequate illumination: It causes glares, shadows, eye strain etc.
3. Presence of dust, fumes and smoke.
4. Harsh or dominating behavior of management or supervisors towards worker.
5. Overly fatigued worker: Excess fatigue may arise out of work assignment that may tax the
worker’s physical and mental powers
6. Excessively long duration of work, shift duty.
7. The type of leader ship adopted by the management in the organization
Human causes
Unsafe act: Unsafe act may be defined as the deviation from normal and correct
procedure or practice. It results in unnecessary exposure to hazards, or conduct minimizing
the degree of safety.
The following are unsafe acts:
1. Operating without authority
2. Operating or working at unsafe speed
3. Making safety devices unoperative
4. Taking unsafe position or posture
5. Failure to use personal protective devices
6. Improper use of tools
The unsafe personal factors
The unsafe personal factors are the mental or bodily characteristics which promote
unsafe acts. They are:
1. Improper attitude (disregard of instructions, failure to understand instructions, nervousness,
excitability)
2. Ignorance, forgetfulness, carelessness, day dreaming etc.
3. Lack of knowledge and skill (unaware of safe practices, unskilled)
4. Home environment
5. Mental worries

20. 6. Bodily defects (defective eye sight or hearing, weak heart etc.)
7. Feeling of job in security among workers.
8. Accident Proneness
ACCIDENT PRONENESS
It is a continuing tendency of a person to have more accidents as a result of his
persisting/inherent characteristics. The workers who are found consistently to experience
more accidents than the average workers are called as Accident Prone Workers. Accident
proneness is related to psychological and physiological make up of certain persons. The
causes of accident proneness may be unattentiveness, and day-dreaming, poor eyesight, too
much sensitiveness, lack of train in g and skill, unsafe behaviour etc.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
Accident prevention involves removal or control of hazards. It is both science and art.
It represents above all other things, control of human performance, machine performance and
physical environment. 'Control' here means prevention as well as correction of unsafe actions
and conditions. Accident prevention requires combination of efforts using:
(a) Psychology and philosophy, for human behaviours and attitudes and actions.
(b) Natural sciences.
(c) Engineering/Technology.
(d) Medicine, Hygiene etc.
The five basic reasons, for Accident Prevention can be:
(a) Basic Need for Safety
(b) Economic
(c) Productivity
(b) Humanitarian
(d) Legal
''An injury prevented is a benefaction (a gift), an injury compensated an apology ''.
Accident prevention is the work of eliminating the mechanical hazards of environment and
the unsafe actions of persons before the accident and the injury occurs.
It is concerned with the control of man performance, machine performance and
physical environment. Accident prevention is a vital factor in every industrial enterprise; if it
is ignored or practiced unskillfully, leads to needless human suffering and low business
quality.
Accident prevention brings about spectacular achievements in the saving of life,
compensation, continuity of services, increased production, decreased labour turnover and
improved labour management relations.
To be effective in hazard control programme, it must be planned and should be
logical. Programme objectives and safety policies need to be established. Responsibility to
the hazard control programme needs to be determined.

21. Accident prevention consists of four major steps. These are:
(a) Discover the causes. (b) Control environmental causes.
(c) Control behaviouristic causes. (d) Supplementary activities.
(a) Discovering accident causes: Before any steps can be taken it is essential to find out-
1. The causes of previous accidents and
2. The existing hazards that may cause accident unless corrected.
These activities are necessary not only before starting the actual procedures for
accident prevention but also afterwards, for they must be given continuous never ending
attention; otherwise the real efforts of accident prevention will get out of hand. The
supervisors report of accident investigation is the basis of all analysis of past accidents.
After finding the potential hazards by survey and inspection, analysis must be made to
select most important hazards to be attacked. The reasons for existence of hazard s must be
found when thee do not yield to corrections. Knowing and finding the hazards is only the
beginning. These must be corrected/ controlled.
(b) Controlling environmental causes: All the environmental causes have something to do
with machinery and equipment, with the things one can see and feel. A good layout and
working conditions play a major role in preventing many accidents. Improper physical and
mechanical environment suchas space, light, heat, arrangement, ventilation, materials, tools,
equipment, procedures, company policy, routing etc. make it awkward, difficult, in
convenient or impossible to follow safe practice rules.
1. The layout should be such that:
(a) Every e1nployee has enough space to move and operate.
(b) Passage ways between working p laces, roads, tracks etc. must never be obstructed.
2. The working area should prevent the inrush of cold air, hot air and draughts to the working
place. .
3. For adequate lighting, ventilation etc. the heights of working room should be about 3
meters.
4. Floors must be nonskid type satisfactorily plane and should have capacity to absorb sounds
vibration etc.
5. Doors and windows should be of adequate dimensions in order to make full use of natural
day light.
6. Select, purchase and make use of machines and process which will produce little noise.
7. Isolate and keep noise producing machines in separate close cabin.
8. Use suitable machine mounts to damp-down the vibration.
9. Use proper material handling equipment; it should also be promptly repaired and
adequately maintained.

22. (c) Controlling behaviouristic causes: These can be controlled through the application of:-
1. Job analysis (4) Discipline
2. Job training (5) Personal work
3. Supervision (6) Physical examination.
Proper placement of workers: In general itis much more difficult to control behaviouristic
causes than it is to control environmental causes. It can neither be seen nor felt. It is the result
of such complicated factors as heredity, emotion, diet and habits etc. For example, a wrong
attitude is an important behaviouristic causes that is more closely induced by worry. Many
workers worry about current finance problems or the possibility of poverty in old age or the
expenses on medical care. The activities such as pension plans, group health and accident
insurance and employees credit union have helped to relieve thousands of workers from some
of these worries and problems and helped in improving the company's accident record.

23. Behaviouristic causes of Accidents-How to eliminate them
Only discovering the corrective action or remedy is not enough. Unless the remedy is
successfully applied, all the previous steps will be useless.
The safety engineer has to direct authority for implementation of the remedies. Hence he
must :
(1) Prepare and present his recommendations and suggestions to management so that
management is convinced of the importance, and thus obtain active support.
(ii) Establish safety organisation.
(iii) Create enthusiasm and co-operation at all levels.
(d) Supplementary Activities: The workers should be properly trained to observe safety
rules. If necessary discipline is to be strictly enforced, wide publicity should be given
through:
1. Posters, 2. Booklets and other literature
3. Movies, 4. Film strips,
5. Contests, 6. Meetings,
7. Committees, 8.Suggestion system
9. Employee magazines, Bulletins 10. Safety books, safety training.

24. COST OF ACCIDENT
Often the extent of the cost of accident is not evident and hence not appreciated.
Usually, only "direct costs which represent compensation and medical expenses to be borne
by the management are taken into consideration when computing costs due to accidents. The
hidden or 'indirect costs' to the management, the injured and society at large ignored every
often.
COST OF THE INJURED
The injured workers themselves are the very heavy losers. Their actual losses in
money may not be as great as employer's but he can ill -afford to withstand his share of
financial burden. Where he is not covered by any benefit schemes of the management or any
insurance, he will have to bear himself the loss of wages, the cost of medical expenses and
the loss due to the any permanent disablement. Even when there are insurance of benefit
scheme, the compensation and medical benefits are rarely adequate. Further no costing can be
done to compensate for the suffering, pain, worry and effects due to incapacitation.
COST OF MANAGEMENT
According to detailed study carried out by Heinrich the indirect costs which
present all the incidental costs due to an accent except those relating to medical expenses
and compensation, work out on an average to about four time the direct costs. Some
studies report indirect costs to be even six times the direct costs. While these ratios
indicate the average pattern, individual accidents could be very costly particularly when
the accidents are serious or result in heavy damage to equipment.
Direct Costs
The direct costs of accidents comprise of (a) the compensation paid to the injured
person; and (b) medical expenses on his treatment since both these are generally covered
under insurance, the cost of accident on these accounts are also commonly as Insured Cost.
Indirect Costs
The following items contribute towards the indirect of uninsured costs of accidents
and can be calculated in terms of money unlike the other less tangible losses such as the
effect of accidents on morale etc.
 Lost time of injured employees: These are the wages paid for the time lost by the
injured worker other than those paid under the workman's compensation law.
 Lost time of other employees: After an accident all employees of the section op to
watch, assist or talk about it. Some time is also lost as the equipment damages in
accident are required or the output or aid of the injured person is required.
 Lost time of Foreman, Supervisors or other executives: Time spent on activities such
as investigating the accident, preparing reports, settling claims arising from it,
Selecting training or booking in new worker etc.
 Cost of time spent by the first aid attendant and hospital staff of factory
 Cost of damage to material or equipment. This should also include the cost incurred in
back in order the material or equipment which may be thrown into a state of disorder.
 Incidental cost due to interference with production like loss of profit on contracts
cancelled or orders lost

25.  Costs under employee welfare and benefit systems: These will be other than those
paid as compensation.
 Cost due to continuance of wages to injured persons in full: The output of injured
worker is below normal for some period after he rejoins work.
 Cost due to loss of profit on the injured worker's productivity and on idle machines.
 Overhead cost over injured worker: These are expenses for the light, heat, rent and
other items with continue over while the injured worker is away from work.
COST OF SOCIETY
Industrial accidents place a heavy burden on Society It is ultimately the Society
suffers all losses. For example, taking economical considerations alone, the financial losses
of direct and indirect costs by the management will have to be met consumers in terms of
increased cost of products. Further, it is society, which again, ultimately bears the financial
burden of maintenance of all the disabled employees and their dependents. Looking at it from
this board perspective, every citizen bears a proportion of the cost of accidents and knowing
heavy costs, every effort should be made prevent accidents.
DOMINO THEORY
The domino theory developed by H. W. Heinrich, a safety engineer and pioneer in the
field of industrial accident safety.
Heinrich’s Domino Theory states that “accidents result from a chain of sequential
events, representing like a line of dominoes falling over. When one of the dominoes falls, it
triggers the next one, and the next…but removing a key factor (such as an unsafe condition
or an unsafe act) prevents the start of the chain reaction”.
According to Heinrich, an "accident" is one factor in a sequence that may lead to an
injury.
• The factors can be visualized as a series of dominoes standing on edge; when one
falls, the linkage required for a chain reaction is completed.
• Each of the factors is dependent on the preceding factor.

26. Heinrich’s Dominos – The Process
1. A personal injury (the final domino) occurs only as a result of an accident.
2. An accident occurs only as a result of a personal or mechanical hazard.
3. Personal and mechanical hazards exist only through the fault of careless persons or
poorly designed or improperly maintained equipment.
4. Faults of persons are inherited or acquired as a result of their social environment or
acquired by ancestry.
5. The environment is where and how a person was raised and educated.
Heinrich posits five metaphorical dominoes labelled with accident causes. They are
1. Social Environment and Ancestry,
2. Fault of Person,
3. Unsafe Act or Mechanical or Physical Hazard (unsafe condition),
4. Accident, and
5. Injury
1) Social Environment and Ancestry: This first domino in the sequence deals with worker
personality. Heinrich explains that undesirable personality traits, such as stubbornness, greed,
and recklessness can be “passed along through inheritance” or develop from a person’s social
environment, and that both inheritance and environment (what we usually refer to now as
“nature” and “nurture”) contribute to Faults of Person.
2) Fault of Person: The second domino also deals with worker personality traits. Heinrich
explains that inborn or obtained character flaws such as bad temper, ignorance, and
recklessness contribute at one remove to accident causation. According to Heinrich, natural
or environmental flaws in the worker’s family or life cause these secondary personal defects,
which are themselves contributors to Unsafe Acts, or the existence of Unsafe Conditions.
3) Unsafe Act and/or Unsafe Condition: The third domino deals with Heinrich’s direct cause
of incidents. As mentioned above, Heinrich defines these factors as things like “starting
machinery without warning and absence of rail guards.” Heinrich felt that unsafe acts and
unsafe conditions were the central factor in preventing incidents, and the easiest causation
factor to remedy, a process which he likened to lifting one of the dominoes out of the line.
4) Accident: Of accidents, Heinrich says, “The occurrence of a preventable injury is the
natural culmination of a series of events or circumstances which invariably occur in a fixed
and logical order.” He defines accidents as, “events such as falls of persons, striking of
persons by flying objects are typical accidents that cause injury.”
5) Injury: Injury results from accidents, and some types of injuries Heinrich specifies in his
“Explanation of Factors” are cuts and broken bones.
Corrective Actions in Sequence that has to be followed according to Heinrich’s Domino
Theory includes 3 “E” s
• Engineering
– Control hazards through product design or process change
• Education
– Train workers regarding all facets of safety
– Impose on management that attention to safety pays off
• Enforcement

27. – Insure that internal and external rules, regulations, and standard
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY TRAINING
With an emphasis on each trainee's role and responsibility in developing a more
complete knowledge of, and appreciation for, workplace safety, the industrial safety training
program provides employees with specific procedures for handling various materials,
operating different kinds of machinery, and performing various tasks safely while at the same
time ensuring maximum organizational productivity.
Employers must have an overall safety program including relative site specific safety
information where applicable. The safety training program should cover topics such as:
• Accident prevention and safety promotion
• Safety compliance
• Accident and emergency response
• Personal protective equipment
• Safety practices
• Equipment and machinery
• Chemical and hazardous materials safety
• Workplace hazards
• Employee involvement
Those who are new on the job have a higher rate of accidents and injuries than more
experienced workers. If ignorance of specific job hazards and of proper work practices is
even partly to blame for this higher injury rate, then training will help to provide a solution.
The Management should evaluate or verify that employees comprehend the training
given to them. This means that the training to be given must have established goals and
objectives regarding what are to be accomplished. Subsequent to the training, an evaluation
would be conducted to verify that the employees understood the subjects presented or
acquired the desired skills. If the established goals and objectives of the training program
were not achieved as expected, the employer then would revise the training program to make
it more effective, or conduct more frequent refresher training or some combination of these.
Benefits of a training program
An effective training program can reduce the number of injuries and deaths, property
damage, legal liability, illnesses, workers' compensation claims, and missed time from work.
An effective safety training program can also help a trainer keep the required mandated safety
training courses organized and up-to-date.
Safety training classes help establish a safety culture in which employees themselves
help promote proper safety procedures while on the job. It is important that new employees
be properly trained and embraces the importance of workplace safety as it is easy for
seasoned workers to negatively influence the new hires. That negative influence however, can
be purged (removed) with the establishment of new, hands-on, innovative effective safety
training which will ultimately lead to an effective safety culture. The role of training in

28. developing and maintaining effective hazard control activities is a proven and successful
method of intervention.
An employer is required to train employees in the safety and health aspects of their
jobs. It is the employer’s responsibility to limit certain job assignments to employees who are
“certified,” “competent,” or “qualified”—meaning that they have had special previous
training, in or out of the workplace. The term “designated” personnel means selected or
assigned by the employer or the employer’s representative as being qualified to perform
specific duties.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA’s) training guidelines follow a model
that consists of:
A. Determining if Training is needed
B. Identifying Training Needs
C. Identifying Goals and Objectives
D. Developing learning activities
E. Conducting the training
F. Evaluating program effectiveness
G. Improving the program
A. Determining if training is needed
Training is an effective solution to problems such as employee lack of understanding,
unfamiliarity with equipment, incorrect execution of a task, lack of attention, or lack of
motivation. Sometimes, however, the situation cannot be mitigated (make bad) through the
use of training and other methods, such as the establishment of engineering controls, may be
needed to ensure worker safety.
B. Identifying training needs
A job safety analysis and/or a job hazard analysis should be conducted with every
employee so that it is understood what is needed to do the job safely and what hazards are
associated with the job. A safety trainer may observe the worker in his/her environment to
adequately assess the worker's training needs. Certain employees may need extra training due
to the hazards associated with their particular job. These employees should be trained not
only on how to perform their job safely but also on how to operate within a hazardous
environment.
C. Identifying Goals and Objectives
It is important for the Trainer to identify necessary training material. It is equally
important that the trainer identify training material that is not needed to avoid unnecessary
training and frustration from their trainees.
At the beginning of every safety training session the trainer should clearly iterate the
objectives of the class. The objectives should be delivered using action oriented words like:
the employee... "will be able to demonstrate" or "will know when to"... which will help the
audience understand what he/she should know by the end of the class or what to information

29. to understand during the class. Clearly established objectives also help focus the evaluation
process on those skill sets and knowledge requirements necessary to perform the job safely.
D. Developing Learning Activities
Training should be hands-on and simulate the job as closely as possible. Trainers can
use instructional aids such as charts, manuals, PowerPoint presentations, and films. Trainers
can also include role-playing, live demonstrations, and round-table group discussions to
stimulate employee participation. Games like "what's wrong with this picture" (it is usually
good to use pictures of situations found at their specific location)".
E. Conducting the Training
Trainers should provide employees with an overview of the material to be learned and
relate the training to the employees' experiences. Employers should also reinforce what the
employees have learned by summarizing the program's objectives and key points of training.
At the beginning of the training program, the trainer should show the employees why the
material is important and relevant to their jobs. Employees are more likely to pay attention
and apply what they've learned if they know the benefits of the training.
F. Evaluating Program Effectiveness
Evaluation will help employers or supervisors determine the amount of learning
achieved and whether an employee’s performance has improved on the job. Among the
methods of evaluating training are:
(1) Student opinion: Questionnaires or informal discussions with employees can help
employers determine the relevance and appropriateness of the training program
(2) Supervisors’ observations: Supervisors are in good positions to observe an employee’s
performance both before and after the training and note improvements or changes
(3) Workplace improvements: The ultimate success of a training program may be changes
throughout the workplace that result in reduced injury or accident rates
(4) Formal assessments: Practical and written exams also assist in evaluating understanding
of training material. For example, for a lift-truck operator, a written and a practical exam
would identify areas of training that may need to be revisited. Furthermore administering
a pre-test and post-test will establish a knowledge base line or reference point to measure
training effectiveness.
G. Improving the Program
As evaluations are reviewed, it may be evident the training was not adequate and that
the employees did not reach the expected level of knowledge and skill. As the program is
evaluated, the trainer should ask:
(1) If a job analysis was conducted, was it accurate?
(2) Was any critical feature of the job overlooked?
(3) Were the important gaps in knowledge and skill included?
(4) Was material already known by the employees intentionally omitted?
(5) Were the instructional objectives presented clearly and concretely?
(6) Did the objectives state the level of acceptable performance that was expected of

30. employees?
(7) Did the learning activity simulate the actual job?
(8) Was the learning activity appropriate for the kinds of knowledge and skills required
on the job?
(9) When the training was presented, was the organization of the material and its
meaning made clear?
(10) Were the employees motivated to learn?
(11) Were the employees allowed to participate actively in the training process?
(12) Was the employer’s evaluation of the program thorough?
SAFETY AND COMMUNICATION AND MOTIVATION
Safety communication comes in varying forms including policies and procedures,
performance statistics, hazard and incident reports, workplace inductions, risk assessments,
and training. Effective communication mechanisms are critical to engage staff in safety
activities, to gain cooperation and support, and to maintain a positive safety culture. These
mechanisms need to complement the practical and technical safety strategies. Clear and
constructive safety communication can improve knowledge and understanding that prevents
at-risk behaviours and enhances safe work practices.
Communication allows people, tasks, processes and systems to interact purposively
and co-operatively to achieve health, safety and environment (HSE) objectives. The way we
communicate about safety will influence whether or not people will understand and
participate in the safety process, and the language we use will often determine whether the
process is accepted or rejected.
Merely training people to work safely will often not be sufficient. It may be necessary
to provide forms of motivation and publicity to encourage them to take responsibility for their
own health and safety, and that of others. The methods used will need to create an
atmosphere that promotes safe behaviour, and reminds and reinforces the benefits for
employees and the organisation of working safely.
In a system of open and two-way communication, management provides employees
with relevant information on hazards and risks associated with the organization’s operations
to build understanding on how to work safely. They listen and act on the concerns of
employees. People will contribute more effectively in an environment that provides a frame
work for consultation and communication that creates the conditions where individuals are
encouraged and prepared to report hazards, incident s and near-misses. Involving employees
in decisions about changes and responding to their concerns helps to establish common goals
between management and employees, and motivates them to work safely. Staff involvement
in the HSE decision-making process is a characteristic of a positive safety culture and has
also been recognized as being fundamental to the successful implementation and
sustainability of a HSE Management System.

31. MODULE III
Safety management techniques: - Safety inspection-Safety sampling technique-Safety
audit- Safety survey-Incident recall technique-Job safety analysis-Damage control-
Risk management.
Involvement in safety: - Role of management-role of supervisors-role of workmen-
role of unions- role of government
SAFETY INSPECTION
Effective safety and health inspections are one of the most important
incident/accident prevention tools in a company's safety and health program. Using
properly trained inspectors in a planned inspection program will reduce incidents and
property damage. An effective safety inspection program will improve worker
communication, company morale and, over time, save the employer money.
Safety inspections are aimed primarily at finding and recording unsafe
conditions. This narrow focus tends to ignore other causes of incidents, such as unsafe
actions and personal factors. In addition, workers and supervisors are generally well
aware of the inspection team’s arrival a day or two before the inspection. This
warning system sometimes creates a preparatory atmosphere before the inspectors
arrive. That means the inspectors often observe the workplace and those within it only
on a superficial basis. The result is that safety inspectors rarely see the actual
situations that are causing the incidents, injuries and property damage. In order for
your inspection team to be effective, they must inspect the workplace in its day-to-day
status. They must see the activities and the conditions in which incidents, injuries and
property damage occur.
The primary focus of this program should be accident prevention, through the
maintenance of safe working conditions and the removal of any potential hazards that
arise in the workplace. Good inspection programs will also identify the “items to be
inspected and then set standards to be maintained in the workplace by supervision and
workers”. The program should include a system that will record inspections done and
ensure that any problems identified are corrected by a responsible person who has the
ability to carry out the necessary changes. A follow-up system, through the safety
committee and management, should be employed to ensure that all items are followed
up and corrected. Once the inspection program is in place, the safety program should
provide a means of monitoring it to see if trends arise that may be contributing to the
company's accident or injury problems.

32. General requirements of the inspection program
1. Who establishes the inspection program?
Every employer must ensure that regular inspections are made of all
workplaces.
2. What must be inspected in the workplace?
Buildings, structures, grounds, excavations, tools, equipment, machinery, and
work methods and practices.
3. How often?
Inspections must be done at intervals that will prevent the development of
unsafe working conditions.
There are various types of inspections that must be done in the workplace.
Some will be done on a daily basis by operators before using equipment and
machinery, others are ongoing by supervisors each time they pass through the
workplace. Some inspections will be done after an accident or the purchase of new
equipment. Although this workbook is concerned with planned inspections, the other
types must be included in the overall inspection program.

33. Safety Inspectors
1. Management
Management should, whenever possible, show their commitment to the
program by being involved in the inspection process. When management becomes
part of the regular inspection team, it will show commitment to the company safety
program.
Department managers should be aware of the conditions that exist in the
workplace and the various procedures necessary to carry out the work process.
Management should review inspection reports and ensure that proper action is taken to
correct any hazards that are reported.
2. Supervisors
Continuous inspections are generally done by supervisors and foremen each
time they pass through their area of responsibility. Supervisors are accountable for the
safety of workers under their control. Therefore, they should be constantly on the
lookout for any hazard that might arise in the work areas. Supervisors should ensure
that workers are carrying out preoperational checks when and where they are required.
In some companies, additional responsibility is also assigned to safety captains and /or
other workers who are on the alert for unsafe conditions and actions.
3. Workers
Although we have referred to workers as safety committee members and as part
of the planned safety inspection team(s), we have not identified one important part of
a workers' responsibility. This is the pre-job inspection. It should be one of the major
parts of a company's accident prevention efforts. Workers must inspect their work
areas for hazards to ensure that they will not be injured as a result of their job. This
may mean nothing more than watching out for hazards or it may mean a detailed pre-
job inspection checking out equipment before use.
4. Qualified Inspectors
Although we have indicated who will do inspections in compliance with
OH&S Regulation, we have not yet considered what expertise and training they
should have to carry out effective safety inspections. Inspections should be done by
employees who are familiar with the work process and the areas they are inspecting.
They must be given instruction in the inspection system and be made aware of the
standards that have been established in the areas they are inspecting.
Frequency of Inspections
The following is an overview of various inspections that should be considered
when developing a safety inspections system:

34. Planned inspections are to be done on a regular basis as specified by OH&S
Regulations. Although the term "regular" does not specify a time period, these
inspections are generally done in accordance with the hazards associated with a
particular industry and its potential for serious incidents. An example of a low hazard
industry might be an office which does its planned inspections on a 30-day basis.
However, a higher hazard industry such as logging might be doing planned
inspections every week or 10 days. Planned inspections are also the time to check on
other persons who have inspection responsibilities to ensure that they are being done
according to regulation and established standards.
Spot or Special Inspections should be done by management, supervisors and
safety committee members from time to time. The purpose of a spot inspection may
be to follow up on corrective action after an incident or accident. Other reasons may
be the installation of a new piece of equipment or a change in a work process or
procedure, which may prompt an update to the inspection checklists or guidelines.
SAFETY SAMPLING
Safety sampling is a method by which management studies people and
processes with the aim of making a safer workplace. This is accomplished by
identifying, detecting, and reducing the unsafe acts people and processes exhibit prior
to accidents.
Sampling is the most important step in assuring that good quality aggregates
are being used. Since a sample is just a small portion of the total material, the
importance that the sample be representative of the material being delivered cannot be
overemphasized. Any test performed on the sample, regardless of how carefully and
accurately performed, is worthless unless the sample is truly representative of the
material offered for use on the project.
Safety sampling measures how often (agreed-to) standard practices (identified
‘safe’ or minimal risk behaviours) are used.
The advantages of safety sampling are:
• It is a sensitive and predictive indication of health and safety performance,
enabling a workgroup to measure reliably whether safety is improving in a
matter of days or weeks rather than months or years.
• It is a positive measure, focussing on how good rather than how poor safety is.
• It is a direct measure of safety performance, focussing on how well personnel
are complying with their own agreed safety responsibilities.
• The results of sampling can be used as powerful performance feedback through
its use of standard practices by increasing the use of standard practices by
positive reinforcement.

35. • It involves all workers and achieves ‘ownership’. Management can recommend
safety programs but unless everyone embraces safety and their own daily
responsibility for it, the programs won’t work.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
A.Probability sampling
1.Simple Random sampling
2.Systematic sampling
3.Stratified sampling
4.Cluster sampling
5.Multi- stage sampling
B. Non- Probability sampling
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgment sampling
3. Quota sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Each individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance,
• Each individual has the same probability of being chosen at any stage during
the sampling process
Simple random
Systematic Sampling
This is a special kind of random sampling in which the selection of the first unit of the
sample from the population is based on randomization.
The remaining units of the sample are selected from the population at fixed intervals
of n, where n is the sample size

36. Stratified Sampling
• The population is divided into specified set of strata
• Members of each group will have similar attributes
• Members between strata have dissimilar attributes
Cluster Sampling
• Total population is divided into clusters
• Members in each cluster are heterogeneous
• Different clusters are similar to each other
• Each cluster can be treated as small population
• Any one of the clusters is randomly selected and all the units of the
cluster are selected
SAFETY AUDIT
Audit is a systematic and, wherever possible, independent examination to
determine whether activities and related results conform to planned arrangements and
whether these arrangements are implemented effectively and are suitable to achieve
the organization's policy and objectives.
A safety audit enables the assessment of safety standards in the workplace. It
also helps to identify unsafe work practices and procedures. Since the majority of
industrial accidents are caused by the unsafe practices of personnel, reacting to
information gathered from audits can prevent accidents. Each major industry should
have an audit program involving regular audits concentrating on safety in plant,
machinery, equipment and procedures.
Objectives of safety audit
• Appraise existing plants on occupational safety, hygiene and health aspects to
determine where improvements could be made.
• Review of drawings and other specifications for new facilities and equipment
to ensure they meet safety, hygiene and health requirements and safe practices.
• Review compliance with Municipal Regulations.
• Identify hazards and establish preventive and corrective measures.

37. • Assess company policy, responsibility, supervision and safety program
enforcement and effectiveness of hazard control.
• Appraise the safety performance of the factory.
• Assess risks and plan for emergencies.
Steps of safety audit
A Safety audit team comprising of a leader and several members shall be formed. The
exact size will be determined by the
1. Time span of audit
2. Man power availability
3. Plant process and size
The audit team may consist of
1. Consultants. (Third party agency)
2. General Manager/Works Manager
3. Safety Manager/Officer
4. Safety Engineer/Officer
5. Supervisor/Engineer of individual plant.
6. Medical Officer
7. Officer of Occupational Health and Safety Section
Audit scope
The audit scope will be determined by the public Health and Safety
Department. An audit may involve a single industrial process/section of factory or an
entire industrial facility or to a particular scope specified. The management may
conduct additional safety audits in addition to the requirements made by the public
Health and Safety Department.

38. Collection of Data
The primary data on plant operations is vital information for a safety audit
program. The types of information that will be useful in conducting the audit are as
follows:
Design information
• Plan, elevation, cross-section of buildings and layout of plant and machinery .
• Process flow charts
• Raw materials used.
• Process details and operating manuals.
• Plant, machinery and equipment details
• Plant designs including egress and exits.
Production process
• Job descriptions/functions of personnel, Operating procedures.
• Maintenance activity/periodical testing of plant and equipment.
• Hazardous processes/activities.
• Physical, chemical and biological hazards in various activities.
• Material safety data sheets.
• Manpower involved.
• Identification of each type of workplace.
Safety Activities
• Management commitment to Safety - Safety Policy - Accident Prevention
Programs.
• Personal protection and medical examination.
• Accident statistics/occupational illness/safety performance.
• Safety control measures/procedures.
• Safety training.
• Risk assessment/safety reports.
SAFETY SURVEY
Safety Survey - a systematic review, to recommend improvements where
needed, to provide assurance of the safety of current activities, and to confirm
conformance with applicable parts of the safety management system. A safety survey
is an organization’s internal systematic evaluation to check safe operations and
practices are in place in workplaces and facilities. It is an opportunity to suggest
improvements on safety issues and confirm intended safety regulations are being
complied with. It is an integral part of the safety management system.

39. The main reason of safety survey is to bridge the gap between perception and
reality. They differ from the general safety inspections or audits conducted by the
government or other legislative bodies. Surveys are conducted regularly to detect
unsafe conditions due to malpractices, mishandling of equipment, improper stowage
of materials, poor housekeeping, workplace hazards, fire hazards, machine wear and
tear, unsafe and unauthorized activities, and no or improper use of personal protective
equipment.
These surveys collect feedback about the quality of the company’s safety
program directly from the employees. Surveys of this type provide a leading indicator
of safety program improvement.
Safety surveys may include the following points:
• Building Conditions: Structural safety, housekeeping, unobstructed exits, fire
protection, and electrical items
• Equipment: Machine guarding, wear-and-tear on joints and connections
• Health Conditions: Sufficiency of light and air, temperature and humidity
levels, noise pollution, ergonomics, and the presence of slip, trip and fall
hazards
• Procedures and Practices: Standard operating procedure is in place, safety
practices are adhered to, personal protective equipment is used, and procedures
for preventing exposure to harmful substances are followed
• Personal Acts: The presence of unsafe and unauthorized activity, talking while
working, mindlessness, etc.
Benefits of Using Surveys
 The surveys give a more accurate and timely indicator of safety program
quality than other safety metrics.
 They sort strengths and weaknesses and automatically create a prioritized
action plan for improvement.
 They add to company employee involvement initiatives.
 They set a baseline against which to measure future improvement.
 They are relatively straightforward and non-intrusive compared with other
measurement tools and interventions.
INCIDENT RECALL
Incident recall is an information gathering technique whereby employees
(participants) describe situations they have personally witnessed involving good and
bad practices and safe and unsafe conditions. Such studies, whether by interview or
questionnaire, have a proven capacity to generate a greater quantify of relevant,

40. useful reports than other monitoring techniques, so much so as to suggest that
their presence is an indispensable criterion of an excellent safety program.
The purpose of the critical incident recall technique is to identify and take
action on the hazards in an operation that have serious injury potential, utilizing the
knowledge of skilled safety practitioners and of the work staff. In applying the
technique, skilled observers interview a sampling of persons, eliciting their recall of
"critical" incidents that have occurred that exposed them to operational or physical
hazards that gave them cause to be concerned, whether the incidents did or did not
result in injury.
For this process to succeed, it must be recognized that the people doing the
work are a valuable resource in identifying hazards and risks because of their
extensive knowledge of how the work gets done. Critical incidents identified are
analysed and classified with respect to the significance of the risks presented by the
hazards noted, with priorities being set for remedial action.
The critical incident recall technique is based on the idea that in almost every
accident that results in injury, there will have been a number of prior ‘near misses’. If
we can identify the near misses prior to an accident involving serious injury and take
preventive action the accidental injury in the organization can be reduced.
There are two basic elements of the technique
a) Participant observation of critical events
b) Critical incident interviewing to identify critical incidents
a) Participant Observation
This involves selecting certain members of the work group to perform their
normal work tasks whilst at the same time, acting as observers of critical incidents.
Some training of these personnel is required and it will be found that certain
personality types are more suited to this role than others.
b) Critical Incident Interviewing
This technique is quite simple; it involves interviews on a 'one-to-one' basis
between the person collecting the critical incident data and employees in the
department. All statements must be kept confidential on a 'no-blame' basis; therefore
employees must have confidence in the interviewer. During the interview, the
employee is requested to recall how many incidents with a potential for serious injury
they have been aware of in a designated period (eg. past 12 months). A brief

41. description is taken of each incident (no names) and the frequency of occurrence is
noted. The interviews are then collated and the data is analysed to determine
appropriate preventative action. This technique can also be used on a routine basis to
determine whether preventative action has been successful.
JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS (JSA)
JSA is a procedure used to review job methods at the design stage itself to
ensure safe working. However, it may also be used successfully to uncover hazards
that may have developed after production started or that resulted from change in work
procedures.
PRODCURE
The procedure of job safety analysis is simple and consists of 4 basic steps.
Selecting the job
Jobs with potential for more frequent accidents, severity of injury and new jobs
in which the accident potentials is unknown should be selected first.
Breaking the job down
The Job should be broken down to basic steps in the hazards in the jobs proper
sequence. Descriptions or each step should give the idea of want is being done. A job
safety breakdown sheet giving the following 4 heads is used for analysing the hazards
in the jobs.
Step No Operation Hazard Precautions
Identifying the Hazards
The person examines all possibilities of accidents in each step. He should note
down these hazards under the second column of break down sheet. For identifying the
hazards .the should watch the operations as many times as may be required and also
have discussions with the operators concerned and others who have knowledge of the
job.
Developing Solutions
The solutions to hazards in the job may be worked out by:
 Finding a new method or procedure of doing the job.
 Reducing the necessity or frequency of doing a job that is hazardous, and
 Changing the physical conditions that create the hazards.

42. After the precautions to be taken in each step are developed, these safety
precautions are to be incorporated in the job or process sheets. Job safety instruction
sheets containing safe - guard and safe procedures to be adopted in different jobs ,
particularly the hazardous ones could also be made out and is issued to the supervisors
and operators and necessary training imparted to them, so that the y could follow
correctly the procedures of safe- guards laid down. If accidents are happening in spite
of complying with procedures laid down based on job safety analysis, the analysis,
obviously need further review.
Before actually beginning the job safety analysis, take a look at the general conditions
under which the job is performed and develop a checklist. Below are some sample
questions you might ask.
• Are there materials on the floor that could trip a worker?
• Is lighting adequate?
• Are there any live electrical hazards at the jobsite?
• Are there any chemical, physical, biological, or radiation .hazards associated
with the job or likely to develop?
• Are tools including hand tools, machines, and equipment In need of repair?
• Is there excessive noise in the work area, hindering worker communication or
causing hearing loss?
• Are job procedures known and are they followed or modified?
• Are emergency exits clearly marked?
• Are trucks or motorized vehicles properly equipped with brakes, overhead
guards, backup signals, horns, steering gear, and identification, as necessary?
• Are all employees operating vehicles and equipment properly trained and
authorized?
• Are employees wearing proper personal protective equipment for the jobs they
are performing?
• Have any employees complained of headaches, breathing problems, dizziness,
or strong odours?
• Is ventilation adequate, especially in confined or enclosed spaces?
• Have tests been made for oxygen deficiency and toxic fumes in confined
spaces before entry?

43. • Are work stations and tools designed to prevent back and wrist injuries?
• Are employees trained in the event of a fire, explosion, or toxic gas release?
RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk Management is the systematic application of management policies,
procedures and practices to the tasks of analysing, evaluating and controlling risk.
Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks
followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize,
monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to
maximize the realization of opportunities.
Risks can come from uncertainty in threats from project failures (at any phase
in design, development, production, or sustainment life-cycles), legal liabilities,
accidents, natural causes and disasters as well as deliberate attack from an adversary
(dispute), or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause.
• Risk Identification, is formalised after significant hazards have been identified.
Hazard Analysis includes hazard identification, classification and assessment of
associated mitigation techniques to establish whether hazards can be avoided.
• Risk Estimation, or the calculation of risk, is identifying the risk level by finding the
frequency of hazard event. A common to determine a risk level is by combining the
frequency of hazard event with and severity of associated consequences.
• Risk Evaluation determines whether risk is tolerable or warrants a response.
• Risk Response includes:
 Avoidance or elimination of hazard.

44.  Retention, whereby risk falls below a given level or range, deemed acceptable
or tolerable level. No further response is necessary.
 Transfer of the risk to a third party (i.e. employing subcontractor or insurance
premiums)
 Reduction of the severity or frequency associated with given hazard.
This may produce a residual risk that lies within a tolerable zone
• Risk Monitoring ensures the responses are performing adequately throughout the
lifecycle of the system, facility or activity. This can be achieved using audits and / or
retrospective evaluation analyses.
INVOLVEMENT IN SAFETY
Promoting safety in the industry is a joint venture of management, government,
worker, safety supervisor, unions.
ROLE OF MANAGEMENT
Management commitment is the driving force for organizing and controlling
activities within an organization. A safety and health program will be effective when
management views a safe and healthy work environment as fundamental and applies
its commitment to protect employees as vigorously as its commitment to
organizational goals and strategies.
OSHA recommends the following actions be taken to show management commitment
to the health and safety program:
• State the worksite safety and health policy clearly so all personnel can
understand its importance in relation to other organizational values.
• Establish and communicate the goal. Objectives should be clearly defined so all
levels of personnel understand the desired results and the required measures to
achieve those results.
• Involve employees in decisions that affect their safety and health. If involved,
employees will likely commit their insight and energy to achieving the
program’s goal and objectives.
• Provide visible top management support. Visibility gives employees the sense
that the top-level management cares and is truly committed to the safety of the
employees.

45. • Assign and communicate responsibility to all personnel levels. Everyone
should know what performance is expected and the consequences if
performance levels are not achieved.
• Give those assigned responsibilities the authority to act on situations that affect
the goal and objectives.
• Hold employees accountable to meet their responsibilities so that essential
tasks will be performed.
• Review the safety program periodically to evaluate problems within the
program and revise the objectives if the goal is not met.
ROLE OF SUPERVISOR
The supervisor is the one person who can take immediate, direct action to make
sure that his or her work area is safe and healthful for all employees. The primary role
of a supervisor in a safety program is to assure employee safety and health and to
protect the company needs.
Responsibilities of supervisor
• Detecting and correcting unsafe working conditions and practices.
• Training subordinates in proper procedures and company safety rules.
• Ensuring that each subordinate knows, understands, and follows safety rules
specifically pertaining to his or her job.
• Writing policies, procedures, and/or safe work practices.
• Completing proper reports on all accidents and incidents.
• Keeping informed of new developments impacting them and their subordinates.
• Safety motivation.
• Supervisors are also the best choice to investigate small accidents and incidents
involving their subordinates and participate with more experienced
investigators on more serious accidents
• Supervisors must ensure that ‘suitable and sufficient’ risk assessments are
undertaken and recorded for all activities with significant risk, and that any
measures decided upon in the assessment are discussed fully with those
involved in the work and that all control measures are properly implemented.
• Supervisors must ensure that all the equipment under their control is properly
maintained in a safe condition, and taken out of service if a fault is identified.

46. ROLE OF WORKER
It is important that workers participate in the risk assessment. They know the
problems and the details of what really happens when they perform their tasks or
activities, so they should be involved in the assessment. Their practical knowledge or
competence is also often needed to develop workable preventive measures.
Workers’ participation is not only a right, it is fundamental to make the
employers’ occupational health and safety management effective and efficient.
Employee’s responsibilities include the following:
• Responsibility to work in compliance with OH&S acts and regulations
• Responsibility to use personal protective equipment and clothing as directed by
the employer
• Responsibility to report workplace hazards and dangers
• Responsibility to work in a manner as required by the employer and uses the
prescribed safety equipment.
Workers and/or their representatives have the right/duty to:
 Be consulted on arrangements for the organisation of the risk assessment and
for the appointment of those undertaking the task
 Participate in the risk assessment
 Alert their supervisors or employers regarding perceived risks
 Report any changes in the workplace
 Be informed of the risks to their safety and health and of the measures
necessary to eliminate or reduce these risks
 Be involved in the process of deciding on the preventive and protective
measures to be put in place
 Ask the employer to put in place appropriate measures and to submit proposals
to minimise hazards or to remove the danger at source
 Cooperate to help the employer to ensure that the working environment is safe
 Be trained/receive instructions on the measures to be put in place

47.  Take care as far as possible of their safety and health and that of others persons
affected by their acts in accordance with the training and the instructions given
by the employer
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
The Ministry’s goal is to ensure safe, fair and harmonious workplaces
General responsibilities of governments for occupational health and safety include:
• Enforcement of occupational health and safety legislation
• Workplace inspections
• Dissemination of information
• Promotion of training, education and research
• Resolution of OH&S disputes.
• Focus the Ministry’s role on setting, communicating and enforcing fair and
reasonable workplace standards while encouraging greater self-reliance in
achieving these standards in the workplace
• Establish fair workplace standards that are flexible enough to respond to the
demands of the new global economy, and which encourage new investment and
job creation
• Remain firmly committed to a strong enforcement program, aimed at helping
those employees in greatest need, and
• Improving service to the Ministry’s customers
ROLE OF UNIONS
A trade union is an organization based on membership of employees in various
trades, occupations and professions, whose major focus is the representation of its
members at the workplace and in the wider society. It particularly seeks to advance its
interest through the process of rule-making and collective bargaining.
Trade unions should therefore:
1. Where appropriate, maintain jointly with management and other trade unions
effective arrangements at industry or local levels for negotiation, consultation,
and communication and for settling grievances and disputes;
2. Take all reasonable steps to ensure that their officials and members observe all
arrangements;
3. Provide for the training of delegates in the scope of their powers and duties and
the day-to-day operation of the unions;
4. Provide adequate educational opportunities for the advancement of their
members;

48. 5. Be properly staffed to serve the needs of their members, and allow for effective
lines of communication between such staff and the rank and file membership;
6. Encourage members to take part in their activities by adopting such means as
would best allow them to do so, including the compilation and distribution of
information;
7. Make available information pertaining to the rules and policies of the union;
8. Provide adequate advisory services for their members and in particular assist
them to understand the terms and conditions of their employment; and
9. Identify trends in industrial relations to help their members to anticipate and
keep abreast of change.”

49. FACTORS IMPEDING
SAFETY

50. Human error
Four types of error that can lead to accidents:
1. Errors of omission: failing to carry out a task
2. Errors of commission: making an incorrect action, e.g.., a health
worker giving someone the wrong medicine
3. Timing errors: working too quickly, working too slowly
4. Sequence errors: doing things in the wrong order

51. Organisational error
• The selection of inappropriate staff
• Poor working procedure
• Duty rotas that lead to fatigue
• An organisational climate that creates
poor morale
• Inadequate equipment for the task
• Inadequate levels of training.

52. Individual error
• Substance and alcohol abuse
• Lack of sleep
• Accident proneness
• Other factors that might affect accidents include
recent stressful life events, and fear of mistakes

53. Hearing Conservation

54. Occupational Noise Exposure
• Noise, or unwanted sound, is one of the most
pervasive occupational health problems
• It is a by-product of many industrial processes
• Sound consists of pressure changes in a
medium (usually air), caused by vibration or
turbulence
• pressure changes produce waves
• Exposure to high levels of noise causes
hearing loss and may cause other harmful
health effects as well

55. • Noise-induced hearing loss
Temporary Or Permanent
• Temporary hearing loss results from short-term
exposures to noise, with normal hearing returning
after period of rest
• Prolonged exposure to high noise levels over a period
of time gradually causes permanent damage

56. Hearing Conservation Program
Designed to protect workers with significant
occupational noise exposures from hearing
impairment even if they are subject to such noise
exposures over their entire working lifetimes

57. Hearing Conservation Program For
General Industry
• Monitoring
• Audiometric testing
• Hearing protectors
• Training
• Record keeping requirements

58. Monitoring
• Accurately identifies employees exposed to noise at or above
85 decibels (db) averaged over 8 working hours or an 8-hour
time-weighted average (TWA)
• Requirement is performance-oriented-it allows employers to
choose the monitoring method that best suits each individual
situation
• Employers must repeat monitoring whenever changes in
production, process, or controls increase noise exposure

59. Audiometric Testing
• Audiometric testing monitors an employee’s hearing over
time.
• It also provides an opportunity for employers to educate
employees about their hearing and the need to protect it.
• The important elements of the program include baseline
audiograms, annual audiograms, training and follow up
procedures.
• Employers must make audiometric testing available at no cost
to all employees

60. • The audiometric testing program follow up should indicate
whether the employer’s hearing conservation program is
preventing hearing loss
• A licensed or certified audiologist, or other physician must be
responsible for the program
• There are two types of audiograms required in the hearing
conservation program:
Baseline And Annual Audiograms

61. Baseline Audiogram
• The baseline audiogram is the reference audiogram against
which future audiograms are compared.
• Employers must provide baseline audiograms within 6 months
of an employee’s first exposure at or above an 8-hour TWA of
85 dB.
• Employees should not be exposed to workplace noise for 14
hours before the baseline test or wear hearing protectors
during this time period.

62. Annual Audiograms
• Employers must provide annual audiograms within1 year of the baseline.
• It is important to test workers’ hearing annually to identify deterioration in
their hearing ability as early as possible. This enables employers to initiate
protective follow up measures before hearing loss progresses.
• Employers must compare annual audiograms to baseline audiograms to
determine whether the audiogram is valid and whether the employee has lost
hearing ability or experienced a standard threshold shift (STS).
• An STS is an average shift in either ear of 10 dB or more at 2,000, 3,000,
and 4,000 hertz

63. Training
• Employee training is very important
• Workers who understand the reasons for the hearing
conservation programs and the need to protect their hearing
will be more motivated to wear their protectors and take
audiometric tests.

64. Exposure and Testing Records
• Employers must keep noise exposure measurement records for 2 years
and maintain records of audiometric test results for the duration of the
affected employee’s employment.
• Audiometric test records must include the employee’s name and job
classification, date, examiner’s name, date of the last acoustic or
exhaustive calibration, measurements of the background sound
pressure levels in audiometric test rooms, and the employee’s most
recent noise exposure measurement

65. HOUSEKEEPING & 5 “S”

66. Housekeeping does not mean
only cleanliness, it means much
more than only cleanliness

67. It means cleanliness, tidiness
and much more……

68. Good housekeeping means
cleanliness, tidiness and…
Place for every thing
&
Every thing in it’s place

69. Why good housekeeping?
Good housekeeping
promotes
Quality
Safety Productivity
Clean
Environment

70. How does good housekeeping help?
Place for
every thing
Inventory of
every item
Get rid of
unwanted
material
Why do
we need? Low
inventory
means less
cost

71. How does good housekeeping help?
Every thing in
it’s place
Identification
system in the
dept.
Searching
time is
eliminated
Discipline
in the
dept.
Improved
productivity
& high moral

72. Therefore, the first step
towards good housekeeping
will be to identify if there is a
place for every thing in the
department, and if every thing
is in it’s place.

73. An introduction to 5 “S”
It is a participative programme

74. An introduction to 5 “S”
5 “S” is a systematic approach to
good housekeeping

75. An introduction to 5 “S”
The concept of good housekeeping
has been with Japanese for a very
long time. At home and school,
children are disciplined to adhere to
good housekeeping

76. An introduction to 5 “S”
It was only in the early 1980s that
good housekeeping became a
pertinent issue in Japanese
industries, as companies realized its
powerful contribution to productivity
and quality improvement.

77. An introduction to 5 “S”
The basis for good housekeeping in
Japanese companies is a concept
popularly known as 5S. This stands
for five good housekeeping
concepts in Japanese.

78. Why 5 S is popular in Japan?
• Workplace becomes clean and better
organised,
• Shopfloor and office operations becomes
safer and easier.
• Results are visible.
• Employees are highly motivated.

79. What is 5 “S”
5 “S” Japanese English
1 S Seiri Sort out unnecessary items in the workplace
and discard them.
2 S Seiton Arrange necessary items in good order.
3 S Seiso Clean your workplace thoroughly so that
there is no dust on floors, machines and
equipment.
4 S Seiketsu Maintain high standards of housekeeping at
workplace at all times.
5 S Shitsuke Train people to follow good housekeeping
disciplines.

80. 5 S
Management’s
commitment
Management’s
involvement
Participation
by allSupported
By all
Self sustaining

81. SEIRI
• SORT OUT THE ITEMS AND DISCARD THE
UNWANTED
– Make a list of all the items in the department.
– The list should include raw material, wip, finished
product, tools, tackles, dust bin, facilities like chair,
table, bins etc. nothing should be left unlisted.
– Appropriate authority should decide which items can be
disposed off and which items need to be kept in the
department.
– Items marked for disposal should be disposed off in a
safe manner.

82. SEITON
• PLACE FOR EVERY THING
– After disposing unwanted material, provide appropriate
place for every item that has to be kept in the
department.
– While providing the place the ergonomic factors and
safety aspects have also to be considered.
– Place for movement of men and material should also be
provided.
– Place should be distinctly identified and marked.
– Place for display of instructions, posters etc. should lso
be identified.

83. SEISO
• CLEAN THE PLACE THOROUGHLY AND
KEEP EVERY THING IN IT’S PLACE.
– Clean every thing including material, floor, containers,
walls, windows etc.
– If necessary painting also should be done.
– While painting follow colour codes wherever
applicable.
– Insist on regular cleaning at the end of the work

84. SEIKETSU
• Maintain high standards of housekeeping at
workplace at all times.
– Ensure that people keep the items at designated
place after it’s use.
– If possible, design the system such that if some
thing is missing from the place, it is easily
highlighted

85. SHITSUKE
• Train people to follow good housekeeping
discipline.
– Train people in 5 S, housekeeping etc.
– Lead by example.
– Maintain discipline in every aspect

86. Role of top management in 5 “S”
implementation
• Play the role of mentor
• Initiate the 5S programme
• Provide resources
• Appreciate the efforts

87. Role of middle and line
management in 5 “S” implantation
• Play the role of facilitator
• Take initiative in his area of work
• Train the people in 5S
• Give the feedback

88. Role of employees in 5 “S”
implementation
• Participate actively.
• Give suggestions.
• Respect the opinion of others.
• Be a good team player, and
• Maintain discipline

89. INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS AND SAFETY
1

90. CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Types of hazards
• Recommendations and Suggestions
• Industrial effluent testing and treatment
• Discussion on industrial accident case
studies
• Questions
• References
2

91. Industrial hazards:
It can be defined as any condition produced by
industries that may cause injury or death to
personal or loss of product or property.
INTRODUCTION
3

92. HAZARDS
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Mechanical
Electrical
Pollution
4

93. Physical
Hazards
Heat
& Cold
5

94. Heat and Cold
Burns
Heat stroke
Heat cramps
Foot sore
Immersion foot
Frost bite
Preventive Measures
A reasonable temp. of 20-250C must be maintained
6

95. 7
Physical
Hazards
Heat
and
Cold
Noise

96.  Auditory
 Non auditory effects
 Preventive measures
a. At source:
• Source of noise can be enclosed with an insulation
material or concrete wall.
• Proper maintenance of machinery
b. By distance
c. Personal protection against noise.
8
Noise have two type of effects

97. Equipment noise sources ,level & potential control solutions
Equipment Sound level in
dB at 3 feet
Possible noise control
treatments
Air coolers 87-94 Aerodynamic fun blades,↓
revolutions/min ↑ pitch,↓
pressure drop
Compressors 90-120 Install mufflers on intake,&
exhaust, enclosure the
machine with casing,
vibration isolation & lagging
of piping system
Electric motors 90-110 Acoustically lined fun
covers, enclosure 7 motor
mutes
9

98. Heater &
furnaces
95-110 Acoustic plenums, intake mufflers,
lined & damped ducts
Valves <80-108 Avoid sonic velocities, limit
pressure drop & mass flow,
replace with special low noise
valves
Piping 9-105 Inline silencers, vibration isolation
Equipment noise sources ,level & potential control solutions
10

99. 11
Physical
hazards
Heat &
Cold
NoiseRadiation

100. Radiation
Radiation are divided into two groups
Natural Man made
Cosmic rays Medical /dental x-rays isotopes
Environmental (radioactive
elements e.g. uranium)
Occupational exposure
Internal (potassium,) Nuclear radioactive fallout
Miscellaneous
Use of radio active substances
by different industries
12

101.  Somatic
 Genetic
i. Preventive measures
ii. Radiation source should be housed in a building
that shields any surrounding area.
iii. Radiation badges should be worn.
iv. Periodical medical examination.
v. Proper use of lead shields & lead rubber aprons.
13
Effect of hazards

102. 14
Physical
Hazards
Heat &
Cold
Noise
Radiation
Fire &
Explosion

103. Causes
Smoking in the factory
Defective heating equipment, electrical equipment &
wiring.
Explosive gas leakage.
Inadequate protection of electric motors
Sparking of electric wires & equipment
Protection & prevention
Types of fire
15
Fire & explosion hazards

104. Preventive measures
• Prohibition of smoking in manufacturing areas.
• Oxygen present in the inflammable atmosphere may
be ↓by dilution with gases such as nitrogen, co2,steam
or combination of these.
• Hazardous operation should be isolated
• Eliminating the ignition sources
• Using fire resistant material in construction
• Suitable emergency exits
• Adequate venting
16
Fire & explosion hazards

105. • Automatic sprinklers
• Equipment should design to meet the specifications &
code of recognized authorities, such as ISA ( Industry
Standard Architecture) , API ( American Petroleum
Institute) &ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers)
• The design & construction of pressure vessels &
storage tanks should follow API & ASME codes.
• Inspection
17
Fire & explosion hazards

106. Chemical Hazards
Local
– Dermatitis/Eczema
– Ulcers
– Cancer
Inhalation
– Gas Poisoning
Ingestion
Living tissue may be destroyed by chemical reactions such as
Dehydration
Digestion
Oxidation
18

107. Source, effect & precautions of chemical hazards
Type/ source of
chemical contaminant
Effect/ organ
affected
Precautions to be taken
Acridines,
phenothiazines
Dermatitis Cleanliness, removal of people
from the areas as soon as first
sign of skin reaction is observed.
Solvents like
chloroform, benzene
Handle with care
Vegetable drugs like
capsicum &
podophyllum
Dust evolves,
affects eye
Goggles are to be worn
Long term use of filter
without cleaning
Dust explosion Regular cleaning
19

108. Source, effect & precautions of chemical hazards
Improper use of
cleaning agents
contamination Follow established
cleaning procedures
Working with radio
pharmaceuticals
Hazards due to
emitted radiation
Wearing lead coat,
maintaining pressure
of working area
slightly less than
atmospheric pressure
Underground tanks Difficulty in
monitoring
interior & exterior
Minimal use of
underground tanks
20

109. • Tolerance levels for toxic chemicals set by federal
regulations have to be followed.
• Strict observation of operations of all safety
regulations
21
PREVENTIVE MEASURES

110. Biological hazards
• Disease due to biological hazards
 Brucellosis (dairy industry)
 Byssinosis (textile industry)
 Bagassosis (sugar-cane)
 Loco motor disorder
• Preventive measures
Periodic health check up
Personal protection
The manufacturer should also provide
First aid facilities
Initial examination
Facility for vaccination
Routine sanitation programme
22

111. • Risk identification process
– Importance of occupational/employment history, including current
exposures
– Medical examination of the skin
– Inspection of the workplace
• Methods of controlling the risk
– Removal of risk factor- substitution
– Engineering controls – enclosed systems, automation, ventilation
– Organisational measures
– Information and education
– Personal protective equipment
– General housekeeping and personal hygiene
23

112. Mechanical hazards
• Accidents usually take place by the combination of unsafe
condition & carelessness.
• Most of industrial accidents are due to
 Faulty inspection
 Inability of employee
 Poor discipline
 Lack of concentration
 Unsafe practice
 Mental & physical unfitness for job
 Faulty equipment or improper working condition
 Improper training regarding the safety aspects
24

113. •In order to prevent mechanical accidents factories act
lay down certain requirements
For cranes
End buffers
Indicating lamps
Signals
Proof loading
upto20 tons 25% in excess
20 to 50 tons 5 tons in excess
above 50 tons 10% in excess
25
Mechanical hazards

114. Preventive
measures
Building
planning
26
Mechanical hazards

115. Building planning
• Floors must be of unskid/non-slippery type.
• Enough space for employees to work.
• Passages between working places.
• Proper arrangements of temperature control; like fans,
A.C., heaters.
27

116. Preventive
measures
Building
planning
Safe
material
handling
28
Building planning

117. • Careless handling of heavy materials and components
should be avoided.
• Full use of mechanical material handling equipment.
• All material handling equipments should be repaired
and maintained properly.
• Containers employed to transport liquids should not
be defective or leaking.
Safe material handling
29

118. • Protection of head by using hard hats/helmets.
• Protection of ears by using earmuffs and plugs.
• Protection of face by using face masks, face
shields.
Personal protective devices
30

119. PREVENTION OF MECHANICAL HAZARDS :
Prevention = safeguarding
• REQUIRMENTS OF SAFEGUARDS :
i. Prevent contact.
ii. Be secure and durable.
iii. Protect from falling objects.
iv. Allow safe and timely maintenance.

120. • TYPES OF SAFEGUARDS :
a) POINT OF OPERATION GUARDS:
 TYPES OF POINT OF OPERATION GUARDS:
i. Fixed guard.
ii. Interlocked.
iii. Adjustable.
b) FEEDING AND EJECTION SYSTEMS :
Automatic feed
FEEDING SYSTEMS Semi-automatic feed
EJECTION SYSYTEMS Automatic ejection
Semi-automatic ejection

121. c). POINT OF OPERATION DEVICES:
Photoelectric
devices
Optical devices
that shut down
the machine
any time the
light field is
broken.
Radio-
frequency
devices :
Type of
capacitance
device that
stops the
machine if
capacitance
field is broken
by worker’s
body or any
other object.
Electromechanical
devices :
These are
contact bars
that allow
only specified
movement
b/w worker
and hazard.

122. d). ROBOT SAFEGUARDS :
• Main hazards associated with robots are :
1. Entrapment of a worker b/w a robot and a solid
surface.
2. Impact with a moving robot arm.
3. Impact with objects ejected or dropped by the
robot.
 The best guard against these hazard is to provide with
a erect physical barrier around the entire perimeter of
robot’s work envelope.
 Another approach is to put sensitized doors or gates in
the perimeter barrier that automatically shuts down
the robot movement when the doors are opened.

123. LOCK OUT & TAG OUT SYSTEMS :
• Specially designed to protect against unexpected start-up of a
machine.
• Lock usually has label that gives the name, department and
telephone extension of the person who put it on.
• Tag- out system is exactly like the lock-out system where lock is
substituted with tag.
DDANGER
This tag may be removed
by ‘XYZ’
Maintenance dept.
Ext. 591

124. Electrical hazards
• Shocks
• Sparking
• Fire
• Wiring faults
Preventive measures
 Proper maintenance of wiring & equipment
 High voltage equipment should be properly enclosed
 Good house keeping
 Water should not be used for dousing electric fire
 Worker should avoid working in electric circuits or
equipment in wet clothing or shoes.
36

125. Pollution hazards
• Types
a. Air pollution
b. Water pollution
c. Thermal pollution
d. Sound pollution
Air pollution
• Sources
 Automobiles
 Industries
 Domestic
37

126. i. Those suitable for removing particulate matter
a. Ventilation
 Exhaust ventilation
 Plenum ventilation
b. Air purifying equipment
ii. Those associated with removing gaseous pollutants
Water pollution
1. Types of water pollutants
 Physical
 Chemical
 Physiological
 Biological 38
Preventive measures

127. 2. Problems of water pollution
3. Preventive measure
a. Control of water pollution
i. Physical treatment
 Storage
 Filtration
ii. Chemical treatment
iii. Biological treatment
b. Treatment of industrial waste
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment
39
Preventive measures

128. 40

129. c. Thermal pollution
• Effects
 Damage to aquatic environment
 Reduction in assimilative capacity of organic waste
• Various off stream cooling systems
i. Wet cooling towers
ii. Dry cooling towers
iii. Cooling ponds
iv. Spray ponds
41
Preventive measures

130. Recommendations & suggestions
Proper treatment & disposal methods for effluents
should be adopted
An awareness program
Measures for increase efficiency of the water use
42

131. Classification of signs according to use –
(1) Danger signs.
The DANGER header is used when there is a hazardous
situation which has a high probability of death or severe
injury. It should not be considered for property damage
unless personal injury risk is present.
43

132. 2) Caution signs. (i)
The CAUTION header is used to indicate a hazardous
situation which may result in minor or moderate
injury. However, Caution should not be used when
there is a possibility of death or serious injury.
44

133. (3) Safety instruction signs
General Safety Signs (SAFETY FIRST, BE
CAREFUL, THINK) should indicate general
instructions relative to safe work practices,
reminders of proper safety procedures, and the
location of safety equipment.
45

134. (4) Biological hazard signs.
The biological hazard warning shall be used to
signify the actual or potential presence of a
biohazard and to identify equipment, containers,
rooms, materials, experimental animals, or
combinations thereof, which contain, or are
contaminated with, viable hazardous agents.
46

135. Pictograph
Pictograph means a pictorial representation used to
identify a hazardous condition or to convey a safety
instruction
47

136. 48

137. NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION 704 HAZARD
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Numbers in the diamond range designate (from 4 for the greatest
to 0 for the least) degree of hazard.

138. Hazard Class 1: Explosives
• Background color:
– Orange
• Symbol:
– Exploding ball
CLASSES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
A substance that produce a
sudden, almost instantaneous
release of pressure, gas or
heat when subjected to
pressure, shock or high
temperature.
Hazard Class 2: Gases
Background color: Varies
Symbol: Varies

139. Hazard Class 3: Flammable Liquids
• Background color:
– Red
• Symbol:
– Flame
Hazard Class 4: Flammable Solids
Background colour: Red & white candy striped
Blue if reacts with water

140. Hazard Class 5: Oxidizers & Organic Peroxides
Background color: Yellow. Symbol: Flaming ball.
Oxidizer: Oxidizing substances can
ignite flammable and combustible
material or worsen existing fire and thus
make fire fighting more difficult.
Caution! Keep away from flammable,
combustible and spontaneously
combustible materials.
Hazard Class 6: Poisons & Etiologic Materials
INHALATION
HAZARD

141. Hazard Class 7: Radioactive Materials
Hazard Class 8: Corrosives
Hazard Class 9: Miscellaneous
• Hazardous materials
not specified in other
classes

142. The joint international labor
organization committee on
Occupational health, 1950
defined occupational health as
“The highest degree of physical,
mental and social well-being of
workers in all occupations.”
DEFINITION:

143. GOALS
• To reduce industrial accidents.
• To prevent occupational
hazards/ diseases.
• To achieve maximum human
efficiency and machine
efficiency.
• To reduce sick absenteeism.

144. OBJECTIVES OF
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH:
• To maintain and promote the physical,
mental and social well being of the
workers.
• To prevent occupational diseases and
injuries.
• To adapt the work place and work
environment to the needs of the
workers i.e application of ergonomics
principle.
• It should be preventive rather than
curative.

145. It represents a dynamic
equilibrium between
the worker and his
occupational environment.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

146. What is occupational
health care?
Occupational health care is preventive
health care, which is provided on the
basis of the Occupational Health Care
Act. The objective of occupational health
care is a healthy and safe working
environment, a well-functioning working
community, prevention of work-related
diseases as well as the maintenance of
employees’ working ability and functional
capacity, and promotion of their health.

147. Advantages of
Occupational health care
•Investigates and assesses load factors and
hazards and gives expert assistance for
eliminating them
•Gives information and advice
•Estimates employees’ working ability and
monitors their health condition
•By its knowledge and skills supports action for
maintaining working ability in the development
of individuals, working environment and
working community, in this way also affecting
productivity continued

148. •Prevents occupational diseases and
other work-related illnesses
•Prevents premature incapacity for
work, reduces pension costs
•Reduces absenteeism due to sickness
•Can make calculations of the
profitability of occupational safety and
health and occupational health care in
cooperation with workplaces or
encourage workplaces to make these
themselves.
Advantages of Occupational
health care - cont

149. THE UNDERTAKINGS FOR THE
NEED OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
SERVICES:
1. Any undertakings, which employ
more than the prescribed number.
2. Public sector undertakings
3. Atomic energy unit, explosive
production unit, mining unit, and
asbestos production unit etc.,
4. A unit where workers are exposed
to health hazards from toxic
substances.

150. FUNCTIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL
HEALTH SERVICE - CONT..
1. Pre-employment medical examination.
2. First Aid and emergency service.
3. Supervision of the work environment
for the control of dangerous substances in
the work environment.
4. Special periodic medical examination
particularly for the workers in dangerous
operations.
5. Health education for disseminating
information on specific hazards and risks
in the work environment.

151. 6. Special examination and surveillance of
health of women and children
7. Advising the employer or management for
improving working conditions, and
placement of hazards.
8. Monitoring of working environment for
assessment and control of hazards.
9. Supervision over sanitation, hygiene and
canteen facilities.
10. Liaison and cooperation with the safety
committees
FUNCTION OF HEALTH
SERVICE - CONT..

152. FUNCTION OF HEALTH
SERVICE - CONT..
10. Liaison and cooperation with the safety
committees
11. Maintenance of medical records for
medical check-up and follow-up for
maintaining health standards and also for
evaluation.
12. To carry out other parallel activities such
as nutrition programme, family planning,
social services recreation etc., Concerning
the health and welfare of the workers.

153. THE FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVENESS
OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
SERVICES:
1. The nature of industry; small, medium
or large and its location.
2. Existing infrastructure of health
services.
3. Trained manpower.
4. Workers involvement and employers
commitment.
5. Surveillance of the working environment
by means of epidemiological studies
and testing.

154. Components occupational
health services – CONT..
• Medical treatment, First aid treatment in
emergency.
• Health education, First aid education.
• Medical examination
• Pre employment examination
• Medical treatment, First aid treatment in
emergency.
• Health education, First aid education.
• Medical examination
Pre employment examination
Periodic medical examination
Special medical examination

155. . Health counseling
. Stress management
. Mental health
. And Physical health
. Rehabilitation programme
. Medical rehabilitation
. Social rehabilitation
. Educational rehabilitation
. Vocational rehabilitation
Components occupational
health services - CONT..

156. • Assessment of dusts pollution
• Assessment of noise pollution
• Assessment of vibration
• Assessment heat radiation
• Assessment of radiation
Components occupational
health services – CONT..

157. Supervision of the working environment
•Hazard identification
•Monitoring
•Evaluation
•Engineering project review
•Control measures
•Development of personal protective devices
Components occupational
health services – CONT..

158. . Family welfare program
. To take care of employee and
dependents
. Disaster management
. Health records maintenance
Components occupational
health services – CONT..

160. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND
TOXICOLOGY UNIT
• Air Quality Monitoring
• Air-borne particulate sampling
• Ambient noise measurement and control
• Ventilation testing
• Lighting evaluation
• Thermal stress evaluation
• Biological Monitoring of workers exposed
to lead, Manganese, Chromium and Nickel

161. OCCUPATIONAL
PHYSIOLOGY UNIT
• Evaluation of occupational work
capacity
• Differential Diagnosis of exercise
induced cardio-pulmonary stress
• Disability Evaluation
• Evaluation of fitness for highly
demanding jobs

162. MEDITEL- A Radio Telemetry
(3- Channel) system
• Pulse Rate
• Body Temperature
• Energy Expenditure

163. PULMONARY
FUNCTION TESTS
• VITALOGRAPH S-MODEL
SPIROMETER (Total lung volume,
timed lung volume and flow lung
volume)
• WHOLE BODY PLETHYSMOGRAPH
(residual lung volume, total lung
capacity, air-way resistance, static
and dynamic compliance)

164. OCCUPATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY UNIT
• Stress Management
• Job enrichment
• Executive skill development
• Organizational development
• Safety awareness system development
• Absenteeism control
• Job satisfaction
• Mental health survey
• And human relation

165. TOXICOLOGY
LABORATORY UNIT
• PHOTOELECTRIC COLORIMETER
• SPECTROPHOTOMETER
• ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER
• PLASMA EMISSION SPECTROMETER
• And GAS CHROMOTOGRAPHY

166. Work physiology &
Ergonomics Unit – CONT..
• Development of exercise program
• Study of vibration exposure
• Categorization of work load
• Determination of energy expenditure
• And design ergonomics (machinery,
equipment)

167. •Evaluation of occupational work
capacity
•Ergonomics analysis of work systems
•Work station design
•Development of pre employment job
fitness tests
•Job analysis
Work physiology &
Ergonomics Unit – CONT..

168. MORGAN EXERCISE
TEST SYSTEM
• TEST MONITOR UNIT
(E.C.G Monitor, Ventilation Monitor
and gas analyser)
• MAGNA 88 MICROCOMPUTER
• And a PRINTER with graphic
resolution

169. HEAT STRESS EVALUATION
• Sling Psychrometer
• Kata Thermometer
• Hot Wire Anemometer
• WBGT index meter
• Dry Bulb thermometer
• Wet Bulb thermometer
• Globe thermometer
• Air velocity
• Physiological response to heat
• Humidity

170. APPLICATION OF HEAT
STRESS EVALUATION
• Heat stress index
• Predicted four hour sweat rate

171. NOISE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• Sound level meter
• Octave filter sets
• Personnel Noise Dose meter

172. ILLUMINATION & RADIATION
MEASUREMENT
• Lux meter
• UV digital meter
• Gamma Radiation Survey Meter

173. EVALUATION OF VIBRATION
• Human Response Vibration Meter

174. EVALUATION OF ATMOSPHERIC
CONTAMINANTS
• Personal air samplers
• Drager Multigas Detector
• Drager Polymeter
• Drager CMS analyser
• Real Time Aerosol Monitor
• Gravimetric Dust Sampler
• Hexhlet air sampler

175. GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR OCCUPATIONAL
HEALTH –CONT..
• Strengthening of international and national policies
for health at work and development of policy tools
• Developing healthy working environment
• Developing healthy work practices and promoting
health at work
• Strengthening occupational health services
• Establishing support services for occupational health

176. •Developing occupational health standards based on
scientific risk assessment
•Developing human resources for occupational
health
•Establishing registration data system and raising
public awareness through strengthened public
information system
•Strengthening research
•Developing collaboration in occupational health
services and organization
GLOPAL STRATEGY FOR OCCUPATIONAL
HEALTH

177. Occupational Health &
Industrial Hygiene
Programs

178. Industrial Hygiene Program
Introduction
Industrial hygiene is defined as “a science and art
devoted to anticipation, recognition, evaluation &
control of those environmental factors or stresses
arising in or from the workplace, which may cause
sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant
discomfort among workers or among the citizens of the
community.

179. Types of Environmental Factors
(1) Stressor hazards - can cause sickness, impaired
health, or significant discomfort. Comes from
excessive airborne concentrations of mists, vapors,
gases or solids that are in the form of dust or fumes.
(2) Physical hazards - excessive levels of electromagnetic
and ionizing radiation, noise, vibration, and extremes of
temperatures and pressure.
(3) Ergonomic hazards - improperly designed tools or
work areas, improper lifting or reaching, poor visual
conditions or repeated motions in an awkward position.
(4) Biological hazards - includes insects, molds, fungi and
bacterial contamination

180. Workplace Assessment
The IH shall conduct a baseline survey. The baseline
will include, as a minimum, the following information:
(1) Description of operations within work area (e.g.,
welding, spray painting). Must carefully describe
time course of events occurring within the workplace.
(2) List of hazardous materials used, handled, stored or produced in
the workplace in terms of quantity per unit time, including a brief
description of how the materials are used.
(3) List of potential harmful physical hazards (e.g., noise radiation)
including a brief description of their sources.

181. Workplace Assessment (cont’d)
(4) Brief description of existing controls (e.g.,
ventilation, personal protective equipment),
and an evaluation of their use and effectiveness.
(5) Number of personnel assigned to the operation
or workplace and specific location.

182. Exposure Assessment
• Follows the workplace assessment
• Used to assess whether or not there is a potential
for employee exposure to toxic chemicals or
harmful physical agents
• IH Department shall make assessment
• Written record shall be maintained for each
workplace where toxic chemicals or physical
agents may be found (Provide information in IH
survey)

183. Workplace Monitoring Plan
Shall be prepared and implemented if the exposure
assessment indicates workers are exposed to toxic
chemicals and/or harmful physical agents. The plan
must be developed jointly by the industrial hygienist
and installation of unit safety manager.

184. Workplace Monitoring Plan (cont’d)
Each workplace must be evaluated to identify
potential hazards from toxic substances or harmful
physical agents. Workplace monitoring shall be
provided by the IH Department in accordance with
OPNAVINST 5100.23E, MCO 5100.8F and NEHC -
TM 6290.91-2 Rev. B (National eHealth
Collaborative)
Permanent changes to workplace procedures or work
location will require a new baseline survey including
workplace monitoring of the operations completed by
the IH Department.

185. Periodic Evaluation
Workplaces with recognized potential health hazards
shall be evaluated in accordance with OPNAVINST
5100.23 Section 0802 (g) “Reevaluation”, Appendix 8-B.
Baseline surveys may indicate that the periodic evaluation
may need to be performed more frequently
Supervisors shall notify IH of any changes to procedures,
location and/or materials/equipment that cause adverse
effects to human health

186. Industrial Hygienist Responsibilities
• Provide comprehensive baseline and periodic workplace evaluations
• Provide technical direction of workplace monitoring programs
• Provide training and certification of workplace monitors
• Provide special assistance as requested by the activity
commander (i.e., selection of PPE, review of engineering
designs, member of process hazard analysis team)
• Industrial Hygiene Officers assigned employees shall
establish programs specific to their work area and ensure that
monitoring and exposure data is provided to the medical department, for
entry into personnel records

187. Occupational Health Program
Shall be based upon Industrial Hygiene
recommendations. The installation or unit safety
office shall ensure that the affected employees
are entered in the appropriate Medical
Surveillance Program

188. Module V (12 Hours)
Industrial fire protection: - Fire chemistry-classification of fires-fire prevention activities-fire
risks - fire load -contributing factors to industrial fires-fire detection-industrial fire protection
systems.
Fire:
Fire is the rapid oxidation of any combustible material. It is a chemical reaction involving
fuel, heat, and oxygen. The rapid oxidation of a fuel results in evolving heat, particulates,
gases and non-ionizing radiation.
Oxygen combines with other substances to produce new products is known as oxidation.
Eg: - CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Stored chemical energy converted to energy in the form of heat and light during this process.
Energy in chemical reaction comes from the breaking and formation of bonds.
Heat of combustion is always exothermic. Activation energy needed to start the combustion
is called ignition temperature.
Ignition Temperature can be defined as the minimum temperature at which a fuel will
spontaneously ignite. A fire continues to burn until the supply of oxygen is exhausted or fuel
is gone.
Activation energy is the minimum energy necessary for a specific chemical reaction to occur
i.e. electrical discharges, sparks, and chemicals. Fuel needs to be in gaseous state to ignite –
temperature must be high enough to vaporize the fuel.
Spontaneous Combustion is a type of combustion which occurs without an external ignition
source. Heat builds up to the point of ignition. Use chemicals to supply oxygen, these
chemicals are known as oxidizing agents.
Requirements for Combustion
A fuel must be present. Oxygen must be available in sufficient quantity Heat must be applied
to initiate combustion, and sufficient heat must be generated to sustain the reaction.
Rate of oxidation (reaction): Rate of oxidation of a fuel that is capable of sustaining a
flaming fire.
Flash Point is the minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel will produce enough vapor to
burn. Flammable Range: The (range of) composition of fuel-air mixture required for
combustion. Flammable range of gasoline is 1.3- 6%.
Fire Triangle
There are three elements commonly referred to as the fire triangle, in the right proportions,
will always produce a fire. Remove any one side of the triangle and the fire will be
extinguished.

189. Fire Triangle
Scholars have also introduced a fourth element in the equation,
known as the uninhibited chain reaction/ uncontrollable chain
reaction(UCCR), thereby giving the fire chemical reaction an
additional side. This is referred to as the fire tetrahedron.
Chemistry of a Fire
The Fire Tetrahedron
Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in
combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as
oxygen gas or another oxygen rich compound (though non-
oxygen oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to
a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is
able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly
called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the
right proportions.
For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right
proportions. Some fuel oxygen mixes may require a catalyst (example: |), a substance that is
not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the
reactants to combust more readily.
Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the
further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided
there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.
Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron.
Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stove top burner. The fire can be extinguished
by any of the following:
 turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
 covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses
the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the
flame with CO2;
 application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce
it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning
gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or
 Application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards the
chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain
reaction.
In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this
include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions (for IC engine),
Fire Tetrahedron

190. increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so
the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant
medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.
In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this
include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel
and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own
heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant medium in
which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.
Types of combustion
i. Slow or incipient combustion- in which the amount of heat & light emitted is feeble.
ii. Rapid or active combustion- in which a considerable amount of heat & light is emitted
within a short time
iii. Deflagration - which takes place with a considerable rapidity, evolving heat & light
iv. Explosion - is a very rapid combustion with a loud noise within an extremely short
time with generation of very high pressure & temperature.
Types of Fuel
Ordinary Combustibles: Paper, wood, cloth, rubber and many plastics
Flammable Liquids: Oils, gasoline, grease, solvents, lacquers and some paints
Energized Electrical Equipment: Electrical sources which are still supplied with power
Cooking Oils: Vegetable or animal oils and fats
Classes of Fire:
The classification of fire depends mainly upon the fuel involved. There are five classes of
fire.
Class A: fires are those which involve ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper or
cloth. These fires should be extinguished by using a dry chemical extinguisher. Water is
effective in extinguishing these type fires. This type of fire burns with an ember, leaves an
ash, and is best extinguished by removing the heat side of the triangle or by cooling.
Extinguishers suitable for Class "A" fires should be identified by a triangle containing the
letter "A"; if colour-coded, the triangle will be green.
Class B: fires are those which involve flammable liquids, gases, oil, paint and greases. Either
dry chemical or carbon dioxide extinguishers should be used to extinguish these type fires.
This type of fire burns on the surface of the fuels, and is best extinguished by a blanketing or
smothering action. A fire of this type is fast-spreading and capable of engulfing a large area
in a very short time. Extinguishers suitable for Class "B" fires should be identified by a
square containing the letter "B". If colour-coded, the square is red.
Note: flammable liquids may re‐ignite after being extinguished. DO NOT USE WATER!
Class C/ Class E: fires are those which involve electricity. Either dry chemical or carbon
dioxide extinguishers should be used to extinguish these type fires. . Blanketing or
smothering or displacing oxygen this type of fire with a non-conducting extinguishing agent
is of prime importance. Water, or solutions containing water, is never to be used on a Class
"C" fire. Extinguishers suitable for Class "C" fires should be identified by a circle containing
the letter "C"; if colour-coded, the circle is blue. DO NOT USE WATER!
Precaution: - If possible shut off the source of electricity as soon as possible.

191. Extinguishers suitable for more than one of the three classes of fire defined above may be
identified by multiple symbols (ABC). Generally the extinguishing agent is referred to as
DRY CHEMICAL. Multipurpose (ABC) dry chemical extinguishers contain an ammonium
phosphate base which can be used on all types of fires and is the least expensive of the
extinguishing agents.
Class D: fires are those which involve combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium, lithium and potassium. Water can react with sodium and other alkali
metals explosively, therefore DO NOT USE WATER! Also understand that CO2
extinguishers are unlikely to be able to contain a Class D fire. Generally the extinguishing
agent is referred to as DRY POWDER. These extinguishers should be identified by a star
containing the letter “D”, if colour-coded, the star is yellow.
Class K/ Class F –These are fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking
media such as vegetable or animal oils and fats. The extinguishing agent is referred to as
WET CHEMICAL. These extinguishers should be identified by the letter “K.” Wet
Chemical (K)
The Class K extinguisher is the ideal choice for use on cooking appliances including deep fat
fryers and solid fuel cooking appliances. They contain a low PH potassium acetate base.
The extinguishing agent discharges as a fine mist which helps prevent grease splash and fire
re-flash while cooling the appliance.
Fire Classification UK base
Fire Prevention Activities
Principles of Fire Extinction
1. Starvation : Removal of un-burnt material from fire area
2. Smothering: Cutting off the supply of oxygen from fire area
3. Cooling: Removal of heat from the burning material/fire area
4. Breaking of chain reaction: It is a chemical process
5.

192. Modes of spread of fire
Conduction: It occurs only in solids i.e. metallic objects.
• Heat energy is passed on from one molecule to the next
• The molecule vibrates above its mean position
• Pass on heat energy by colliding with their neighbors
• The ability to conduct heat varies between materials.
Convection: It occurs both in liquids & gases
• When a liquid or gas heated, it expands
• It becomes less dense
• The lighter fluid arises being displaced by colder and therefore denser fluid
• In turn becomes heated and so a circulation is set up
• Heat energy is carried throughout the fluid by actual movements of molecules
Radiation: It is neither conduction nor convection. These are heated rays emanating from the
hot object. It does not involved any contact between bodies It is independent of any material
in the intervening space
• These are the heated rays, travels in straight line in all directions with same intensity
TYPES AND OPERATIONS OF EXTINGUISHERS:
“Extinguisher classification” means the letter classification given an extinguisher to designate
the class or classes of fire on which an extinguisher will be effective.
 Fire extinguishing agents are classified according to the types of fires on which they
are effective.
 Agents may be classified as “A”, “B”, “C” or “D” or combinations of types. “ABC,”
“BC” and “AB” are common fire extinguisher designations.
 Removes heat, best on Class “A” fires, best overall agent.
 Very bad for Class “B” fires as it spreads the fuel.
 Very bad for Class “C” fires as it conducts electricity.
 Disastrous on a Class “D” fire, may cause an explosion.
OPERATION PROCEDURE FOR FIRE EXSTINGUSHER
Remember the PASS word:
1) Keep your back to a clear escape route
2) Stand back 2m to 5m from the fire

193. 1. Pressurized Water Extinguishers:
• FOR USE ON: Class "A" fires
• TO OPERATE:
 Pull out the pin or push the lever on top of the extinguisher handle to the rear.
 Grasp the hose, squeeze the handles together and direct the stream at the base of the
fire.
 Turn on or off at will by squeezing or releasing the handles.
Pressurized water extinguishers are designed for use on ordinary combustible (class A) fires
only. Use of water on fires involving flammable liquids and energized electrical equipment
can be very dangerous.
2. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers:
• FOR USE ON: Class "B" and "C" fires
• TO OPERATE:
 Carry the extinguisher to the fire.
 Remove the safety pin or locking device, point the horn at the base of the fire, and
discharge by squeezing the handles together. Be sure not to place your hand on the
horn when discharging the contents of the extinguisher or you could get a freezer
burn.
 Discharge at the base of the fire and move the horn from side to side at a moderate
speed. Too rapid a movement will dissipate the vapour, and too slow a movement
may discharge more than is needed at one time.
 Continue to apply contents for a short time after the fire has been extinguished to
prevent possible re-ignition.
CO2 extinguishers may be used on most mechanical and electrical fires. Because they are less
effective on ordinary combustible (class A) fires, CO2 fire extinguishers are usually only
rated BC depending on the size of the extinguisher.
3. Dry Chemical Extinguishers:
• FOR USE ON: Class “A”,”B”," and "C" fires
• TO OPERATE:
 Carry the extinguisher to the fire by its handle and operate according to the
instructions on it (instructions usually read: remove safety pin or locking device,
grasp nozzle and squeeze handles).
 To reduce the intensity of the flames, direct the stream at the base of the flames and
move rapidly from side to side to gain full coverage.
 In small spill fires, where the entire width can be covered by the sweep of the dry
chemical stream, attack the fire from the front. The stream will discharge over the
entire spill area.
 Work with any wind or breeze at your back.

194. 4. Halon 1211/1301 Extinguishers:
• FOR USE ON: Class "B" and "C" fires
• TO OPERATE:
 Carry the extinguisher to the scene of the fire in an upright position.
 Pull the ring lock pin and aim the nozzle at the base of the fire. Squeeze the carrying
handle and the trigger together.
 Sweep the extinguisher from side to side.
Clean Agents
Clean agent fire extinguishers do not leave a residue and are rated ABC or BC
depending on size. Halon 1211 is a clean agent that is commonly found around
computer systems and electronic equipment. Because of environmental concerns, fire
extinguishing clean agents known as halocarbons is now the recommended
alternative. But Halon is a ozone depleting gas.
5. Wet Chemical:
• FOR USE ON: Class “K” fires
• TO OPERATE:
 Carry the extinguisher to the fire by its handle and operate according to the
instructions on it (instructions usually read: remove safety pin or locking device,
grasp nozzle and squeeze handles).
 The agent is discharged as a fine spray, which reduces the possibility of splashing hot
grease.
 In addition to offering rapid-fire extinguishments, a thick foam blanket is formed to
prevent re-ignition, while cooling both the appliance and the hot cooking oil.
In Case of Fire:
• Notify occupants to clear the area immediately and sound the building alarm.
• Call 100 from any phone.
• If a fire extinguisher must be used it is crucial that the operator be familiar with the proper
operation and contents of the extinguisher. Check name plate if in doubt. Stay low to avoid
heat and smoke and do not get trapped in a corner. Leave an escape route. Never attempt to
fight fire alone; get help.
RACE
upon discovery of fire or smoke
Remove persons in immediate danger!
Alert others and Emergency Services
Contain fire and smoke (close doors)
Evacuate &/or extinguish
Routine Checks of Extinguishers should be noted:
• The extinguishers have been charged/ tagged within the prescribed period of time (1yr).
• The extinguisher location is clearly visible from a distance.
• The extinguisher has not been tampered with or removed from its designated place.
RESPONSIBILITY
Employees and supervisors should execute their appropriate roles, explained herein, to ensure
a fire-safe environment on campus. Use fire extinguisher only if you are able to identify the
class of fire and have confirmed that the extinguisher is appropriate for fighting that type of
fire. Fight a fire only if and only so long as you have a safe means of escape to a protected
exit route.

195. Precautions
Keep in mind the following safety precautions if attempting to extinguish a fire:
• Be sure you have the correct fire extinguisher for the type of fire and know how to use it.
• In commercial kitchens with built-in fire protection systems, the system should be activated
before attempting to use a portable fire extinguisher.
• Maintain your exit. Leave yourself a way out in case the fire gets out of control.
• Have a back-up person standing by whenever possible in case assistance is needed.
• Stop and leave the area immediately if you experience any physical problems such as
dizziness or difficulty breathing.
• Even if you think a fire is out, call the fire department to inspect the area. A fire may
reignite or may still be smouldering where it cannot be seen.
• If a fire extinguisher has been used and is rechargeable, have it serviced before returning it
to original location.
Fire Prevention
 Be mindful of Fire Safety
 Don’t block fire exits, call points or extinguishers
 No smoking policy
 Take care when cooking
 Observe good security
 Don’t wedge Fire Doors open
Effect of Industrial fires
 large loss fires occur in industrial occupancies
 these fires have a rippling effect throughout the economy with loss of jobs, taxes,
 Effects down the manufacturing chain, etc.
MAIN CAUSES OF FIRES
 bad housekeeping (pallets, waste, dust, etc)
 forklifts
 welding & cutting operations
 smoking
 arson
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
There are two types of fire protection system
1. ACTIVE SYSTEM
2. PASSIVE SYSTEM
In active type there are different types
1. Water based system
2. Powder based system
3. Gas based system
Water based system
There are four different types of water based system
1. Hydrant
2. Sprinkler
3. Spray
4. Foam

196. Hydrant type:
Sprinkler system
sprinkler system consists of a water supply (or supplies) and one or more sprinkler
installations, each installation consist of a set of installation control valves and a pipe array
fitted with sprinkler heads. The sprinkler heads are fitted at specified locations at the roof or
ceiling, and where necessary between racks, below shelves, inside ovens or stoves or below
obstructions.
A sprinkler has two functions to perform. It must first sense the heat, and must then provide
an adequate distribution of water to control or extinguish the fire. Each function is performed
separately and one is independent of the other except insofar as early detection makes
extinction easier because the fire has not grown large. The classic use of the sprinkler is in the
hot gas layer which forms beneath the ceiling of an enclosure in which a fire is developing.
A special fixed pipe system connected to a reliable source of fire protection water supply and
equipped with water spray nozzles for specific water discharge and distribution over the
surface or area to be protected. The piping system is connected to the water supply through
an automatically actuated Deluge Valve which initiates flow of water. Automatic actuation is
achieved by operation of automatic detecting equipment installed along with water spray
nozzles.
There are two types of systems namely
1. High Velocity Water Spray System
2. Medium Velocity Water Spray System
I) High Velocity Water Spray System
High Velocity Water spray systems are installed to extinguish fires involving liquids with
flash points of 650
C (1500
F) or higher.
It was found however that water applied in the form of the finely broken needles to create an
emulsion possessed a high resistance to electric current. This equipment is now more or less
standard for live oil filled electrical gear and is quite commonly installed for the protection of
electrical equipment carrying voltage of 400 KV or more
I) Medium Velocity Water Spray System
Advance in technology have brought about much wider usage in industry of highly
inflammable liquids, gases and solids. The fire problems so produced have required new
thinking and development of new technologies. With fire risks involving the lighter oils,
liquefied petroleum gases and other flammable liquids with flash points below 65 deg.C it
may not be possible or even desirable to extinguish the fire completely. Under such
circumstances the aim is to achieve controlled burning. Adequate control of such fires and
also protection of vessels and plant exposed to surrounding fire can be achieved by properly
designed medium velocity water spray system. Cooling smothering and dilution play apart in
varying degrees with such a system This type of system utilizes sprayers which produce a
medium velocity water discharged with directional properties operating at a minimum water
pressure of approximate 1.5 bar sprayers can be arranged for individual automatic operation
or for automatic and manual operation in groups to command the plant or fire area concerned.
Here again, the essence of the design is proper discharged pattern, careful hydraulic
calculation and balance of flow and pressure. All systems are fitted with alarm equipment and
monitoring devices as required.

197. General Information
Medium velocity water spray system has been developed and extensively installed for the
following applications.
For the protection of vessels, plant, and structures exposed to heat from adjacent and
surrounding fires.
Foam
Foam for fire protection purposes is an aggregate of air-filled bubbles formed from aqueous
solutions and is lower density than the lightest flammable liquids. It is principally used to
form a coherent floating blanket on flammable and combustible liquid lighter than water and
prevents or extinguishes fire by excluding air and cooling the fuel. It also prevents re-ignition
by suppressing formation of flammable vapours. It has the property of adhering to surfaces,
providing a degree of exposure protection from adjacent fires.
Foam may be used as a fire prevention, control or extinguishments agent for flammable
liquid tanks or processing areas. Foam solution for these hazards may be supplied by fixed
piped systems or portable foam generating systems. Foam may be applied by foam discharge
outlets, which allow it to fall gently on the surface of burning fuel or it, may be introduced by
other means. Foam may also be applied to these hazards by portable hose streams using foam
nozzles, portable towers or large capacity monitor nozzles.

198. POWDER BASE SYSTEM
DRY CHEMICAL POWDER TOTAL FLOODING SYSTEM
Dry chemical fixed pipe fire suppression systems are self contained units, designed by factory
trained personnel, consisting of a pressure vessel constructed to ASME standards, nitrogen
cylinders, automatic detection devices and electric/pneumatic manual actuation devices.
Gas Based System
1. FM200 Gas Extinguishing
FM-200®
Fire Suppression agent was the first environmentally acceptable replacement for
Halon 1301. FM-200®
has zero ozone depleting potential, a low global warming potential and
a short atmospheric lifetime. It is particularly useful where an environmentally acceptable
agent is essential, where clean up of other media presents a problem, where weight versus
suppression potential is a factor, where an electrically non-conductive medium is needed, and
people compatibility an overriding factor.
FM-200®
is a colourless, liquefied compressed gas. It is stored as a liquid and dispensed into
the hazard as a colourless, eclectically non-conductive vapour that is clear and does not
obscure vision.
2. Carbon Dioxide Gas Extinguishing
Carbon Dioxide as an extinguishing agent is swift and thorough. Within seconds, it smothers
a fire and holds damage to a minimum. Stored under pressure as a liquid, carbon dioxide
quickly expands to vapour and a state of fine particles of dry ice, much like snow. This
"snow" absorbs heat rapidly changes to a vapour under normal temperature conditions, and
even faster in the presence of fire. The carbon dioxide vapour chokes of combustion, and the
snow effect reduces the ambient temperature to help prevent re-ignition. Moreover, carbon
dioxide is a three dimensional agent, enabling it to penetrate the entire hazard area, including
electrical cabinets. Low-pressure and high-pressure carbon dioxide systems have equal
extinguishing capabilities when each is designed to handle a specific hazard. Carbon dioxide
is normally harmless to equipment, materials and property. It leaves no residue to be cleaned
up, mopped up or scraped off. Production downtime is held to a minimum.
Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless, electrically non-conductive agent for the protection
of vital services. In many instances, water is not a suitable extinguishing medium, for
example, where electrical equipment is concerned or clean up time is vital, gaseous
extinguishing agent is the only option.
CO2 Systems are installed in unoccupied applications, as the agent is hazardous to humans
due to the concentrations required to extinguish fires.
PASSIVE
Detection Alarm
Fire detection systems have increased in complexity and sophistication as technology has
advanced. In particular, the increased computing power now available through the
development of low cost processors has enabled system designers to improve functionally
through incorporating numerous features and options into the fire detection system, both in
the detector head and in the control panel.
However, not all installations will require the ultimate in facilities and features, and there is
still a strong demand for relatively simple conventional systems.
There are four elements of a fire system:
a) The Detectors
b) The Control Panel

199. c) The warning sounders and strobes
d) Ancillary devices such as door closers and fan shut-down units.
Contributing Factors of Fire
• Materials (fuels, combustible materials)
• Equipment (Electrical class)
• Processes (use, produce, consume)
• Areas (open, hidden)
• Ignition sources (present)
• Dispersion (spreading of fuels)
From observing different fire accidents in major industries worldwide some other supporting
factors are
 Violating codes & operating procedures while introducing modifications
 design codes, management of change procedures, maintenance procedures
during re-commissioning
 Plant layout - position of occupied buildings
 Control Room not designed for withstanding major hazards
 Emergency plan not updated following modifications
 Site and industry standards for maintenance not followed
 Training and competence
 Fire water tank and fire water pump house
 Congestion in the plant site because of buildings, structures, pipelines, trees etc.
 The emergency exit gate shall be away from the main gate and always be available for
use for personnel evacuation during emergency.
 Evacuation routes should not be blocked by poor plant layout
 Emergency isolation
Emergency plan and site access
Contributing factors to large loss fires
inadequate fire protection
improper maintenance
change is classification
storage of incompatible materials
temporary storage in aisles
increased height of storage corporate safety programs
need fire safety director
fire drills
trained employees
accountability of employees
fire brigades, if big enough
restriction of combustible storage
Safety considerations in Plant sites
FIRE ALARM
FIRE DETECTOR

200. General
 Buffer zone
 Location of other hazardous installations in vicinity
 Inventory of toxic and hazardous materials
 Adequacy of fire fighting water supply
 Access to Emergency equipment
 Availability of emergency response support from adjacent industries and the
community
Natural
 Weather extremes and prevailing winds
 Location of highways, waterways, railroad and airplane corridors
 Environmental and waste disposal restrictions during emergencies
 Maintenance and inspection
Fire Risk and its assessment
There are five steps for fire risk assessment
1. Identify fire hazards
2. Identify people at risk
3. Evaluate, remove or reduce, and protect from risk
4. Record, plan, inform, instruct and train
5. Review
Identify the fire hazards:
 sources of ignition such as naked flames
 sources of fuel such as flammable liquids
 sources of oxygen such as the air around us
 These elements can form the fire triangle which can result in an uncontrollable fire
Identify the people at risk:
 people in and around the premises and
 people who are especially at risk near accident prone areas
Evaluate, remove or reduce, and protect from risk
 Evaluate the risk of a fire starting
 Evaluate the risk to people from a fire
 Remove or reduce fire hazards
 Remove or reduce the risks to people from a fire
 Protect people by providing fore precautions
Record, plan, inform, instruct and train
 Record any major findings and action you have taken
 Discuss and work with other responsible people
 Prepare an emergency plan
 Inform and instruct relevant people
 Provide training
Review
 Review your fire-risk assessment regularly
 Make changes where necessary

201. FIRE HAZARD CHART
Fire load: - a measurement of the load of a combustible material per square foot of floor
space.
The fire loading of a building or compartment is a way of establishing the potential severity
of a hypothetical future fire. It is the heat output per unit floor area, often in kJ/m2
, calculated
from the calorific value of the materials present. Fire loading is used for evaluating industrial
safety risks.
An empty room with cement floor and ceiling, cinderblock walls, and no flammable materials
would have approximately zero fire loading; any fire entering such a room from elsewhere
will find nothing to feed on. However, nearly anything that makes a room useful (such as
furniture, electrical appliances, or computer equipment), or attractive (such as wood
panelling, acoustic tile, carpeting, curtains, or wall decorations), will increase the fire loading.
Some usages inherently carry high fire loading as a side effect (an art gallery and studio, for
example, is likely to contain large amounts of canvas, paints, solvents, and wooden framing).
Buildings under construction or renovation tend to carry high fire loads in the form of
construction materials, solvents, and fuel for generators.
Fire load represents the total energy that can be released in a compartment as a result of a
fire.
• Fire load density (FLD) is the total fire load per square meter of the floor area (MJ/m2
),
given by:
• Fire loads are determined from surveys
While determining the fire load, the fire is designed in terms of the following terms of,
1. Heat release rate(HRR)
2. Toxic- species production rate
3. Smoke- production rate
4. Fire size( including its evolution versus time)
5. Temperature/ heat flux evolution versus time
Fire Phase
 Fire ignition
 Fire growth phase
 Flash over phase
 Post flash over/ fully developed phase
 Decay phase

202. 1) Growth phase:
 Fire load governs the initial fire growth rate. It is affected by
 Time to fire detection
 Time of sprinkler activation
 Time to flashover
 Time of untenable condition
 Time available for occupants to evacuate
In this phase fire growth is directly proportional to the square of time of fire buring.
The fire growth can be classified into four types based on the characteristic time required to
reach a predetermined heat release rate.
I. Slow
II. Medium
III. Fast
IV. Ultra fast
Where α is the heat transfer rate.

203. Factors affecting fire growth
a. Nature of combustibles,
b. Amount of combustibles
c. Type of combustibles
d. Ignitability of fuels
e. Geometric arrangement of the fuel
f. Geometry of the enclosure
g. Size and orientation of the opening which provide the supply of oxygen
Post- Flash over phase
When you consider the heat flux in a structure depends on the room or ambient temperature.
It is related to the time required for the fire to reach the posh flash over phase.
Maximum temperature in an enclosed compartment of area (Ac in m2
) with a ventilation area
of (Av in m2
)) can be found using the equation.
T =
6000 (1 − 𝑒−0.1Ω )
Ω
Where Ω =
𝐴 𝑐− 𝐴 𝑣
𝐴 𝑣 𝐻 𝑣
, Hv = ventilation height, m
td =
𝐸
0.092𝐴 𝑣Δℎ 𝑐 𝐻 𝑣
where td = fire duration in seconds,
E = energy content of fuel available for combustion in MJ
Δhc = heat of combustion of fuel MJ/Kg
Hv = height of ventilation
Opening factor 𝐹𝑣 =
𝐴 𝑣 𝐻 𝑣
𝐴 𝑐
Example: Consider a public library with dimensions of 10 x 8 x 7 m high and a fire load
density of 600 MJ/m2
. The library has a 5 x 1.5 m high window. Calculate the maximum
temperature and duration of fire.
T = Maximum temperature
Ac = Surface area of the compartment = 2 x (8 x 6 + 6 x 3 + 3 x 8) = 180 m2
Hv= Height of ventilation = 1m
Ω =
𝐴 𝑐− 𝐴 𝑣
𝐴 𝑣 𝐻 𝑣
=
180− 𝐴 𝑣
𝐴 𝑣 𝐻 𝑣