This study examined 113 commercial aviation accidents and incidents from 2002-2012 to evaluate the application of Crew Resource Management (CRM). 57 (50%) of the events listed a CRM-related causal factor or comment in the investigation report. The data supports the need for robust airline management procedures and CRM training guidelines to enhance pilot monitoring skills and CRM application, though no statistically significant relationship was found between CRM-related causes and airline management practices. CRM aims to develop skills like communication, decision making, and task management to mitigate human error, and plays an important role in flight safety internationally.
Running Head: SAFETY IN AVIATION 0
SAFETY IN AVIATION 1
Safety in Aviation
Meshari Al-Shahin
Dr. Jennifer Nader
ERAU
Meshari Al-Shahin
1420 New Bellevue Ave
Daytona Beach, Fl 32114
Nov 6, 2018
Daniel Elwell
FAA
800 Independence Ave SW
Washington, DC 20591
Re: Safety in Aviation Submittal 1420 new Bellevue
Dear Mr. Elwell,
Enclosed is my aviation submission for safety in aviation at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. My project was on aviation safety and from the word go relied on quantitative studies. The PDF packet includes 9 pages and breaks down as follows:
1. The letter of transmittal: pg.2
2. Abstract: pg.3
3. Analytical paragraph: pg.5
4. Introduction and Background: pg.6
5. Recommendation: pg.9
6. Conclusion: pg.10
7. References: pg.11
Considering the nature of report, it is limited in scope to different structure and platforms; we expect some challenges in the completion of research topic due to the time factor. I fully expect a further research and analysis of data applying statistical tools. On top of that, the project calls for analysis and recommendation of the research. The memorandum is attached to show the job allocation and scheduling thus I would require more time as I shall rely upon qualitative and quantitative tools of research. Therefore, I would request for a special consideration of all my sections of the project.
I would like to go ahead with my project on safety in aviation. Kindly pay a close attention to the progressive report of the work done and offer any green light for the completion of the project. Your guidance would be appreciated to the latter. Moreover, let me know if you experience any difficulties with my files or anything that seems to be not in order. You can contact me anytime via email at [email protected].
Thanks for your concern in advance,
Meshari Al-Shahin
Meshari Al-Shahin
Abstract
This paper summarized various measures taken for safety in aviation and considered the various responsibilities assigned to different people to ensure that there is a safe flying environment. The paper tries to provide solutions to the aviation industry that are effective for the aviation industry and useful to the employees in the industry, as well as travellers and used a problem-solution analysis. The report was designed to offer viable solutions to the problems that have arisen due to the expansion of air transport. An in-depth analysis of the issues surrounding the aviation management systems as well as the individual contribution to the general operations is highly scrutinized. Weather and climatic conditions were included as part of this study as it has been linked a large number of deaths because of poor insight, which thus have led to accidents. The recommendations include that it is advisable for .
Running Head: SAFETY IN AVIATION 0
SAFETY IN AVIATION 1
Safety in Aviation
Meshari Al-Shahin
Dr. Jennifer Nader
ERAU
Meshari Al-Shahin
1420 New Bellevue Ave
Daytona Beach, Fl 32114
Nov 6, 2018
Daniel Elwell
FAA
800 Independence Ave SW
Washington, DC 20591
Re: Safety in Aviation Submittal 1420 new Bellevue
Dear Mr. Elwell,
Enclosed is my aviation submission for safety in aviation at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. My project was on aviation safety and from the word go relied on quantitative studies. The PDF packet includes 9 pages and breaks down as follows:
1. The letter of transmittal: pg.2
2. Abstract: pg.3
3. Analytical paragraph: pg.5
4. Introduction and Background: pg.6
5. Recommendation: pg.9
6. Conclusion: pg.10
7. References: pg.11
Considering the nature of report, it is limited in scope to different structure and platforms; we expect some challenges in the completion of research topic due to the time factor. I fully expect a further research and analysis of data applying statistical tools. On top of that, the project calls for analysis and recommendation of the research. The memorandum is attached to show the job allocation and scheduling thus I would require more time as I shall rely upon qualitative and quantitative tools of research. Therefore, I would request for a special consideration of all my sections of the project.
I would like to go ahead with my project on safety in aviation. Kindly pay a close attention to the progressive report of the work done and offer any green light for the completion of the project. Your guidance would be appreciated to the latter. Moreover, let me know if you experience any difficulties with my files or anything that seems to be not in order. You can contact me anytime via email at [email protected].
Thanks for your concern in advance,
Meshari Al-Shahin
Meshari Al-Shahin
Abstract
This paper summarized various measures taken for safety in aviation and considered the various responsibilities assigned to different people to ensure that there is a safe flying environment. The paper tries to provide solutions to the aviation industry that are effective for the aviation industry and useful to the employees in the industry, as well as travellers and used a problem-solution analysis. The report was designed to offer viable solutions to the problems that have arisen due to the expansion of air transport. An in-depth analysis of the issues surrounding the aviation management systems as well as the individual contribution to the general operations is highly scrutinized. Weather and climatic conditions were included as part of this study as it has been linked a large number of deaths because of poor insight, which thus have led to accidents. The recommendations include that it is advisable for .
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & .docxlmelaine
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & Single Seat Pilots: Applications in CRM
ASCI 516 Applications in CRM
Module 8 Presentation
Military History of CRM
Military interest in CRM to prevent errors increased when training suggested an enhancement of mission effectiveness was also shown
In the Air Force, CRM was first considered as a way to take advantage of developments in training to update existing training for aircrew coordination
1980’s training programs in the Air Force, Army and Navy were generally referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT)
2
CRM in the Military
In 1970, civil aviation took the lead in CRM, and the military began implementing this type of training in the early 1980’s
3
Air Carrier and Military Aviation
Commonalities
Navigation
Weather
Controlling aircraft in flight
4
Differences
Purpose of organization
Qualifications of crews
Rank distinctions
Responsibilities of the crews
Labor relations
Miscellaneous factors (ie. Training)
5
Differences - Task
Task environment
Mission tasks
Decision goals
Time elements
Mission Alterations
Equipment
6
Differences - People
Entry level experience of military vs. civilian pilots
Promotion in military often means accepting jobs not related to flying
Motivation
Study of pilots who were both commercial airline and military reserve pilots showed military offers more of the “fun flying” and camaraderie
7
Differences - Organization
Rank and position
Officer/enlisted relations possible inhibitor of assertiveness
Rank reversals considered likely to add tension to cockpit relations
Formality that exits in military cockpit (based on recognition of rank differences) may act as barrier to effective communications
8
Military aircrew are often given duties that may interfere with their flying
safety officer
logistics officer
legal officer
maintenance officer
EEO program oversight
Scheduling
ordering A/C parts
train
investigate accidents
lecture
hold inspections
sit on promotion boards
fill out fitness reports
keep records
counsel subordinates
report to superiors
9
Training
Airlines are in business of transporting people safely – training is make that possible
Military trains for accomplishment of mission
virtually all peacetime flying is training activity
10
Military ACT/CRM Programs
By 1989 the Air Force/Navy/Army had at least one CRM-type program
Most programs are generally stand-alone lecture/discussion sessions, lasting 1-3 days
Videotapes developed for the airlines are often incorporated directly into programs
11
CRM For General Aviation
The Single Pilot
CRM For General Aviation
“No man is an island” and no pilot flies in a protective bubble.
How we interact with every person we come into contact with before and during a flight can significantly affect the outcome of that flight
Learning how to handle yourself and those around you is one of the keys to being a safer pilot
Crew Resourc ...
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & .docxnealwaters20034
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & Single Seat Pilots: Applications in CRM
ASCI 516 Applications in CRM
Module 8 Presentation
Military History of CRM
Military interest in CRM to prevent errors increased when training suggested an enhancement of mission effectiveness was also shown
In the Air Force, CRM was first considered as a way to take advantage of developments in training to update existing training for aircrew coordination
1980’s training programs in the Air Force, Army and Navy were generally referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT)
2
CRM in the Military
In 1970, civil aviation took the lead in CRM, and the military began implementing this type of training in the early 1980’s
3
Air Carrier and Military Aviation
Commonalities
Navigation
Weather
Controlling aircraft in flight
4
Differences
Purpose of organization
Qualifications of crews
Rank distinctions
Responsibilities of the crews
Labor relations
Miscellaneous factors (ie. Training)
5
Differences - Task
Task environment
Mission tasks
Decision goals
Time elements
Mission Alterations
Equipment
6
Differences - People
Entry level experience of military vs. civilian pilots
Promotion in military often means accepting jobs not related to flying
Motivation
Study of pilots who were both commercial airline and military reserve pilots showed military offers more of the “fun flying” and camaraderie
7
Differences - Organization
Rank and position
Officer/enlisted relations possible inhibitor of assertiveness
Rank reversals considered likely to add tension to cockpit relations
Formality that exits in military cockpit (based on recognition of rank differences) may act as barrier to effective communications
8
Military aircrew are often given duties that may interfere with their flying
safety officer
logistics officer
legal officer
maintenance officer
EEO program oversight
Scheduling
ordering A/C parts
train
investigate accidents
lecture
hold inspections
sit on promotion boards
fill out fitness reports
keep records
counsel subordinates
report to superiors
9
Training
Airlines are in business of transporting people safely – training is make that possible
Military trains for accomplishment of mission
virtually all peacetime flying is training activity
10
Military ACT/CRM Programs
By 1989 the Air Force/Navy/Army had at least one CRM-type program
Most programs are generally stand-alone lecture/discussion sessions, lasting 1-3 days
Videotapes developed for the airlines are often incorporated directly into programs
11
CRM For General Aviation
The Single Pilot
CRM For General Aviation
“No man is an island” and no pilot flies in a protective bubble.
How we interact with every person we come into contact with before and during a flight can significantly affect the outcome of that flight
Learning how to handle yourself and those around you is one of the keys to being a safer pilot
Crew Resourc.
Running Head: SAFETY IN AVIATION 0
SAFETY IN AVIATION 1
Safety in Aviation
Meshari Al-Shahin
Dr. Jennifer Nader
ERAU
Meshari Al-Shahin
1420 New Bellevue Ave
Daytona Beach, Fl 32114
Nov 6, 2018
Daniel Elwell
FAA
800 Independence Ave SW
Washington, DC 20591
Re: Safety in Aviation Submittal 1420 new Bellevue
Dear Mr. Elwell,
Enclosed is my aviation submission for safety in aviation at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. My project was on aviation safety and from the word go relied on quantitative studies. The PDF packet includes 9 pages and breaks down as follows:
1. The letter of transmittal: pg.2
2. Abstract: pg.3
3. Analytical paragraph: pg.5
4. Introduction and Background: pg.6
5. Recommendation: pg.9
6. Conclusion: pg.10
7. References: pg.11
Considering the nature of report, it is limited in scope to different structure and platforms; we expect some challenges in the completion of research topic due to the time factor. I fully expect a further research and analysis of data applying statistical tools. On top of that, the project calls for analysis and recommendation of the research. The memorandum is attached to show the job allocation and scheduling thus I would require more time as I shall rely upon qualitative and quantitative tools of research. Therefore, I would request for a special consideration of all my sections of the project.
I would like to go ahead with my project on safety in aviation. Kindly pay a close attention to the progressive report of the work done and offer any green light for the completion of the project. Your guidance would be appreciated to the latter. Moreover, let me know if you experience any difficulties with my files or anything that seems to be not in order. You can contact me anytime via email at [email protected].
Thanks for your concern in advance,
Meshari Al-Shahin
Meshari Al-Shahin
Abstract
This paper summarized various measures taken for safety in aviation and considered the various responsibilities assigned to different people to ensure that there is a safe flying environment. The paper tries to provide solutions to the aviation industry that are effective for the aviation industry and useful to the employees in the industry, as well as travellers and used a problem-solution analysis. The report was designed to offer viable solutions to the problems that have arisen due to the expansion of air transport. An in-depth analysis of the issues surrounding the aviation management systems as well as the individual contribution to the general operations is highly scrutinized. Weather and climatic conditions were included as part of this study as it has been linked a large number of deaths because of poor insight, which thus have led to accidents. The recommendations include that it is advisable for .
Running Head: SAFETY IN AVIATION 0
SAFETY IN AVIATION 1
Safety in Aviation
Meshari Al-Shahin
Dr. Jennifer Nader
ERAU
Meshari Al-Shahin
1420 New Bellevue Ave
Daytona Beach, Fl 32114
Nov 6, 2018
Daniel Elwell
FAA
800 Independence Ave SW
Washington, DC 20591
Re: Safety in Aviation Submittal 1420 new Bellevue
Dear Mr. Elwell,
Enclosed is my aviation submission for safety in aviation at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. My project was on aviation safety and from the word go relied on quantitative studies. The PDF packet includes 9 pages and breaks down as follows:
1. The letter of transmittal: pg.2
2. Abstract: pg.3
3. Analytical paragraph: pg.5
4. Introduction and Background: pg.6
5. Recommendation: pg.9
6. Conclusion: pg.10
7. References: pg.11
Considering the nature of report, it is limited in scope to different structure and platforms; we expect some challenges in the completion of research topic due to the time factor. I fully expect a further research and analysis of data applying statistical tools. On top of that, the project calls for analysis and recommendation of the research. The memorandum is attached to show the job allocation and scheduling thus I would require more time as I shall rely upon qualitative and quantitative tools of research. Therefore, I would request for a special consideration of all my sections of the project.
I would like to go ahead with my project on safety in aviation. Kindly pay a close attention to the progressive report of the work done and offer any green light for the completion of the project. Your guidance would be appreciated to the latter. Moreover, let me know if you experience any difficulties with my files or anything that seems to be not in order. You can contact me anytime via email at [email protected].
Thanks for your concern in advance,
Meshari Al-Shahin
Meshari Al-Shahin
Abstract
This paper summarized various measures taken for safety in aviation and considered the various responsibilities assigned to different people to ensure that there is a safe flying environment. The paper tries to provide solutions to the aviation industry that are effective for the aviation industry and useful to the employees in the industry, as well as travellers and used a problem-solution analysis. The report was designed to offer viable solutions to the problems that have arisen due to the expansion of air transport. An in-depth analysis of the issues surrounding the aviation management systems as well as the individual contribution to the general operations is highly scrutinized. Weather and climatic conditions were included as part of this study as it has been linked a large number of deaths because of poor insight, which thus have led to accidents. The recommendations include that it is advisable for .
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & .docxlmelaine
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & Single Seat Pilots: Applications in CRM
ASCI 516 Applications in CRM
Module 8 Presentation
Military History of CRM
Military interest in CRM to prevent errors increased when training suggested an enhancement of mission effectiveness was also shown
In the Air Force, CRM was first considered as a way to take advantage of developments in training to update existing training for aircrew coordination
1980’s training programs in the Air Force, Army and Navy were generally referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT)
2
CRM in the Military
In 1970, civil aviation took the lead in CRM, and the military began implementing this type of training in the early 1980’s
3
Air Carrier and Military Aviation
Commonalities
Navigation
Weather
Controlling aircraft in flight
4
Differences
Purpose of organization
Qualifications of crews
Rank distinctions
Responsibilities of the crews
Labor relations
Miscellaneous factors (ie. Training)
5
Differences - Task
Task environment
Mission tasks
Decision goals
Time elements
Mission Alterations
Equipment
6
Differences - People
Entry level experience of military vs. civilian pilots
Promotion in military often means accepting jobs not related to flying
Motivation
Study of pilots who were both commercial airline and military reserve pilots showed military offers more of the “fun flying” and camaraderie
7
Differences - Organization
Rank and position
Officer/enlisted relations possible inhibitor of assertiveness
Rank reversals considered likely to add tension to cockpit relations
Formality that exits in military cockpit (based on recognition of rank differences) may act as barrier to effective communications
8
Military aircrew are often given duties that may interfere with their flying
safety officer
logistics officer
legal officer
maintenance officer
EEO program oversight
Scheduling
ordering A/C parts
train
investigate accidents
lecture
hold inspections
sit on promotion boards
fill out fitness reports
keep records
counsel subordinates
report to superiors
9
Training
Airlines are in business of transporting people safely – training is make that possible
Military trains for accomplishment of mission
virtually all peacetime flying is training activity
10
Military ACT/CRM Programs
By 1989 the Air Force/Navy/Army had at least one CRM-type program
Most programs are generally stand-alone lecture/discussion sessions, lasting 1-3 days
Videotapes developed for the airlines are often incorporated directly into programs
11
CRM For General Aviation
The Single Pilot
CRM For General Aviation
“No man is an island” and no pilot flies in a protective bubble.
How we interact with every person we come into contact with before and during a flight can significantly affect the outcome of that flight
Learning how to handle yourself and those around you is one of the keys to being a safer pilot
Crew Resourc ...
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & .docxnealwaters20034
FAA Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and CRM for Military & Single Seat Pilots: Applications in CRM
ASCI 516 Applications in CRM
Module 8 Presentation
Military History of CRM
Military interest in CRM to prevent errors increased when training suggested an enhancement of mission effectiveness was also shown
In the Air Force, CRM was first considered as a way to take advantage of developments in training to update existing training for aircrew coordination
1980’s training programs in the Air Force, Army and Navy were generally referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT)
2
CRM in the Military
In 1970, civil aviation took the lead in CRM, and the military began implementing this type of training in the early 1980’s
3
Air Carrier and Military Aviation
Commonalities
Navigation
Weather
Controlling aircraft in flight
4
Differences
Purpose of organization
Qualifications of crews
Rank distinctions
Responsibilities of the crews
Labor relations
Miscellaneous factors (ie. Training)
5
Differences - Task
Task environment
Mission tasks
Decision goals
Time elements
Mission Alterations
Equipment
6
Differences - People
Entry level experience of military vs. civilian pilots
Promotion in military often means accepting jobs not related to flying
Motivation
Study of pilots who were both commercial airline and military reserve pilots showed military offers more of the “fun flying” and camaraderie
7
Differences - Organization
Rank and position
Officer/enlisted relations possible inhibitor of assertiveness
Rank reversals considered likely to add tension to cockpit relations
Formality that exits in military cockpit (based on recognition of rank differences) may act as barrier to effective communications
8
Military aircrew are often given duties that may interfere with their flying
safety officer
logistics officer
legal officer
maintenance officer
EEO program oversight
Scheduling
ordering A/C parts
train
investigate accidents
lecture
hold inspections
sit on promotion boards
fill out fitness reports
keep records
counsel subordinates
report to superiors
9
Training
Airlines are in business of transporting people safely – training is make that possible
Military trains for accomplishment of mission
virtually all peacetime flying is training activity
10
Military ACT/CRM Programs
By 1989 the Air Force/Navy/Army had at least one CRM-type program
Most programs are generally stand-alone lecture/discussion sessions, lasting 1-3 days
Videotapes developed for the airlines are often incorporated directly into programs
11
CRM For General Aviation
The Single Pilot
CRM For General Aviation
“No man is an island” and no pilot flies in a protective bubble.
How we interact with every person we come into contact with before and during a flight can significantly affect the outcome of that flight
Learning how to handle yourself and those around you is one of the keys to being a safer pilot
Crew Resourc.
Risk Perception Of Turkish Helicopter Pilots And The Relationship Between The...inventionjournals
:Aircraft and flight system accidents due to human error sare more common than accidents due to mechanical failure. This study aims to determine the risk perception of Turkishhelicopterpilots and the relationship between their flight experience decision making styles. In this context, the analyses are conducted among helicopter pilots flying in accordance with general aviation rules. In this context, analyses are conducted with the participation of helicopter pilots flying according to general aviation rules (n=308) in Turkey. In the light of these analyses, it is seen that there is a relationship between the risk perceptions and decision making styles of the pilots. Also, there are considerable differences found between the flight hours and decision making styles of the pilots. However, there are no significant differences between the ages and the decision making styles. The results are discussed in comparison to the studies in the literature.
Running head AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 1Aviat.docxtoddr4
Running head: AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 1
Aviation Safety Challenges in Africa
Ivan Brian Temanju
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 2
Annotated Bibliography
Accident Investigation Bureau, Nigeria. (2014). Reports and publications. Retrieved on March 28,
2019 from http://www.aib.gov.ng/publication.php.
This source was written to provide reports on the rates of airplane accidents in
Nigeria and still highlights some of the ways they could have been avoided. It states that one of
the challenges of aviation safety is Africa is based on human errors and changes in weather
conditions. The results of the investigation conducted by the bureau in Nigeria stated that the
only way the airplane accidents can be reduced is by ensuring that all the training centres are
tested and certified. This source is credible and connects well with the research topic in that it
avails aviation issue backs them with the right mitigation mechanisms.
Aviation Safety Implementation Assistance Partnership (ASIAP). (n.d). Retrieved on March 28,
2019 from https://www.icao.int/safety/ASIAP/Pages/default.aspx
The website states about the partnership which coordinates efforts that contribute
to the provision of assistance to member States with the objectives of information sharing,
prioritizing assistance needs, collaborating on assistance activities, supporting a resource
mobilization strategy, and agreeing on outcome indicators. This source contributes to the topic in
that such partnerships and collaborations amongst member states help mitigates safety risks and
challenges by sharing information, expertise and resources.
Hooper, B. J. & O’Hare, D. P. (2013). Exploring human error in military aviation flight safety
systems using post-incident classification systems. Journal of Aviation, Space and
Environmental Medicine, 84(8), 803–813
http://www.aib.gov.ng/publication.php
https://www.icao.int/safety/ASIAP/Pages/default.aspx
Alan Bender
23860000000001400
I'm pretty certain there are some APA errors here. Isn't this an ICAO publication?
Alan Bender
23860000000001400
Double-check APA
AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 3
This article was written with the purpose of bringing out some of ways accidents
occur among the military airplanes in Africa. This was an investigation conducted and the results
were that human errors are the main causes of military airplane crushes. Human error is a
challenge that poses safety to the military and this can be mitigated by ensuring that the flight
operators are well trained and that they have a long term experience. They also need to be
educated on safety measures put in place. The source supports the topic at hand by stating the
challenges and mitigation steps of aviation industry.
Iata. (n.d.). IATA Releases 2018 Airline Safety Performance. Retrieved on March 28, 2019, from
https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2019-02-21-01..
The aviation system is a complex and interrelated network with concern on the airline operations safety. Safety in aviation involves airport conditions, aircraft maintenance, communication with the system operators and route information which aims at avoiding airline hazards on and off flights (Cushing, 1997). The Federal Aviation Regulations is a set of guidelines that are set for airline operations to be safe, enhancing effective air traffic control, effective airline safety measures among other safety procedures. There are also other aviation authorities that monitor commercial and general aviation to improve safety. The industry also depends on statistical research which justifies changes and improvements of the safety features of airlines. Safety in aviation also depends on external factors such as economic and political environments for effective safety measures and therefore the aerospace industry works in alliances and partnerships with other companies and the military aviation for a safe civil aviation practice (Cushing, 1997). Costs of operations, liability insurance covers, meteorological conditions and human errors which are safety related factors in commercial aviation are evaluated and used to develop safe and comfortable aviation practices in commercial aviation. In this paper, the safety guidelines in commercial aviation and the relevant authorities that monitor aviation safety are the significant concern especially in commercial airline companies.
Mahmoud Alhujayri Professor WesemannAV 4720 03172017.docxsmile790243
Mahmoud Alhujayri
Professor Wesemann
AV 4720
03/17/2017
Article Analysis 3
The article titled Safety Regulation: Crackdown on Fatigue authored and published by Flight Safety Foundation on its website on 7th April 2011 describes one of the flight safety rules established by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recently. As explained in the article, the FAA established the rule in response to recommendations made by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) after the Aloha airline flight 243 incident. The incident, which occurred on April 28, 1988, involved Boeing 737-200 that was operated and owned by Aloha Airlines Inc. The aircraft was heading to Honolulu from Hilo in Hawaii when it experienced structural failure and explosive decompression. Consequently, the aircraft made an emergency landing on the ground. On board were six crew members and 89 passengers (Flight Safety Foundation, 2011). Although the aircraft was damaged, only one crew member died. Seven passengers and one crew member sustained serious injuries. After investigations, it was noted that accident was caused by the failure by the aircraft's maintenance program to detect fatigue. Eventually, the fatigue led to widespread fatigue damage (WFD). As explained in the article authored by the flight safety foundation, the NTSB made a recommendation to the FAA to ensure that aircraft have effective maintenance programs and to make continuous surveillance of those programs. In response, the FAA made a rule that requiring the establishment of an inspection program for airplanes of transport category (Flight Safety Foundation, 2011). The program was meant to determine the probability of WFD occurring before “limit of validity” (LOV). The article also contains brief information about other aircrafts that have been damaged by WFD and an explanation of how LOV would be determined.
The content of the article is related to the topic of flight safety since it concentrates on the step that was taken by FAA to enhance aviation safety through conducting a thorough inspection of aircrafts to determine whether they are at the risk of getting damaged by WFD before the end of their LOV. Applying the rule would help to reduce accidents that are caused by WFD. Despite the fact that the article is very relevant, it does not cover many things related to flight safety. For instance, the issue of flight safety when landing is very paramount. Another important issue relates likelihood of carrying passengers with communicable diseases, such as avian influenza. Safety from attack by terrorists is still a major issue that affects the aviation industry today. Other important issues that influence flight safety include weather situation awareness, airspace infringement, fuel management and cabin crew fatigue. Questions related to the topics mentioned above ought to be covered. Despite not covering those issues, the article will be very useful. The content of the article will be used as an e ...
Passengers prefer airlines because the people want to reach destination faster and safer. Aviation industry is dependent on a number of industries. It is dependent on smooth and effective functioning’s of the different departments. The airlines are dependent on fuel, cabin crew, weather, flight crew, freight, load of the airplanes, flight dispatch scheduling. The Operational Control Centre (OCC) of the airplanes controls the different aspects and oversees the smooth functioning of the different organizations
The aviation system is a complex and interrelated network with concern on the airline operations safety. Safety in aviation involves airport conditions, aircraft maintenance, communication with the system operators and route information which aims at avoiding airline hazards on and off flights (Cushing, 1997). The Federal Aviation Regulations is a set of guidelines that are set for airline operations to be safe, enhancing effective air traffic control, effective airline safety measures among other safety procedures. There are also other aviation authorities that monitor commercial and general aviation to improve safety. The industry also depends on statistical research which justifies changes and improvements of the safety features of airlines. Safety in aviation also depends on external factors such as economic and political environments for effective safety measures and therefore the aerospace industry works in alliances and partnerships with other companies and the military aviation for a safe civil aviation practice (Cushing, 1997). Costs of operations, liability insurance covers, meteorological conditions and human errors which are safety related factors in commercial aviation are evaluated and used to develop safe and comfortable aviation practices in commercial aviation. In this paper, the safety guidelines in commercial aviation and the relevant authorities that monitor aviation safety are the significant concern especially in commercial airline companies.
In 1994, the University of Texas Human Research Project and Delta Airline developed the Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) program. With time, the LOSA program evolved into what is now known as Threat and Error Management (TEM).
The TEM framework is an applied concept which emerged from the observations and surveys of actual flight operations. It considers the various issues that a flight crew may encounter as a result of internal and external factors.
This model explores the contributing factors of the threat to aviation safety and, in turn, allows for the unearthing of ways to mitigate them and maintain proper safety margins. Now recognized and adopted across continents, the TEM framework aims to educate flight personnel on managing threats and errors before they degenerate into serious incidents or accidents. It is important to note that TEM is also applicable to maintenance operations, cabin crew, and air traffic control.
Review of the National Culture Influence on Pilot’s DecisionMaking during fli...IOSRJBM
Thisreview paperstudies the influence of the national culture onflying safety in the cockpit. Likewise, the study aims toevaluate the pilot behaviour and response to risk during flight in terms of pilot decisionmaking. According to Helmreich (2000), ―cultural values are so deeply ingrained; it is unlikely that exhortation, edict, or generic training programs can modify them. The challenge is to develop organizational initiatives that congruent with the culture‖. Thus,evaluating the technology-culture interference impact on a pilot’s decision-making performance, within a specific region gives deep understanding of the pilot’s behaviour under the effect of this region national culture. In addition,this appraises the risk tolerance, error management and factors that affect pilot decision-making in regarding to national culture within the region.The expected contribution of this research is to enhance the pilot decision-making performance within the region of North Africa. Moreover, this study will enhances the implementation of Crew Resource Management training program (CRM), in which will support the culture calibration of the CRM tofit the pilot’sneeds within this region. Ultimately, a safe operation of the aircrafts and improvethe aviation marketwithin the region
Select one of the following options to complete this assignment.docxlvernon1
Select one of the following options to complete this assignment:
· health information specialist
Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper that summarizes certifications and continuing education that would be appropriate for a professional role in a hospital or other applicable health care setting.
· Identify a professional organization that would provide professional development opportunities for the role you selected.
· Describe professional development and other opportunities the professional organization would provide to you as a member.
· Explain the importance of being a member in a professional organization.
· Include the link to this organization.
Cite 2 peer-reviewed, scholarly, or similar references to support your assignment.
Format your assignment according to APA guidelines.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
Materials
· Certifications and Continuing Education in Your Professional Role Grading Criteria
Running head: EVALUATING HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION ACCIDENTS 1
EVALUATING HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION ACCIDENTS 21
An Evaluation of Accidents Caused by Human factors in Commercial Aviation.
by
Sandro Jose Chiappe
A Research Project Proposal
Submitted to the Worldwide Campus
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
of Course, ASCI 490, The Aeronautical Science Capstone Course
For the Bachelor of Science in Aeronautics Degree
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
July 2018
Abstract
The purpose of this project is to evaluate specific accidents in Commercial Aviation history. To evaluate various factors that have culminated in such catastrophes, primarily focusing on human error. Although, there are many unprecedented variables such as natural disasters that may result in devastating accidents, they are not as common as human factors (BASI, 1996). The student will review the details of certain accidents that have been attributed to human factors. One of the accidents for instance, will be Aeroperu, flight 603 that crashed on October 1996 (Skybrary, 1996). Although there were a variety of elements that played into this tragic event, it was primarily attributed to human error. One of the other accidents that will be investigated in the duration of this project is the Colgan crash (Collins). The Colgan crash was a result of multiple components, most notably, the failure of following sterile flight deck procedures by both pilots (Collins). Although it is still under investigation, the Cubana de Aviacion crash of May, 2018 is also suspected to be caused by human errors (Whitefield, 2018). Additionally, the student will evaluate the differences between factors and how they came into play in each of these accidents. In addition to human error, other factors may come into play that may increase the chances of devastation. Factors such as, mechanical, weather, instrumental or environmental (Shapell, 2001). The student will delve in each one of these variables and will determine how each of these factors com.
Associated Issues with UAS Human FactorsStuden.docxjasoninnes20
Associated Issues with UAS Human Factors
Student
ASCI 638-Human Factors in Unmanned Aerospace Systems
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide
Nov 22, 2019
Running head: ASSOCIATED ISSUES WITH UAS HUMAN FACTORS 1
ASSOCIATED ISSUES WITH UAS HUMAN FACTORS 4
Associated Issues with UAS Human Factors
There are maintenance related issues in which development, monitoring, and improvement can be managed. This discussion will look at knowledge requirements, the lack of physical piloting input, complacency especially in maintenance, and growing remote controlling culture.
Knowledge Requirements
The major issue with the requirement of knowledge is the fact that a technician needs to have extensive knowledge of the entire system. There is no compartmentalization of knowledge, which puts pressure on the diversity of information concerning links in the system. As an issue, it means that the technician has to be vast in avionics and airframes, ground-based maintenance on an array of equipment, and the engines (Baldwin, 2014). This is in addition to the fact that they should be able to know the wireless communication, radio transmissions, and guidance controls with standardization on computing. This need shows so many areas that have a potentially high risk of error increment with reliability on only one person (Williams, 2016).
Complacency and Lack of Physical Piloting Input
In UAS maintenance, the concern is in the risk of exposure of humans to risk is often present, which may mean that technicians are likely not going to put too much effort on security issues. As a result, there is complacency in dealing with the prioritization of critical issues due to a “relaxed” mindset (Baldwin, 2014). Also, the fact that a pilot is not involved means that the high-risk potential for lack of ability to take back control when there are maintenance problems. This is even made warier with the removal of the aspect of pre-checks in safety mistakes and logbook entries that is traditionally done in traditional aviation operations. The availability of a status report has been used to justify that removal but there is a limitation in the definition of the sensory experience of the pilot in flight.
Growing Remote Controlling Culture
The idea of the increased remote-controlled environment means that most informal settings are not strict on the formal procedures and regulation hence a reluctance on the way practices are handled. Therefore, the issue with ethics, professionalism, and legislative frameworks take the forefront as a result of a lack of proper and more conventional implementation (Law360, 2016).
References
Baldwin, H. (2014 Sep 08). Human Factors in Unmanned Aircraft Operations. Inside MRO. Retrieved from https://www.mro-network.com/maintenance-repair-overhaul/human-factors-unmanned-aircraft-operations
Law360. (2016, May 11). 5 Major Obstacles for Unmanned Aircraft ...
The influence of adverse weather conditions on pilots’ behavior and decision ...Berend Roosendaal
This paper presents a summary of the international literature regarding pilots’ behavior under adverse weather conditions. The literature also covers the influences on the decision-making process of the pilot. The focus of this study is on pilots who fly solely in general aviation.
Attaining Expertise
You are training individuals you supervise on how to attain expertise in your field.
Write
a 1,050- to 1,200-word paper on the processes involved with attaining expertise, using your assigned readings in Anderson. Explain how these processes apply to attaining expertise in your current field or in the field you plan to enter. Focus on the cognitive processes that are involved in mastering knowledge and skills.
Include
a title page and references list consistent with APA guidelines.
Click
the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
.
attachment Chloe” is a example of the whole packet. Please follow t.docxcelenarouzie
attachment “Chloe” is a example of the whole packet. Please follow the format and write in professional PR tone. So for each paragraph, you should refer to what’s write in the example. The packet includes a pitch letter, a news release (which i already wrote), a feature release, a fact sheet, a executive biography and a media alert. I have already wrote the news release part. I also put in the attachment.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Available online at httpdocs.lib.purdue.edujateJournal.docx
Risk Perception Of Turkish Helicopter Pilots And The Relationship Between The...inventionjournals
:Aircraft and flight system accidents due to human error sare more common than accidents due to mechanical failure. This study aims to determine the risk perception of Turkishhelicopterpilots and the relationship between their flight experience decision making styles. In this context, the analyses are conducted among helicopter pilots flying in accordance with general aviation rules. In this context, analyses are conducted with the participation of helicopter pilots flying according to general aviation rules (n=308) in Turkey. In the light of these analyses, it is seen that there is a relationship between the risk perceptions and decision making styles of the pilots. Also, there are considerable differences found between the flight hours and decision making styles of the pilots. However, there are no significant differences between the ages and the decision making styles. The results are discussed in comparison to the studies in the literature.
Running head AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 1Aviat.docxtoddr4
Running head: AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 1
Aviation Safety Challenges in Africa
Ivan Brian Temanju
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 2
Annotated Bibliography
Accident Investigation Bureau, Nigeria. (2014). Reports and publications. Retrieved on March 28,
2019 from http://www.aib.gov.ng/publication.php.
This source was written to provide reports on the rates of airplane accidents in
Nigeria and still highlights some of the ways they could have been avoided. It states that one of
the challenges of aviation safety is Africa is based on human errors and changes in weather
conditions. The results of the investigation conducted by the bureau in Nigeria stated that the
only way the airplane accidents can be reduced is by ensuring that all the training centres are
tested and certified. This source is credible and connects well with the research topic in that it
avails aviation issue backs them with the right mitigation mechanisms.
Aviation Safety Implementation Assistance Partnership (ASIAP). (n.d). Retrieved on March 28,
2019 from https://www.icao.int/safety/ASIAP/Pages/default.aspx
The website states about the partnership which coordinates efforts that contribute
to the provision of assistance to member States with the objectives of information sharing,
prioritizing assistance needs, collaborating on assistance activities, supporting a resource
mobilization strategy, and agreeing on outcome indicators. This source contributes to the topic in
that such partnerships and collaborations amongst member states help mitigates safety risks and
challenges by sharing information, expertise and resources.
Hooper, B. J. & O’Hare, D. P. (2013). Exploring human error in military aviation flight safety
systems using post-incident classification systems. Journal of Aviation, Space and
Environmental Medicine, 84(8), 803–813
http://www.aib.gov.ng/publication.php
https://www.icao.int/safety/ASIAP/Pages/default.aspx
Alan Bender
23860000000001400
I'm pretty certain there are some APA errors here. Isn't this an ICAO publication?
Alan Bender
23860000000001400
Double-check APA
AVIATION SAFETY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA 3
This article was written with the purpose of bringing out some of ways accidents
occur among the military airplanes in Africa. This was an investigation conducted and the results
were that human errors are the main causes of military airplane crushes. Human error is a
challenge that poses safety to the military and this can be mitigated by ensuring that the flight
operators are well trained and that they have a long term experience. They also need to be
educated on safety measures put in place. The source supports the topic at hand by stating the
challenges and mitigation steps of aviation industry.
Iata. (n.d.). IATA Releases 2018 Airline Safety Performance. Retrieved on March 28, 2019, from
https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2019-02-21-01..
The aviation system is a complex and interrelated network with concern on the airline operations safety. Safety in aviation involves airport conditions, aircraft maintenance, communication with the system operators and route information which aims at avoiding airline hazards on and off flights (Cushing, 1997). The Federal Aviation Regulations is a set of guidelines that are set for airline operations to be safe, enhancing effective air traffic control, effective airline safety measures among other safety procedures. There are also other aviation authorities that monitor commercial and general aviation to improve safety. The industry also depends on statistical research which justifies changes and improvements of the safety features of airlines. Safety in aviation also depends on external factors such as economic and political environments for effective safety measures and therefore the aerospace industry works in alliances and partnerships with other companies and the military aviation for a safe civil aviation practice (Cushing, 1997). Costs of operations, liability insurance covers, meteorological conditions and human errors which are safety related factors in commercial aviation are evaluated and used to develop safe and comfortable aviation practices in commercial aviation. In this paper, the safety guidelines in commercial aviation and the relevant authorities that monitor aviation safety are the significant concern especially in commercial airline companies.
Mahmoud Alhujayri Professor WesemannAV 4720 03172017.docxsmile790243
Mahmoud Alhujayri
Professor Wesemann
AV 4720
03/17/2017
Article Analysis 3
The article titled Safety Regulation: Crackdown on Fatigue authored and published by Flight Safety Foundation on its website on 7th April 2011 describes one of the flight safety rules established by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recently. As explained in the article, the FAA established the rule in response to recommendations made by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) after the Aloha airline flight 243 incident. The incident, which occurred on April 28, 1988, involved Boeing 737-200 that was operated and owned by Aloha Airlines Inc. The aircraft was heading to Honolulu from Hilo in Hawaii when it experienced structural failure and explosive decompression. Consequently, the aircraft made an emergency landing on the ground. On board were six crew members and 89 passengers (Flight Safety Foundation, 2011). Although the aircraft was damaged, only one crew member died. Seven passengers and one crew member sustained serious injuries. After investigations, it was noted that accident was caused by the failure by the aircraft's maintenance program to detect fatigue. Eventually, the fatigue led to widespread fatigue damage (WFD). As explained in the article authored by the flight safety foundation, the NTSB made a recommendation to the FAA to ensure that aircraft have effective maintenance programs and to make continuous surveillance of those programs. In response, the FAA made a rule that requiring the establishment of an inspection program for airplanes of transport category (Flight Safety Foundation, 2011). The program was meant to determine the probability of WFD occurring before “limit of validity” (LOV). The article also contains brief information about other aircrafts that have been damaged by WFD and an explanation of how LOV would be determined.
The content of the article is related to the topic of flight safety since it concentrates on the step that was taken by FAA to enhance aviation safety through conducting a thorough inspection of aircrafts to determine whether they are at the risk of getting damaged by WFD before the end of their LOV. Applying the rule would help to reduce accidents that are caused by WFD. Despite the fact that the article is very relevant, it does not cover many things related to flight safety. For instance, the issue of flight safety when landing is very paramount. Another important issue relates likelihood of carrying passengers with communicable diseases, such as avian influenza. Safety from attack by terrorists is still a major issue that affects the aviation industry today. Other important issues that influence flight safety include weather situation awareness, airspace infringement, fuel management and cabin crew fatigue. Questions related to the topics mentioned above ought to be covered. Despite not covering those issues, the article will be very useful. The content of the article will be used as an e ...
Passengers prefer airlines because the people want to reach destination faster and safer. Aviation industry is dependent on a number of industries. It is dependent on smooth and effective functioning’s of the different departments. The airlines are dependent on fuel, cabin crew, weather, flight crew, freight, load of the airplanes, flight dispatch scheduling. The Operational Control Centre (OCC) of the airplanes controls the different aspects and oversees the smooth functioning of the different organizations
The aviation system is a complex and interrelated network with concern on the airline operations safety. Safety in aviation involves airport conditions, aircraft maintenance, communication with the system operators and route information which aims at avoiding airline hazards on and off flights (Cushing, 1997). The Federal Aviation Regulations is a set of guidelines that are set for airline operations to be safe, enhancing effective air traffic control, effective airline safety measures among other safety procedures. There are also other aviation authorities that monitor commercial and general aviation to improve safety. The industry also depends on statistical research which justifies changes and improvements of the safety features of airlines. Safety in aviation also depends on external factors such as economic and political environments for effective safety measures and therefore the aerospace industry works in alliances and partnerships with other companies and the military aviation for a safe civil aviation practice (Cushing, 1997). Costs of operations, liability insurance covers, meteorological conditions and human errors which are safety related factors in commercial aviation are evaluated and used to develop safe and comfortable aviation practices in commercial aviation. In this paper, the safety guidelines in commercial aviation and the relevant authorities that monitor aviation safety are the significant concern especially in commercial airline companies.
In 1994, the University of Texas Human Research Project and Delta Airline developed the Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) program. With time, the LOSA program evolved into what is now known as Threat and Error Management (TEM).
The TEM framework is an applied concept which emerged from the observations and surveys of actual flight operations. It considers the various issues that a flight crew may encounter as a result of internal and external factors.
This model explores the contributing factors of the threat to aviation safety and, in turn, allows for the unearthing of ways to mitigate them and maintain proper safety margins. Now recognized and adopted across continents, the TEM framework aims to educate flight personnel on managing threats and errors before they degenerate into serious incidents or accidents. It is important to note that TEM is also applicable to maintenance operations, cabin crew, and air traffic control.
Review of the National Culture Influence on Pilot’s DecisionMaking during fli...IOSRJBM
Thisreview paperstudies the influence of the national culture onflying safety in the cockpit. Likewise, the study aims toevaluate the pilot behaviour and response to risk during flight in terms of pilot decisionmaking. According to Helmreich (2000), ―cultural values are so deeply ingrained; it is unlikely that exhortation, edict, or generic training programs can modify them. The challenge is to develop organizational initiatives that congruent with the culture‖. Thus,evaluating the technology-culture interference impact on a pilot’s decision-making performance, within a specific region gives deep understanding of the pilot’s behaviour under the effect of this region national culture. In addition,this appraises the risk tolerance, error management and factors that affect pilot decision-making in regarding to national culture within the region.The expected contribution of this research is to enhance the pilot decision-making performance within the region of North Africa. Moreover, this study will enhances the implementation of Crew Resource Management training program (CRM), in which will support the culture calibration of the CRM tofit the pilot’sneeds within this region. Ultimately, a safe operation of the aircrafts and improvethe aviation marketwithin the region
Select one of the following options to complete this assignment.docxlvernon1
Select one of the following options to complete this assignment:
· health information specialist
Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper that summarizes certifications and continuing education that would be appropriate for a professional role in a hospital or other applicable health care setting.
· Identify a professional organization that would provide professional development opportunities for the role you selected.
· Describe professional development and other opportunities the professional organization would provide to you as a member.
· Explain the importance of being a member in a professional organization.
· Include the link to this organization.
Cite 2 peer-reviewed, scholarly, or similar references to support your assignment.
Format your assignment according to APA guidelines.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
Materials
· Certifications and Continuing Education in Your Professional Role Grading Criteria
Running head: EVALUATING HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION ACCIDENTS 1
EVALUATING HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION ACCIDENTS 21
An Evaluation of Accidents Caused by Human factors in Commercial Aviation.
by
Sandro Jose Chiappe
A Research Project Proposal
Submitted to the Worldwide Campus
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
of Course, ASCI 490, The Aeronautical Science Capstone Course
For the Bachelor of Science in Aeronautics Degree
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
July 2018
Abstract
The purpose of this project is to evaluate specific accidents in Commercial Aviation history. To evaluate various factors that have culminated in such catastrophes, primarily focusing on human error. Although, there are many unprecedented variables such as natural disasters that may result in devastating accidents, they are not as common as human factors (BASI, 1996). The student will review the details of certain accidents that have been attributed to human factors. One of the accidents for instance, will be Aeroperu, flight 603 that crashed on October 1996 (Skybrary, 1996). Although there were a variety of elements that played into this tragic event, it was primarily attributed to human error. One of the other accidents that will be investigated in the duration of this project is the Colgan crash (Collins). The Colgan crash was a result of multiple components, most notably, the failure of following sterile flight deck procedures by both pilots (Collins). Although it is still under investigation, the Cubana de Aviacion crash of May, 2018 is also suspected to be caused by human errors (Whitefield, 2018). Additionally, the student will evaluate the differences between factors and how they came into play in each of these accidents. In addition to human error, other factors may come into play that may increase the chances of devastation. Factors such as, mechanical, weather, instrumental or environmental (Shapell, 2001). The student will delve in each one of these variables and will determine how each of these factors com.
Associated Issues with UAS Human FactorsStuden.docxjasoninnes20
Associated Issues with UAS Human Factors
Student
ASCI 638-Human Factors in Unmanned Aerospace Systems
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide
Nov 22, 2019
Running head: ASSOCIATED ISSUES WITH UAS HUMAN FACTORS 1
ASSOCIATED ISSUES WITH UAS HUMAN FACTORS 4
Associated Issues with UAS Human Factors
There are maintenance related issues in which development, monitoring, and improvement can be managed. This discussion will look at knowledge requirements, the lack of physical piloting input, complacency especially in maintenance, and growing remote controlling culture.
Knowledge Requirements
The major issue with the requirement of knowledge is the fact that a technician needs to have extensive knowledge of the entire system. There is no compartmentalization of knowledge, which puts pressure on the diversity of information concerning links in the system. As an issue, it means that the technician has to be vast in avionics and airframes, ground-based maintenance on an array of equipment, and the engines (Baldwin, 2014). This is in addition to the fact that they should be able to know the wireless communication, radio transmissions, and guidance controls with standardization on computing. This need shows so many areas that have a potentially high risk of error increment with reliability on only one person (Williams, 2016).
Complacency and Lack of Physical Piloting Input
In UAS maintenance, the concern is in the risk of exposure of humans to risk is often present, which may mean that technicians are likely not going to put too much effort on security issues. As a result, there is complacency in dealing with the prioritization of critical issues due to a “relaxed” mindset (Baldwin, 2014). Also, the fact that a pilot is not involved means that the high-risk potential for lack of ability to take back control when there are maintenance problems. This is even made warier with the removal of the aspect of pre-checks in safety mistakes and logbook entries that is traditionally done in traditional aviation operations. The availability of a status report has been used to justify that removal but there is a limitation in the definition of the sensory experience of the pilot in flight.
Growing Remote Controlling Culture
The idea of the increased remote-controlled environment means that most informal settings are not strict on the formal procedures and regulation hence a reluctance on the way practices are handled. Therefore, the issue with ethics, professionalism, and legislative frameworks take the forefront as a result of a lack of proper and more conventional implementation (Law360, 2016).
References
Baldwin, H. (2014 Sep 08). Human Factors in Unmanned Aircraft Operations. Inside MRO. Retrieved from https://www.mro-network.com/maintenance-repair-overhaul/human-factors-unmanned-aircraft-operations
Law360. (2016, May 11). 5 Major Obstacles for Unmanned Aircraft ...
The influence of adverse weather conditions on pilots’ behavior and decision ...Berend Roosendaal
This paper presents a summary of the international literature regarding pilots’ behavior under adverse weather conditions. The literature also covers the influences on the decision-making process of the pilot. The focus of this study is on pilots who fly solely in general aviation.
Attaining Expertise
You are training individuals you supervise on how to attain expertise in your field.
Write
a 1,050- to 1,200-word paper on the processes involved with attaining expertise, using your assigned readings in Anderson. Explain how these processes apply to attaining expertise in your current field or in the field you plan to enter. Focus on the cognitive processes that are involved in mastering knowledge and skills.
Include
a title page and references list consistent with APA guidelines.
Click
the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
.
attachment Chloe” is a example of the whole packet. Please follow t.docxcelenarouzie
attachment “Chloe” is a example of the whole packet. Please follow the format and write in professional PR tone. So for each paragraph, you should refer to what’s write in the example. The packet includes a pitch letter, a news release (which i already wrote), a feature release, a fact sheet, a executive biography and a media alert. I have already wrote the news release part. I also put in the attachment.
.
AttachmentFor this discussionUse Ericksons theoretic.docxcelenarouzie
Attachment
For this discussion:
Use Erickson's theoretical framework to explore adolescent attachment and its developmental impact.
Choose two issues related to adolescent attachment (for example, attachment relationships with parents and peers, or the nature of attachment system in adolescence) and describe possible implications for adult life.
Support your response with APA-formatted citations from scholarly sources, including both those provided in this unit and any additional evidence you may have researched.
.
Attachment and Emotional Development in InfancyThe purpose o.docxcelenarouzie
Attachment and Emotional Development in Infancy
The purpose of this discussion is to consider the stages of attachment from birth to one year, and emotional development and psychosocial crisis in infancy.
Briefly discuss attachment patterns and what you see as the most significant impact on the development of attachment.
Describe strategies that caretakers can implement to promote the child's ability to regulate emotions as he or she develops.
Remember to appropriately cite any resources, including the textbook, that you use to support your thinking in your initial post.
.
ATTACHEMENT from 7.1 and 7.2 Go back to the Powerpoint for thi.docxcelenarouzie
ATTACHEMENT from 7.1 and 7.2
Go back to the Powerpoint for this week and reread slides 12 and 13
Select at least 5 bullet points that you think are important because they affect the way justice is carried out in the State and or at the local level.
Write your entry explaining why you chose those 5 elements. Why are they important. What would you change?
.
Attached the dataset Kaggle has hosted a data science competitio.docxcelenarouzie
Attached the dataset
Kaggle has hosted a data science competition to predict category of crime in San Francisco based on 12 years (From 1934 to 1963) of crime reports from across all of San Francisco’s neighborhoods (time, location and other features are given).
I would like you to explore the dataset attached visually using Tableau and uncover hidden trends:
Are there specific clusters with higher crime rates?
Are there yearly/ Monthly/ Daily/ Hourly trends?
Is Crime distribution even across all geographical areas or different?
.
Attached you will find all of the questions.These are just like th.docxcelenarouzie
Attached you will find all of the questions.
These are just like the others I put up before. they need to be awnsered individually. Please use APA format with in text citations and references. My book is at least required as one of the references:
Harr, J. S., Hess, M. H., & Orthmann, C. H. (2012).
Constitutional law and the criminal justice system
(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
This assignment needs to be done by Friday by 11:00 P.M Eastern Time.
.
Attached the dataset Kaggle has hosted a data science compet.docxcelenarouzie
Attached the dataset
Kaggle has hosted a data science competition to predict category of crime in San Francisco based on 12 years (From 1934 to 1963) of crime reports from across all of San Francisco’s neighborhoods (time, location and other features are given).
I would like you to explore the dataset attached visually using Tableau and uncover hidden trends:
Are there specific clusters with higher crime rates?
Are there yearly/ Monthly/ Daily/ Hourly trends?
Is Crime distribution even across all geographical areas or different?
.
B. Answer Learning Exercises Matching words parts 1, 2, 3,.docxcelenarouzie
B. Answer Learning Exercises
* Matching words parts 1, 2, 3, and 4
* Definitions
*Matching Terms and Definitions 1, 2
C. Answer the following questions base in chapter 1:
1. Define Word root, mention 5 examples.
2. Define Suffixes, mention 5 examples.
3. Define Prefixes, mention 5 examples.
4. Some prefixes are confusing because they are similar in spelling, but opposite in meaning, those are call Contrasting Prefixes; mention 5 examples and their meaning.
.
B)What is Joe waiting for in order to forgive Missy May in The Gild.docxcelenarouzie
B)What is Joe waiting for in order to forgive Missy May in “The Gilded Six-Bits”? How does period of deliberation affect his forgiveness of her – does it make more of less sincere? What does this say about their relationship going into the future?
C) How is Dave in “The Man Who Was Almost A Man” not a man? Is there one central force preventing him from becoming a man? How does he go about overcoming this? Is it even possible for him to do so?
.
B)Blanche and Stella both view Stanley very differently – how do the.docxcelenarouzie
B)Blanche and Stella both view Stanley very differently – how do they see him and what does this view say about themselves? What causes Stella to continue to return to Stanley? Does she really trust him? Does she ultimately sacrifice her sister for him?
C) What is the difference between how Blanche presents herself and what she really is? Why does she choose to present herself so differently?
250 words each
.
b) What is the largest value that can be represented by 3 digits usi.docxcelenarouzie
b) What is the largest value that can be represented by 3 digits using radix-3?
c) Why do you think that binary logic is much more commonly used than ternary logic? Be brief.
The ASCII code for the letter E is 1000101, and the ASCII code for the letter e is 1100101. Given that the ASCII code for the letter M is 1001101, without looking at Table 2.7, what is the ASCII code for the letter m?
.
b$ E=EE#s{gEgE lEgEHEFs ig=ii 5i= l; i € 3 r i.Er1 b €€.docxcelenarouzie
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B A S I C L O G I C M O D E L D E V E L O P M E N T Pr.docxcelenarouzie
B A S I C L O G I C M O D E L D E V E L O P M E N T
Produced by The W. K. Kellogg Foundation
53535353
Developing a Basic Logic
Model For Your Program
Drawing a picture of how your program will achieve results
hether you are a grantseeker developing a proposal for start-up funds or a
grantee with a program already in operation, developing a logic model can
strengthen your program. Logic models help identify the factors that will
impact your program and enable you to anticipate the data and resources
you will need to achieve success. As you engage in the process of creating your
program logic model, your organization will systematically address these important
program planning and evaluation issues:
• Cataloguing of the resources and actions you believe you will need to reach intended
results.
• Documentation of connections among your available resources, planned activities and
the results you expect to achieve.
• Description of the results you are aiming for in terms of specific, measurable, action-
oriented, realistic and timed outcomes.
The exercises in this chapter gather the raw material you need to draw a basic logic
model that illustrates how and why your program will work and what it will accomplish.
You can benefit from creating a logic model at any point in the life of any program.
The logic model development process helps people inside and outside your
organization understand and improve the purpose and process of your work.
Chapter 2 is organized into two sections—Program Implementation, and Program
Results. The best recipe for program success is to complete both exercises. (Full-size
masters of each exercise and the checklists are provided in the Forms Appendix at the
back of the guide for you to photocopy and use with stakeholder groups as you design
your program.)
Exercise 1: Program Results. In a series of three steps, you describe the results you
plan to achieve with your program.
Exercise 2: Program Resources and Activities by taking you through three steps
that connect the program’s resources to the actual activities you plan to do.
Chapter
2
W
B A S I C L O G I C M O D E L D E V E L O P M E N T
Produced by The W. K. Kellogg Foundation
54545454
The Mytown Example
Throughout Exercises 1 and 2 we’ll follow an example program to see how the logic
model steps can be applied. In our example, the folks in Mytown, USA are striving to
meet the needs of growing numbers of uninsured residents who are turning to Memorial
Hospital’s Emergency Room for care. Because that care is expensive and not the best
way to offer care, the community is working to create a free clinic. Throughout the
chapters, Mytown’s program information will be dropped into logic model templates for
Program Planning, Implementation, and Evaluation.
Novice Logic modelers may want to have copies of the Basic Logic Model Template in
front of them and follow along. Those read.
B H1. The first issue that jumped out to me is that the presiden.docxcelenarouzie
B H
1. The first issue that jumped out to me is that the president and two vice presidents were the ones to develop the program. Our lecture notes and the text tell us that safety is one topic where management and employees can usually come to an agreement. Everyone wants a safe work environment. We are also taught that consultation is the best way to approach health and safety at work. Again, this means involving more than three people at the company. For starters, I would recommend that the safety program be dismantled and reconstructed by a committee consisting of at least 50% employees, not just senior leadership. I would keep this committee as small as possible and not have it controlled by one person only. The committee should be formed of employees from all sections and representing all possible departments where health and safety are potential issues.
2. The first issue that jumped out to me is that the president and two vice presidents were the ones to develop the program. Our lecture notes and the text tell us that safety is one topic where management and employees can usually come to an agreement. Everyone wants a safe work environment. We are also taught that consultation is the best way to approach health and safety at work. Again, this means involving more than three people at the company. For starters, I would recommend that the safety program be dismantled and reconstructed by a committee consisting of at least 50% employees, not just senior leadership. I would keep this committee as small as possible and not have it controlled by one person only. The committee should be formed of employees from all sections and representing all possible departments where health and safety are potential issues.
N S
1. 1.Top of Form
There could be a number of problems with CMI's safety awareness plan. One major one is that they could not be promoting safety. That is the first step into getting the program to work...employee involvement. First the awareness program was developed by the president and the vice presidents. A safety awareness program can be more successful if employees are involved in the development, and remain involved as it is adjusted and refined. Rules should be in place, and employers must ensure that those rules are followed and enforced consistently. Incentives and competition could be another way to promote safety in the work place. Our text cites that having employees work in teams and have them determine the incentives will keep them involved and promote safety. Also, of course keeping employees up to date on all rules will also promote safety.
2. I think the supervisor's response to employee complaints about John Randall is not appropriate at all. Even thought it is difficult, home problems should not be brought into the work place. Especially if coworkers are complaining about someone's behavior. This does not promote safety at all. To say that Randall will get over it and to disclose that he has personal problems is.
b l u e p r i n t i CONSUMER PERCEPTIONSHQW DQPerception.docxcelenarouzie
b l u e p r i n t i CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS
HQW DQ
Perceptions Impact
Your Market?
By Nicole Olynk Widmar and
Melissa McKendree, Purdue University
I aintaining existing mar-
kets for pork products,
I cultivating new markets
for existing products and
creating new products for new markets
are some avenues that the U.S. pork
industry has sought, and continues to
explore, for growth. When it comes to
maintaining markets, there are several
relationships that must be considered.
End consumers, whether in restaurant
or supermarket settings, are increas-
ingly interested in social issues and the
production processes employed in food
production. Livestock products (meat
and dairy products) certainly seem
to get the majority of the spotlight in
regard to consumers' concern for pro-
duction processes.
Shoppers in supermarkets and din-
ers in restaurants have increased access
to information via the Internet, and are
in constant communication with one
another via social media and alterna-
tive news sources about perceptions
of animal agriculture. Even though
most U.S. consumers are not directly
in contact with livestock, concern for
the treatment of animals, including
those employed in food production,
is evident — and increasing. While
in the past consumers were mainly
concerned with factors like the fat or
nutritional content of pork, for exam-
ple, today's savvy shoppers are con-
sidering other factors, like the welfare
of livestock (pigs), safety of workers
employed on farms and potential envi-
ronmental impacts (externalities) of
livestock operations.
Large-scale changes in production
practices are taking place in livestock
24 April 15, 2014
production due to pressures from vari-
ous interested parties. Changes such
as the discontinued use of gestation
stalls, for example, are being sought
via traditional regulatory channels in
some states, but are also being pushed
via non-traditional market channels.
Consider the cumbersome process
of changing regulations, versus the
oftentimes faster (and perhaps easier)
channel of influencing key market
actors. It is no surprise that consum-
ers' concerns are increasingly voiced to
supermarkets and restaurants which,
in turn, take action to satisfy their
customers by placing pressure on sup-
ply-chain players. Changes sought via
"the market," rather than legislation or
regulation, are increasingly common,
and the use of market channels for
communicating throughout the supply
chain is unlikely to stop anytime soon.
www.nationalhogfarmer.com
Figure 1. Reported Recollection of Exposure to Media
Stories Regarding Pig Welfare, by Source
7 0 %
0 %
Television Internet
Media source
Printed Magazines
Newspaper
Books I have not seen
any media stories
regarding pig
welfare.
Melissa McKendree (left) and Nicole Olynk Widmar
A national-scale study completed
at Purdue University by Nicole Olynk
Widmar, Melissa McKendree, and
Candace Croney in 2013 was focused
on assessing consumers' perceptions of
various por.
B R O O K I N G SM E T R O P O L I TA N P O L I CY .docxcelenarouzie
B R O O K I N G S
M E T R O P O L I TA N
P O L I CY
P R O G RA M
6
I . I N T R O D U C T I O N
A
s the global economy has become more integrated and urbanized,
fueled in large part by technology, major cities and metropolitan
areas have become key engines of economic growth. The 123 largest
metro areas in the world generate nearly one third of global output
with only 13 percent of the world’s population.
In this urban-centered world, the classic notion of a
global city has been upended. This report introduces
a redefined map of global cities, drawing on a new
typology that demonstrates how metro areas vary in
the ways they attract and amass economic drivers
and contribute to global economic growth in distinct
ways. New concerns about economic stagnation—in
both developing and developed economies—add
urgency to mapping the role of the world’s cities and
the extent to which they are well-positioned to deliver
the next round of global growth.1
Instead of a ranking or indexed score, which many
prior cities indices and reports have capably deliv-
ered,2 this analysis differentiates the assets and
challenges faced by seven types of global cities.
This perspective reveals that all major cities are
indeed global; they participate as critical nodes in
an integrated marketplace and are shaped by global
currents. But cities also operate from much differ-
ent starting points and experience diverse economic
trajectories. Concerns about global growth, productiv-
ity, and wages are not monolithic, and so this typology
can inform the variety of paths cities take to address
these challenges. For metro leaders, this typology
can also ensure better application of peer com-
parisons, enable the identification of more relevant
global innovations to local challenges, and reinforce a
city-region’s relative role and performance to inform
economic strategies that ensure ongoing prosperity.
This report proceeds in four parts. In the following
section, Part II, we explore the three global forces of
urbanization, globalization, and technological change,
and how together they are demanding that city-
regions focus on five core factors—traded clusters,
innovation, talent, infrastructure connectivity, and
governance—to bolster their economic competitive-
ness. Building on these factors, Part III outlines the
data and methods deployed to create the metropoli-
tan typology. Part IV explores the collective economic
clout of the metro areas in our sample and introduces
the new typology of global cities. Finally, Part V
explores the future investments, policies, and strate-
gies required for each grouping of metro areas. Within
the typology framework, we explore the priorities for
action going forward, including the implications for
governance.
REDEFINING
GLOBAL CITIES
THE SEVEN TYPES
OF GLOBAL METRO
ECONOMIES
7
U R B A N I Z AT I O N
The world is becoming more urba.
B L O C K C H A I N & S U P P LY C H A I N SS U N I L.docxcelenarouzie
B L O C K C H A I N &
S U P P LY C H A I N S
S U N I L W A T T A L
T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y
• To understand the power of blockchain systems, and the things they can do, it is important to
distinguish between three things that are commonly muddled up, namely the bitcoin currency,
the specific blockchain that underpins it and the idea of blockchains in general.
• Economist, 2015
WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN?
• A technology that permits transactions to be recorded
– Cryptographically chains blocks in order
– Allows resulting ledger accessed by different servers
– Information stored can never be deleted
• A digital distributed ledger that is stored and maintained on multiple systems belonging to multiple
entities sharing identical information (Deloitte)
• Bitcoin was the first demonstrable use
HISTORY OF BLOCKCHAIN
T YPES OF BLOCKCHAINS
• public or permissionless blockchains
– everyone who wants to engage in the network can openly see all transactions. The technology is
transparent, and all who want to engage in making transactions on the blockchain can do so.
• private or permissioned blockchains
– closed and accessible only to a selected few who have permission to engage in the blockchain.
BLOCKCHAIN FEATURES
• A blockchain lets us agree on the state of the system, even if we don’t all trust each other!
• We don’t want a single trusted arbiter of the state of the world.
• A blockchain is a hash chain with some other stuff added
– Validity conditions
– Way to resolve disagreements
• The spread of blockchains is bad for anyone in the “trust business”
WHAT IS BITCOIN
• A protocol that supports a decentralized, pseudo-anonymous, peer-to-peer digital currency
• A publicly disclosed linked ledger of transactions stored in a blockchain
• A reward driven system for achieving consensus (mining) based on “Proofs of Work” for
helping to secure the network
• A “scare token” economy with an eventual cap of about 21M bitcoins
10
OTHER USES OF BLOCKCHAIN
• Supply Chain
• Online advertising
• Smart Contracts
• Voting
BENEFITS OF BLOCKCHAIN
• Consistent
• Democratic
• Secure and accurate
• Segmented and private
• Permanent and tamper resistant
• Quickly updated
• Intelligent – smart contracts
BARRIERS TO BLOCKCHAIN
ADOPTION
• Hype
• Finding the right balance in regulation
• Cybersecurity
• Ease of use over shared databases
• Lack of understanding and knowledge
SUPPLY CHAIN CHALLENGES
• Margin Erosion
• Demand changes
• Ripple Effect
• Supply Chain Risk Management
• Lack of end to end visibility
• Obsolescence of Technology
APPLICATIONS IN SUPPLY CHAINS
• Traceability
• International Trade
• Continuity of Information
• Data Analytics
• Visibility
• Digital contracts and payments
• Check fraud and gaming
EX AMPLES OF BLOCKCHAIN IN
SUPPLY CHAINS
• 300 Cubits
– Blokcchain technology for the shipping industry
• BanQu
– Payment for small businesses
• Bext360
– Social sustainability.
Año 15, núm. 43 enero – abril de 2012. Análisis 97 Orien.docxcelenarouzie
Año 15, núm. 43 / enero – abril de 2012. Análisis 97
Orientalizing New Spain:
Perspectives on Asian Influence
in Colonial Mexico1
Edward R. Slack, Jr.2
Resumen
E ste artículo investiga la totalidad de la influencia de Asia sobre la Nueva España que resultó de la conquista de Manila en 1571 y la re-gularización del comercio Transpacífico -comúnmente conocido como
los galeones de Manila o las naos de China- entre las Filipinas y Acapulco.
En sus inicios, una oleada constante de inmigrantes asiáticos, mercancías y
nuevas técnicas de producción influyeron mesuradamente en la sociedad y
la economía colonial mediante un proceso que el autor denomina “Orientali-
zación”. No obstante, en ninguna manera “Orientalización” se debe equiparar
con el concepto de Edward Said de “Orientalismo” por la relación histórica,
única e intima de la Nueva España con Asia a principios de la edad Moderna.
Abstract
This article examines the totality of Asia’s influence on New Spain that resulted
from the conquest of Manila in 1571 and the regularization of transpacific tra-
de – more widely known as the Manila Galleons or naos de China – between the
Philippines and Acapulco. In its wake, a steady stream of Asian immigrants,
commodities, and manufacturing techniques measurably impacted colonial
society and economy through a process the author calls “Orientalization.”
However, “Orientalization” should in no way be equated with Edward Said’s
1. Artículo recibido el 28 de octubre de 2011 y dictaminado el 16 de noviembre de 2011.
2. Eastern Washington University.
98 México y la Cuenca del Pacífico. Año 15, núm. 43 / enero – abril de 2012
Edward R. Slack, Jr.
concept of “Orientalism” because of New Spain’s uniquely intimate historical
relationship with Asia in the early Modern era.
Introduction
Contrary to popular belief, the Philippines Islands were more a colony of New
Spain (Nueva España) than of “Old Spain” prior to the nineteenth century.
The Manila galleons, or naos de China (China ships), transported Asian pro-
ducts and peoples to Acapulco and other Mexican ports for approximately
250 years. Riding this ‘first wave’
of maritime contact between
the Americas and Asia were tra-
velers from China, Japan, the
Philippines, various kingdoms in
Southeast Asia and India known
collectively in New Spain as chinos
(Chinese) or indios chinos (Chine-
se Indians), as the word chino/a
became synonymous with the
Orient. The rather indiscrimi-
nate categorizing of everything
“Asian” under the Spanish noun
for the Ming/Qing empire, its
subjects and export items is easily
discovered in a variety of sources
from that age. To illustrate, the
eig hteenth centur y works of
Italian adventurer Gamelli Carreri and the criollo priest Joachin Antonio
de Basarás (who evangelized in Luzon) nonchalantly refer to the Philippine
Islands as “la China.”3 Additionally, words such as chinería (Chinese-esque,
European/Mexican imitation of Chines.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Available online at httpdocs.lib.purdue.edujateJournal.docx
1. Available online at http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/jate
Journal of Aviation Technology and Engineering 3:2 (2014) 2–
13
Crew Resource Management Application in Commercial
Aviation
Frank Wagener
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
David C. Ison
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University–Worldwide
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to extend previous examinations
of commercial multi-crew airplane accidents and incidents to
evaluate
the Crew Resource Management (CRM) application as it relates
to error management during the final approach and landing
phase of
flight. With data obtained from the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB), a x2
test of independence was performed to examine if there would
be a statistically significant relationship between airline
management
practices and CRM-related causes of accidents/incidents.
2. Between 2002 and 2012, 113 accidents and incidents occurred
in the researched
segments of flight. In total, 57 (50 percent) accidents/incidents
listed a CRM-related casual factor or included a similar
commentary within
the analysis section of the investigation report. No statistically
significant relationship existed between CRM-related
accidents/incidents
About the Authors
Frank Wagener currently works for Aviation Performance
Solution
s LLC (APS), dba APS Emergency Maneuver Training, based at
the Phoenix-Mesa
Gateway Airport in Mesa, Arizona. APS offers comprehensive
LOC-I solutions via industry-leading, computer-based, on-
aircraft, and advanced full-flight
simulator upset recovery and prevention training programs.
Wagener spent over 20 years in the German Air Force flying
fighter and fighter training aircraft
and retired in 2011. He flew and instructed in Germany,
Canada, and the United States. He holds several international
pilot certificates including ATP,
CPL, CFI, as well as a 737 type rating. He graduated with
honors from the Master’s in Aeronautical Science Program at
3. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University. Correspondence concerning this article should be
sent to [email protected]
David C. Ison has been involved in the aviation industry for
over 27 years, during which he has flown as a flight instructor
and for both regional and
major airlines. He has experience in a wide variety of aircraft
from general aviation types to heavy transport aircraft. While
flying for a major airline, Ison
was assigned to fly missions all over the world in a Lockheed
L-1011. Most recently, he flew Boeing 737–800 aircraft
throughout North and Central
America. He worked as an associate professor of aviation for 7
years at a small college in Montana. He is currently Discipline
Chair–Aeronautics and an
assistant professor of aeronautics for Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University–Worldwide. Ison has conducted
extensive research concerning aviation
faculty, plagiarism in dissertations, statistics in aviation
research, as well as the participation of women and minorities
in aviation. His previous work has
been published in refereed journals and has been presented at
numerous education and industry conferences. Ison serves as the
editor of the Collegiate
Aviation Review, the peer-reviewed journal of the University
4. Aviation Association. He recently was honored with the
prestigious Dr. Frank E. Sorenson
Award for outstanding achievement of excellence in aviation
research and scholarship by the University Aviation
Association. Ison also is regularly
published in popular aviation publications such as Plane &
Pilot, Professional Pilot, and IFR Refresher. ASA Publications
just released his first book, Oral
Exam Guide: Aircraft Dispatcher. His educational background
includes a master’s in aeronautical science from Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University and
a PhD in educational studies/higher education
leadership/aviation higher education from the University of
Nebraska–Lincoln.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/2159-6670.1077
and airline management-related cause was found. Nevertheless,
the data provide support for the necessity of robust and
strategically well-
thought-out airline management implemented procedures and
guidelines, used in modern aircrew training, in order to enhance
pilot
5. monitoring skills for an improved CRM application in
commercial aviation.
Keywords: Crew Resource Management, commercial aviation,
final approach, management, airline, accident
This study critically examined the potential influences of
current Crew Resource Management policies in airline
flight operations. It also analyzed management-implemen-
ted CRM guidelines and procedures in reference to their
operational integration and adherence during the final
segment of flight. Recognized scholarly studies were
evaluated and conclusions are presented in reference to
possible future production implementations of environ-
mental display technologies in commercial aviation.
Crew Resource Management Application in
Commercial Aviation
Travel on modern commercial airplanes is one of the
safest modes of transportation. Due to this fact, when
accidents involving air transport operations occur, they tend
to attract a significant amount of attention. Moreover,
mishaps involving large, commercial aircraft often are
accompanied by significant numbers of fatalities. Even in
6. light of the noteworthy technological advances in modern
aircraft, devastating crashes continue to occur. The
approach and landing phases of flight appear to be
the most problematic, as these segments account for the
majority of accidents (53 percent) while compromising a
very small portion (4 percent) of total flight time (Spare,
2006b).
Investigations indicate that human error is a contributing
factor in nearly 80 percent of all carrier incidents and
accidents. Long-term research by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) has revealed that these
events share common characteristics. However, many
problems encountered by flight crews have little to do
with the technical side of working in a multi-crew cockpit.
Instead, poor group decision making, ineffective commu-
nication, inadequate leadership, and deficient task or
resource management have been related problems
(Shappell et al., 2006).
Traditionally, pilot training programs concentrated
almost entirely on the technical aspect of flying and on
individual performance. Crew management matters, which
also are fundamental to flight safety, were previously
not effectively addressed (FAA, 2004). Certain phases of
7. flight have higher requirements for coordination. One such
operational segment involves approach and landing.
Veillette (2004) found that flight crews failed to conduct
stabilized approaches in 64.4 percent of the Approach and
Landing Accidents (ALAs). In addition, from all those
unstabilized ALAs, 81 percent included rushed approaches
and 72 percent revealed inadequate crew coordination.
According to a National Transportation Safety Board study,
inadequate monitoring by flight crewmember(s) was a
factor in 63 percent of ALAs (NTSB, 2004).
It is now understood that pilot error cannot entirely be
eliminated. Therefore, it is crucial that flight crews develop
proper Error Management (EM) skills and procedures. Error
detection and recovery from errors should be reinforced in
training (FAA, 2004) in order to mitigate flight safety
occurrences. Effective Crew Resource Management (CRM)
starts in initial training and is intensified by repetition and
feedback. Therefore, EM must encompass a significant part
of CRM training, while also being built into the corporate
culture and continuously being emphasized in every
subsequent phase of training (FAA, 2004).
Many global aviation safety organizations, including the
8. FAA, have reconfirmed the significance of Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) as essential to flight safety.
Crews should have a shared mental model of each task
because only then is effective crew coordination and crew
performance attainable. SOPs have to be clear, compre-
hensive, and readily available in order to keep aviation
operations standardized and reduce perceptual actions by
the crew (FAA, 2003).
Crew Resource Management
Evolution/History
In the early 1950s, commercial aviation entered a period
in which aircraft began to fly farther and faster with the
widespread use of jet engines in airliners. Jet aircraft also
provided more complexity in systems and operational
procedures. Initially, additional risks that accompanied
these changes were not obvious to the aircraft designers,
engineers, or pilots. Fatal accidents increased and were
highly publicized. In general, the causal factors included
technical and mechanical issues, but the majority of the
accidents were listed as pilot error. For the aviation industry
to survive as a recognized and accepted mode of
transportation, these problems would need to be mitigated.
9. Improvements in aircraft equipment design as well as the
implementation of electronic warning systems reduced
the accident rate and, in many cases, also addressed human
error. The technological solutions in conjunction with flight
simulators helped the aircrews to reduce a degree of human
error and better manage the errors that came about (Kanki,
Helmreich, & Anca, 2010).
F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering 3
A pivotal occurrence took place in 1978 when a
commercial airliner crashed when the flight crew misman-
aged an airplane malfunction, lost situational awareness
(SA), and ran out of fuel. The inability of this crew to work
together and handle the additional workload triggered a
philosophical change in the industry to focus on human
factors training with specific concentration on leadership and
decision making. CRM was born from this catastrophe;
however, the first training concepts and courses were initially
known under the term ‘‘Cockpit Resource Management.’’
During the 1980s, one of the most striking developments in
aviation safety was the overwhelming endorsement and
10. widespread implementation of training programs aimed at
increasing the effectiveness of crew coordination and cockpit
management. During the mid-1990s, CRM was not uni-
versally accepted by the pilot community. It was sometimes
decried as charm school, psychobabble, and attempted
brainwashing by management (Kanki et al., 2010).
Presently, the industry is experiencing the sixth genera-
tion of CRM, which focuses on the threats and errors that
must be managed by crews to ensure safe flight. Current
CRM embraces not only optimizing the person-machine
interface and the acquisition of timely, appropriate
information, but also interpersonal activities including
leadership, effective team formation and maintenance,
problem solving, decision making, and maintaining SA.
Therefore, training in CRM requires communicating basic
knowledge of human factors concepts that relate to aviation
and providing the tools necessary to apply these concepts
operationally (Kanki et al., 2010). This research project
aims to analyze the gathered data in exactly those areas,
investigates if proper CRM procedures have been applied,
and initially, if the accident/incident aircrews have received
adequate guidance and/or training in order to apply proper
CRM procedures.
11. Airline CRM Training
The most central element in airline operations is the
respective air carrier’s department of flight operations.
Within this subdivision, a pivotal tool for the prevention of
pilot error has been CRM. Over the years, CRM has
expanded to integrate cabin crew as these individuals often
can provide helpful information to pilots and must be kept
informed in emergency situations. Current CRM training
continues to offer key guidance on effective communica-
tion, task sharing, team building, and teamwork. Threat and
Error Management (TEM) training endorses preemptive
strategies of threat recognition, avoidance, and manage-
ment. Both CRM and TEM require data from accidents and
incidents as well as from Flight Operations Quality
Assurance (FOQA) programs and Line Operational Safety
Audits (LOSA). The most effective training platform for
airlines today is the Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT)
in which crews must fly a simulated flight scenario between
two or more points. These scenario-based learning tasks
involve a combination of modern, high-fidelity simulators
and the conduct of normal flight operations procedures.
LOFT provides the most realistic setting in which crew
performance, in reference to the operational environment,
12. can be measured. LOFT has been inadequately and
infrequently applied and only recently mandated by some
regulators (Salas & Maurino, 2010).
In order to reflect on the views of airline management,
Salas and Maurino (2010) indicate that risk reduction can
generate competitive advantage. Improved processes will
guide greater efficiency, cost reduction, and improved
system safety. New aircraft acquisition is relatively
straightforward; however, the production of safe and
well-trained flight crews is a more complex task.
Minimum training standards approved by the regulator
may not adequately prevent airline accidents. However,
training is a controllable variable in the airline safety
system, and wiser management teams will look for and
apply the best practice. The potential cost increase for air
carriers, with a contemporary CRM training update for
flight crews, would be negligible if compared to the
monetary loss of an aircraft, not even considering the
catastrophic outcome and subsequent publicity (Salas &
Maurino, 2010).
International Policies
Since the initial development of the airplane into a global
13. instrument of transportation, air travel has encountered
various challenges across the globe. The coordination of
operational laws, procedures, and techniques is far beyond
the capability of individual governments to solve. The
standardization of internationally recognized services and
procedures is a fundamental aspect of safe operations in the
aviation industry in order to alleviate errors caused by
misunderstanding or lack of experience. The organization
of the standards—such as air traffic control, personnel
licensing, and airport and airplane design—all require
actions surpassing the national borders of individual
countries. The Chicago Conference of 1944 established
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to
advance the planning and development of international air
transport in accordance with specific principles. The ICAO
assembly is composed of one representative from each
contracting state. Today, there are close to 200 members
(Wensveen, 2007).
CRM application in commercial aviation around the
world is as diverse as the cultures in which it has been
implemented. First developed in the United States, its
international migration has been varied. Ranging from
welcoming approval to simple rejection, most CRM
concepts traveled readily throughout different parts of the
14. world. Kanki et al. (2010) distributed a survey to South
American, Asian, and Middle Eastern airlines in order to
4 F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering
gather a cross-section of the experiences their CRM
developers and managers encountered. All of the pilot
contributors had, on average, 8 to 15 years of CRM design
and delivery experience. The following broad areas of
CRM influences were selected: perceptions of CRM
success in relation to local operations, the impact of TEM
on CRM, and the future of CRM in the respective
countries. The foremost responses about CRM success in
programs outside the U.S. were concentrated on the new
delivery format of training. Using line pilots as facilitators
was widely accepted, but in strong hierarchical cultures the
expectation was rather on a top-to-bottom delivery from
management. However, having a current pilot instead of a
training consultant as the facilitator made the program more
credible, especially when focusing on EM, as the topics
were then only discussed amongst peers (Kanki et al.,
2010).
15. In addition, the biggest beneficiary in line operations was
the co-pilot. In high power/distance cultures like China,
Latin America, and some Asian countries, the importance
and respect for rank, elders, and leaders is dominant.
Nonetheless, in regards to their flight safety, the manage-
ment of human error is most important. Therefore, by
assuring and authorizing the First Officer (FO) to assert his/
her concerns, the captain in a commercial multi-crew
cockpit will only benefit from the FO’s input and better
manage the existing threats and errors. Implementation of
TEM was welcomed as it focused more on a scenario-based
problem than on a single human factor issue. However, the
initial confusion about the role of TEM had to be
overcome. Some believed it would replace CRM and some
saw it as a critical update (Kanki et al., 2010).
Language differences are still considered to be the most
challenging hurdle in proper CRM implementation outside
the English-speaking countries. In general, the future of
CRM outside the U.S., unfortunately, does not take the
primary concern of some countries, especially in those
outside the Western and English-speaking cultures.
Without continuous influx of data, CRM can quickly turn
into a bureaucratic obligation in the air carriers’ annual
16. training (Kanki et al., 2010).
Under the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA),
CRM is also known as Multi-Crew Cooperation (MCC)
training, which requires completion before a type rating is
issued. Current CRM training continuously provides key
guidance on effective communication, task sharing, team
building, and teamwork—utilizing appropriate flight deck
behaviors for safe operations (Salas & Maurino, 2010).
Problem Identification
Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) is one of the main
aviation hazards addressed by aviation safety organizations
around the globe. Exigent literature indicates that almost 50
percent of 107 recent CFIT accidents were related to failure
of SOP adherence (FAA, 2003). In addition, several studies
of crew performance, incidents, and accidents have
revealed that insufficient flight crew monitoring is
negatively impacting flight safety. Effective monitoring
can be the last line of defense before an accident occurs as
error detection can break the chain of events that result in
dire consequences (FAA, 2004). Crew monitoring perfor-
mance can be significantly enhanced by developing and
17. implementing effective SOPs to support this function
(FAA, 2003).
Seasoned pilots continue to have ALAs even with the
availability of safe alternatives such as diverting to alternate
airfields and initiating early missed approach maneuvers
(Spare, 2006a). Clearly, experience level does not assure
immunization against errors; conversely, experience can
actually increase susceptibility to an ALA (Spare, 2006b).
The true key to flight safety is to effectively manage these
errors, thus preventing small errors from escalating to
dangerous levels (Spare, 2006a). This is a collective crew
effort and needs to be addressed in training, evaluation, and
more importantly during operations—independently of
who is actually committing the error versus who is
detecting it.
Besco et al. (1994) pointed out that pilot error has been
recognized in up to 80 percent of the airline accidents
worldwide. However, this study already demonstrated that
in almost all of those accidents, one of the most frequent
recommendations had been to modify or increase the
emphasis in the training programs for aircrews. This
institutional problem is not to be underestimated and will
also be examined with the latest training concepts in
18. reference to EM and crew monitoring procedures.
Review of Relevant Literature
Error Detection and Prevention
According to an NTSB research study, as cited in
Orasanu et al. (1998), the majority of the accidents where
crew behavior played a role involved monitoring and
challenging errors. After an error occurred, the crew either
did not detect it or failed to communicate effectively in
order to improve the outcome. In most of the accidents the
captain committed the error as the pilot flying (PF) and the
first officer (FO), as the non-flying pilot, failed to recognize
and correct it. However, team structure advantage comes
into play. Members can support each other, identify errors,
and possibly avoid serious consequential results (Orasanu
et al., 1998).
Orasanu et al. (1998) suggest two factors that influence
the probability of monitoring and challenging errors in
their study: the risk level associated with the developing
situation and the extent of face threat involved in
addressing an error with the other crewmember. In regards
to the level of risk, the expectation was that for the more
19. F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering 5
dangerous scenarios the crew’s monitoring would be
more precise than that for the low-risk situation. In
reference to face threat, investigation focused on the
degree of challenge to the status or integrity toward the
other crewmember. The participants were all male Boeing
747 flight crews from the same U.S. airline. As
anticipated, high face threat suppressed the error detection
rate of the FOs. However, this was only noticeable in
conditions of high risk. In general, captains were more
perceptive to proper risk assessment in a particular
situation, while the FOs were more concerned with a
possible face threat within the cockpit. In sum, the FOs
were clearly attentive to social implications of challenging
the captains. For instance, when the situation called for a
high-risk outside the cockpit, the FOs were very confident
in pointing out the risk.
Conversely, if a high-risk level was noticed inside the
cockpit, the FOs had a tendency to demonstrate somewhat
20. weak detection of risk. During the subsequent flight
debriefing, the FOs were generally expressing that they
had been relying more on the expertise of the captain. The
findings undoubtedly indicate that social aspects of even
experienced aircrews play a crucial role in their performance.
Evidently, more work is necessary in effectively commu-
nicating in high-risk situations, particularly in those that
involve high face threat (Orasanu et al., 1998). Multi-crew
cockpit crews require strategic procedures and guidelines on
how to deal with socially sensitive challenges. Role-play, for
example, is a seemingly suitable response where young and/
or inexperienced FOs can practice developing assertiveness
skills (NTSB, 2011). Yet the responsibility rests with airline
management and training to steer crewmembers in develop-
ing the right attitudes in order to promote safe flight over
social apprehension.
Threat and Error Management
Flight crew training
TEM stands for avoiding threats or opportunities for
error. Moreover, it detects new threats or errors and
decreases their effects, while at last it manages the
consequences of any threat or error (Spare, 2006a). TEM
21. training helps pilots to attain an enhanced level of
performance that will permit them to deal with the
increased challenges of sustaining safe flying operations
(Gunther & Tesmer, 2001). Helmreich, Klinect, and
Wilhelm (2001) developed a model of EM that distin-
guishes between five types of error: procedural error,
communication error, proficiency error, decision error,
and intentional non-compliance. Their research indicated
that the highest percentage of errors (50 percent) involved
intentional non-compliance, which included violations.
Yet only 6 percent led to an undesired aircraft state. Quite
the opposite case existed with lack of proficiency and
decision error, as each accounted for only 5 percent
of the errors, but around 60 percent of those were
significant.
The descent, approach, and landing phase of flight
account for the highest number of threats (36 percent) and
errors (40 percent). The Continental Airlines’ LOSA 2000,
in relation to the one four years earlier, indicated a 70
percent reduction of unstabilized approaches. This unmis-
takably demonstrated that the 1997 implemented CRM
training course in EM was not only accepted by the pilots,
but also was integrated into their daily operations. LOSA
22. data provides transparency into areas of need but also
detects superior performance. Hence, rewarding outstand-
ing behavior instead of punishing failure can provide
powerful learning (Helmreich et al., 2001).
When aircrews successfully detect and acknowledge
threats as red flags, they are in a better position to manage
the threat so it becomes insignificant. Typically, accident
crews do not recognize all the threats or their severity,
which invites error and consequently increases workload
(Gunther & Tesmer, 2001).
Applying TEM to ALAR
The Flight Safety Foundation encourages TEM as a
means for Approach and Landing Accident Reduction
(ALAR). Threats are not errors, but threats magnify the
potential for error. Managing threats involves the following
processes: threat avoidance, threat identification or classifi-
cation, trapping the threat, and resolving or mitigating it.
Apparently, unexpected threats are the ones that are the most
dangerous. However, a detailed preparation in combination
with an effort to obtain all accessible information concerning
a situation reduces the probability of any unexpected threats
(Spare, 2006a). Most importantly, any existing error in the
23. approach path needs to be acknowledged first and then
trapped before it creates a flight safety hazard.
Errors emerge as a result from past activities. They are
effects and not causes. Usually, errors fall into two
categories: an SA error, when incorrect interpretations of
a problem result in a wrong decision, and a course of action
error, where a correct perception is present but an
inappropriate course of action is chosen (Spare, 2006b).
A practical plan to alleviate errors during an approach-to-
landing is to include the so-called approach gates. Those
gates specify that certain parameters should be met at
specific points along the route; otherwise, the pilots are
forced into a different course of action, such as a go-around
maneuver (Spare, 2006a). The FAA (2003) lists the exact
parameters and limitations for a so-called stabilized
approach. However, different airlines can always put a
more restraining guideline in their own carrier SOPs.
Human Limitations in the Modern Automated Flight Deck
While there is an obvious increase in complexity of
technology, the human role must change in order to keep
6 F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
24. and Engineering
up with the automation. In addition, for any mishaps,
human limitations appear to be blamed more and more
relative to the technology (Salas & Maurino, 2010). Air
traffic is increasing and new automation will be imple-
mented to enhance SA in order to mitigate aviation
accidents. Even if all aircraft categories could benefit from
enhanced and synthetic vision systems, they are presently
not integrated in Part 121 and 135 regulations. The safety
benefits of those enhancing systems are apparent during
abnormal and emergency situations. Particularly in a high
workload environment, they permit the pilots, through their
intuitive displays and presentation methods, a possibility to
off-load some of the basic special awareness tasking such
as terrain and traffic avoidance (Prinzel & Kramer, n.d.). A
future key capability in managing the amplified amount of
air traffic is the concept of equivalent visual operations.
Here, operational tempos and procedures in reference to
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) are maintained, independent of
the actual outside weather conditions (Kramer, Bailey, &
Prinzel, 2009).
25. The FAA’s Next Generation Air Transportation System
(NextGen) is purportedly able to improve aviation opera-
tions, but also considerably change the jobs traditionally
held by pilots and air traffic controllers. Changes in roles
and allocation of function require new procedures, includ-
ing ground and air responsibilities. Key to human
performance is ensuring that design mitigates the potential
for human error, recognizing that new automation and
procedures may also introduce new sorts of threats and
errors. Pilots and controllers will need to maintain SA
under new and different operational circumstances; other-
wise, without effective management of those threats and
errors, they could easily find themselves in new undesired
states (Salas & Maurino, 2010). Pilot and controller
training, as well as strategic procedural guidance from
upper management, will be crucial aspects in implementing
NextGen. Additionally, an even more pronounced amount
of trust in automation is required to help create a tighter
traffic network. Autonomous pilot reactions to electronic
warnings can be anticipated to minimize delayed reactions
and also lessen workload of air traffic controllers.
Methodology
The proposed hypothesis is that, among accidents and
26. incidents involving CRM, there is a significant difference
between the proportion of management-related and non-
management-related accidents/incidents of U.S. commer-
cial multi-crew airplanes during the final approach and
landing segment of flight. The null hypothesis is that there
were no differences in the proportion of airline manage-
ment-related and non-management-related accidents/inci-
dents (McDonald, 2009). A detailed analysis of publicly
accessible aviation accident/incident reports was performed
in order to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Data Review and Critique
After the review and critique of the collected data, a
slight research design change had to be performed. The
NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) online
database was excluded from the originally proposed pool of
data sources. From the 75 occurrences in the ASRS
database during the past 10 years, 35 events were CRM-
related. However, it was found that the ASRS reports
appeared to be biased by their authors—many providing
their own conclusions or suspected causes—so exclusion
was necessary in order to obtain an objective statistical
analysis. Even though the ASRS reports contain very
valuable information for accident prevention and aircrew
27. training enhancements, for the purpose of this study, only
final versions of the NTSB accident and incident reports
were considered. Therefore, all investigations on the
researched mishaps had been completed prior to this
project. As a result, due to the reduction in collected data,
the scope was expanded to include the landing phase of
flight. Many accidents and incidents, which were categor-
ized under landing occurrences, showed significant paral-
lels to the approach events and, as a matter of fact, most of
the causal factors actually originated during the approach
phase. Thus, including those events essentially provided
this research project with a beneficial amount of data to
permit an accurate statistical analysis. In addition, one more
incident report that was labeled under the go-around phase
also was included in the data collection. This minor
modification of the research design was necessary to permit
the inference needed to examine the hypothesis.
Data Collection
A data search was performed through the ‘‘Search
Aviation Accident Reports’’ link on the FAA (2012)
webpage, which opened a link to the NTSB (2012b)
‘‘Aviation Accident Reports.’’ The presented data was
reviewed, critiqued, and collected in reference to approach
28. and landing accidents/incidents of commercial multi-crew
airplanes in the U.S. NTSB (2012a) provided another
search possibility and allowed for a custom selection of
different criteria, which are displayed in Table 1.
An additional search was performed and focused on the
frequency of international airlines, which were involved in
CRM-related accidents and incidents within the U.S. The
only two altered categories were ‘‘Operation’’ (Part 129:
Foreign) and ‘‘Broad Phase of Flight’’ (All). Without a
structured and standardized classification system, a
quantification of trend-specific types of human errors
would almost be impossible as only a descriptive summary
of the reports would be achievable. Therefore, the Human
Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS),
as outlined in Appendix A, was used (Wiegmann &
Shappell, 2003).
F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering 7
In total, 113 accidents and incidents were extracted for
analysis. After identifying all the mishaps in the researched
29. segments of flight, a categorization in regards to the
probable causes was performed. More precisely, a critical
assessment of the presented reports was conducted and
allocated to the different error categories of the unsafe acts.
Additionally, an investigation of the preconditions for
unsafe acts, mainly in the CRM category of personal
factors, was made (see Appendix A).
For the purpose of this research project, only the relevant
parts of the HFACS framework will be illuminated in more
detail. The unsafe acts category can be divided into two
groups: errors and violations (see Appendix A). Generally,
errors symbolize the unintentional mental and physical
actions of individuals that fail to achieve their intended
outcome. Violations, on the other hand, refer to the
deliberate disregard of rules and regulations (Wiegmann
& Shappell, 2003). However, the analysis of the collected
data was restricted to the identification of the various
errors. Those cases where the aircrews did not adhere to
SOPs, for instance, were included in the decision errors.
Skill-based errors
In the context of aviation, skill-based errors are best
explained as basic flying skill mistakes that occur without
30. substantial deliberate thought. Usually, actions resulting
from this type of error are especially vulnerable to failures
of attention and/or memory. In addition, these errors occur
in the execution of a routine, procedural task, training, or
proficiency and end in an unsafe situation. Examples
include: distraction, negative habit, task overload, mis-
prioritizing, omitting checklist item or step in procedure,
poor airmanship, inadequate use of flight controls, and
breakdown of visual scan (Wiegmann & Shappell, 2003).
Decision error
This error form represents intentional behavior that
continues as planned. The only difference is that the plan
itself is inadequate or inappropriate for the given situation.
Those ‘‘honest mistakes’’ are usually committed because
the individuals did not have the correct knowledge or just
simply made a poor choice. Examples include: wrong
response to an emergency, exceeding ability, inadequate
knowledge of systems/procedures, and inappropriate
maneuver/procedure or problem solving (Wiegmann &
Shappell, 2003).
Perceptual error
31. Typically, perceptual errors happen when the aircrew
experiences either a degraded or unusual sensory input. In
general, when the perceptions of the surroundings differ
from reality, errors will occur. Examples include: misjud-
ging distance/parameters, spatial disorientation, and visual
illusion (Wiegmann & Shappell, 2003).
Labeling
Accidents or incidents were labeled as ‘‘management-
related’’ when the determined probable cause, a contribut-
ing factor, or the analysis section of the official NTSB
report mentioned any relevant findings about deficiencies
in company regulations, procedures, or aircrew training.
Statistical Analysis
After scrutinizing the collected data, a statistical analysis
of the outlined factors was conducted. A x2 test of
independence in the form of a 2 6 2 contingency table was
conducted to determine if there would be a statistically
significant ( p , 0.05) difference in the proportions of
airline management-related versus non-airline manage-
ment-related causes of accidents/incidents. This test was
32. selected per the recommendation of the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Institute for Digital
Research and Education (IDRE, 2013) as the data was
non-parametric and categorical in nature. As noted by
McDonald (2009), ‘‘the chi-squared test of independence is
used when you have two nominal variables, each with two
or more possible values. A data set like this is often called
an ‘R6C table,’ where R is the number of rows and C is
the number of columns’’ (para. 3) and is appropriate when
‘‘comparing frequencies of one nominal variable for
different values of a second nominal variable’’ (para 1).
Results
The collected data, a sum of 113 investigation reports
that were extracted from the NTSB online database,
incorporated three different phases of flight. The approach
segment included a total of 41 (36 percent) accidents/
incidents; the landing phase listed 71 (63 percent) plus the
one (1 percent) event in the go-around segment. In regards
to CRM, 57 (50 percent) accidents/incidents listed a CRM-
related casual factor or included a similar commentary
within the analysis section of the report. Those 57
occurrences could further be divided into 35 (61 percent)
33. TABLE 1
Search criteria for the aviation accident database and synopses.
Accident/Incident Information
Event Start Date January 1, 2002
Event End Date August 31, 2012
Country United States
Investigation Type All (Incident, Accident)
Aircraft
Category Airplane
Amateur Built No
Operation Part 121: Air Carrier
NTSB Status
Report Status All
Event Details
Broad Phase of Flight Approach, Go-Around, Landing
8 F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering
accidents and 22 (39 percent) incidents. Table 2 illustrates
a detailed breakdown of the mishaps per segment of flight
34. for an enhanced review of the results.
After critical analysis of all the collected data, the three
different error types (skill-based, decision, and perceptual)
were allocated to the individual reports. In order to create a
valid contingency table with the minimum value of five in
each section, categories had to be combined. Perception and
skill-related errors were combined due to their identified
relationship in the literature. Table 3 indicates the reviewed
data and illustrates the chosen categories as well.
The results of the statistical analysis found that there was
no statistically significant difference in the proportions of
accident type, x2(1) 5 0.682, p 5 0.41, d 5 .156. Since p
. 0.05, it was necessary to reject Ha and to accept H0.
Limitations
In this case, not all of the NTSB accident and incident
reports were full investigation reports with hundreds of
pages. For some of the events there was only a short, but
completed, report available. At times, it was not more than
a factual summary with an official NTSB statement at the
end. Consequently, those reports did not contain the desired
detail on airline management procedures, training, and
35. guidelines. In addition, information about training atten-
dance or more specific details could not always be
gathered. Yet the collected reports revealed enough data
in order to execute a valid statistical analysis.
The actual results of the statistical analysis indicated a
small effect size contrary to the planned medium effect
size. As such, the post hoc power calculation indicated that
the actual power did not meet the desired 0.80 level. Thus a
potential explanation of the conducted x2 is that the sample
size was not large enough to provide the necessary
sensitivity to detect differences in proportions of accident
types.
Discussion
Preconditions for Unsafe Acts
Whilst all of the categories in the preconditions for
unsafe acts (see Appendix A) are considered critical and
play a tremendous role in the investigation of an accident,
this research project focused more on the personal factors
in CRM, their operational application, and how this related
to EM on final approach. Examples include lack of
36. supervision, failure of leadership, misinterpretation of radio
calls, poor communication, lack of assertiveness, lack of
teamwork, and failure to conduct an adequate brief. The
condition of the operator category also covers some very
important states that can be of great impact in commencing
an unsafe act by the aircrew. Examples include the lack
of aptitude to fly, inadequate experience for complexity
of situation, information overload, distraction, channelized
attention, task saturation, overconfidence, stress, compla-
cency, and loss of SA (Wiegmann & Shappell, 2003). All
of these examples of preconditions for unsafe acts are
paradigms for adverse mental states/limitations and require
detection first in order to mitigate the outcome and prevent
the occurrence of unsafe acts.
Good communication skills by flight crews are one of
the core topics of CRM. Cockpit voice recorders give
investigators insight into such communications after an
accident has occurred; however, they do not provide a full
understanding of all the activities on the flight deck, but
they can supply the investigators with an idea on what
happened prior to an accident and why (Nevile & Walker,
2005).
Table 2
37. Data review and phase breakdown of CRM-related mishaps.
Approach Landing Go-Around Totals
Accidents 10 (29%) 25 (71%) - 35 (61%)
Incidents 2 (9%) 19 (86%) 1 (5%) 22 (39%)
Note. Numbers in table are frequencies and percentages
(parentheses) of CRM-related mishaps. The dash (-) indicates
that data in this specific area could
not be obtained.
Table 3
Research results for a 2 6 2 contingency table.
Airline Management-Related Factors Non-Airline Management-
Related Factors Total
Skill-Based Errors Only 7 (4/3/2) 18 (3/15/2) 25 (7/18/2)
Non-Skill-Based Errors or Combination of Errors 6 (2/6/2) 26
(5/20/1) 32 (5/26/1)
Total 13 (4/9/2) 44 (8/35/1) 57 (12/44/1)
Note. The category ‘‘Non-Skill-Based Errors or Combination of
Errors’’ includes decision and perceptual errors and/or a
38. combination of two or more of the
three error types. The values in parentheses reflect the different
phases of flight (approach/landing/go-around). The dash (2)
indicates that data in this
specific area could not be obtained.
F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering 9
The research of Nevile and Walker (2005) not only
concentrated on the instant of error itself; instead, they
focused on the circumstance in which it occurred. Specific
elements of interaction led them to believe that the way
pilots communicate with each other can create a context for
error. In their findings, Nevile and Walker (2005), found
overlapping talk, lack of reply, and also unnecessary
corrections from the pilot in command. In the end, in
reference to their cited mishap, the flight crew did not work
together in harmony. Independently, each of those findings
may have been inconsequential, but collectively, they had a
snowballing effect. Consequently, standardized commu-
nication on the flight deck is a necessity in attaining
effective communication and ultimately effective crew
39. performance on final approach for the purpose of
decreasing accidents in this crucial phase of flight.
Attitudes and Human Behavior in Commercial Multi-
Crew Cockpits
In commercial airline cockpits today, with their modern
automation, pilots have to cautiously monitor the flight
path and systems (FAA, 2004). The percentage of threats
and errors increases especially during the approach-to-
landing phase of flight (Helmreich et al., 2001). Therefore,
actively crosschecking the other flight crewmember and
his actions is needed or otherwise flight safety can be
compromised (FAA, 2004). Several accident reports (e.g.,
NTSB, 2004, 2010, 2011) indicate valuable lessons of
monitoring and challenging. Nevertheless, monitoring has
to precede challenging in order to observe the situation and
detect the deviation (Sumwalt, 1999).
The FO in the NTSB (2011) accident report undoubtedly
showed monitoring initiative and even challenged the
captain of the aircraft. Though, the large difference in
experience between the two pilots, in combination with her
weak assertiveness to enforce SOP adherence, most
probably discouraged her challenging efforts toward the
40. seasoned captain. On the other hand, the captain’s
deficiency in monitoring may have been influenced by
fatigue, but company training was mentioned as a
contributing factor as well.
The circumstances described in the NTSB (2004)
accident report were somewhat different. Here, consider-
able lack of monitoring by the captain and the flight
engineer were identified. Consequently, the unsafe acts that
led to the accident were not detected and safety was
compromised. Fatigue, high workload, and rushed proce-
dures, no matter what, the errors were not detected or
challenged. Therefore, the ineffective crew monitoring and
crosschecking was literally the last line of defense that
failed and did not prevent the accident from happening
(FAA, 2004).
The NTSB (2010) revealed that the pilots were involved
in non-pertinent conversations during all segments of flight,
including those that are defined as critical by sterile cockpit
rule. Besides the actual causal factors of this accident, the
NTSB is concerned that neither pilot of the accident flight
seemed hesitant to engage in non-pertinent conversations or
demonstrated corrective behavior toward the other crew-
41. member. Unfortunately, these facts leave room for inter-
pretation that non-pertinent conversations among company
pilots during critical phases of flight were not unusual.
Conclusion
Admitting to errors is an important element of EM. It
assumes that events will not always turn out the way they
were anticipated because humans will make errors. The
perfect flight will most likely not be achievable, but striving
for perfection will help to keep errors small and manage-
able. Effectively managing these errors is key to safe flying
operations, thereby avoiding small errors from escalating to
dangerous levels (Spare, 2006b). Managing errors can be
accomplished best when crewmembers work together
effectively. Successful multi-crew cockpit operations are
a product of effective CRM training, which ought to be
well thought-out and strategically targeted to the require-
ments of the individual air carrier and the surroundings in
which they operate.
The FAA (2004) outlined CRM training and offers the
required standards for commercial airlines. Then again,
airlines usually design their own company SOPs for flight
deck crewmembers. The FAA (2003) has been providing
42. the elementary guidelines for those procedures. Still, many
of the researched data indicate that, particularly in reference
to effective communication and monitoring skills, the
aviation industry has a lack of standardization in CRM
training. Reoccurring similar causal factors in CRM-related
accidents and incidents could still be identified, although
CRM training evolved consistently (Salas, Wilson, Burke,
& Wightman, 2006).
The FAA (2003, 2004) included valuable examples for
setting the right priorities in reference to workload
management. Now, it is the responsibility of the individual
air carrier’s management to incorporate those guidelines
into their own CRM training programs and SOPs. By
offering aircrews the best possible tools to apply proper
CRM, only then is maximum crew performance attainable.
Almost two decades ago, Besco et al. (1994) identified the
necessity to improve flight crew training. However, the
greatest obstacle in their analysis was cost. In general,
airlines are very conscious about their budget and costs are
high, probably too high to spend much time talking about
low-probability events. As previously mentioned, the
potential cost increase for air carriers, with a contemporary
CRM training update for flight crews, would be negligible
if compared to the monetary loss of an aircraft, not even
43. considering the catastrophic outcome and subsequent
publicity.
10 F. Wagener and D. C. Ison / Journal of Aviation Technology
and Engineering
Helmreich et al. (2001) suggested, in order to decrease
the amount of errors commenced on approach, appropriate
TEM training is essential. Programs that aim for better
aircrew performance levels can do such by confronting
pilots with increased challenges to attain safe flying
operations (Gunther & Tesmer, 2001). Flight crews need
to continuously adjust the plan as they monitor, evaluate,
anticipate, and consider contingencies. Most importantly,
solid and dedicated preparation, planning, and execution
are prerequisites for successful and effective crew perfor-
mance, especially in go-around decisions to avoid ALAs
(Spare, 2006a; NTSB, 2004, 2011). According to Sumwalt,
Thomas, and Dismukes (2002), policy changes, training,
and pilots following active monitoring concepts can
considerably improve crew monitoring and challenging
skills. One method to exercise those skills is through
including deliberate errors during LOFT scenarios. In the
44. end, enhancing flight crew monitoring skills can improve
flight safety (Sumwalt, 1999).
Further scientific research is vital in order to evaluate the
true impact of CRM training on flight safety. Key aspects
for improving monitoring and challenging skills in
effective EM are the air carrier’s policies and procedures,
especially during the high workload approach-to-landing
segment of flight.
As already suggested by Spare (2006b), flight crews
have to be mentally ready to initiate a go-around maneuver
when flight safety dictates. That mental state has to
supersede the different pressures to land the airplane
as scheduled. Thus, a wide-ranging implementation of
monitoring and challenging policies must be included in
the air carrier’s SOPs and training manuals. Air carrier
management has to enforce improved and strategically
targeted training to ensure their flight crews are adequately
prepared for the next generation of modern aviation
technology. Then again, it is crucial that flight crews
develop proper EM skills and procedures. Error detection
and recovery from errors should be reinforced in training
(FAA, 2004) in order to mitigate flight safety occurrences.
Effective CRM starts in initial training and is intensified by
45. repetition and feedback. Therefore, EM must encompass a
significant part of CRM training, while also being built in
to the corporate culture and continuously being emphasized
in every subsequent phase of training (FAA, 2004).
Clearly the importance of CRM and company guidance
to encourage such practices is essential to the mitigation of
pilot error accidents. The proper alignment of CRM and
SOPs can give flight crews the optimum tools and
environment to avoid falling prey to failures that could
potentially lead to an accident. Several possible lessons can
be gleaned from the findings of this study. Among CRM-
related accidents and incidents, there is no significant
difference in the percentages of occurrences based upon
airline management procedures or compliance thereof and
those that did not involve airline management issues. This
indicates a favorable alignment of SOPs and CRM
philosophies. In theory, if there were large numbers of
CRM accidents in which management-related problems/
errors were noted, there could be a disconnect between
management and pilots in terms of procedures and
compliance. There are larger numbers, albeit not statisti-
cally significant, among non-management-related acci-
dents/incidents, particularly in the non-skill-based category.
46. This may indicate that when there is compliance with CRM
and management protocol, a lower likelihood of negative
consequences exists. A key example would be the use of
proper monitoring and processes during the approach and
landing phase, which preserves error management in a critical
phase of flight. Further research into these possible
implications is necessary to confirm these suppositions.
This study sought to identify differences between the
management and non-management influences on CRM-
related accidents and incidents. Whilst more investigation
into this subject is required, this research was able to provide
preliminary evidence of the positive effects of active CRM
and airline management.
Suggestions for Future Research
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations are made for future studies:
1. Repetition of the current study with a larger sample
size
2. A qualitative study of airline SOPs and CRM
procedures to evaluate themes and alignments of
goals, policies, training, and evaluation of these
47. aspects
3. An evaluation of the adoption and use of CRM
procedures internationally
4. An evaluation of recent approach and landing
accident reports to identify breakdowns in CRM
and/or SOP compliance or guidance
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