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Audiences |Effects |
Research
robert.jewitt@sunderland.ac.uk



                                 1
Social conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1901)
Dogs, bells & whistles = salivation
Hypodermic syringe
!   AKA Magic Bullet

!   After Schramm
   (1961/1982)
!   Mass media are so
   powerful they can 'inject'
   their messages into the
   audience
!   AKA propaganda around
   WW1
Social Cognitive Theory
!   Albert Bandura (1959-77)

!   ‘Bobo’ doll tests

!   Many variations

!   3 groups of children (aged
    3-6)

!   Rooms with toys

!   Adult attacking bobo doll
Social Cognitive Theory
!   Children exposed to the
    aggressive model were
    more likely to show
    imitative aggressive
    behaviour themselves.

!   Subjects exposed to the
    non-aggressive model, or
    no model at all, showed
    little imitative aggressive
    behaviour
Social Cognitive Theory
!   Problems
   !   Rather simple experiments
   !   Isolate variables and test response
   !   Establish the (artificial) conditions to test the response
   !   Draw conclusions about society?
   !   Audience as too PASSIVE
Uses & Gratifications
!   “Even the most potent of the mass media content
   cannot ordinarily influence an individual who has 'no
   use' for it in the social and psychological context in
   which he lives.

!   The 'uses' approach assumes that people's values, their
   interests, their associations, their social rôles, are pre-
   potent, and that people selectively 'fashion' what they
   see and hear to these interests”
                              (Katz, 1959 in McQuail, 1971)
Gratifying needs
1.     Surveillance
      •      the need for knowledge

2.         Personal identity
      •      our dis/likes and comparisons

3.         Personal relationships
      •      TV facilitates discussion; acts as a ‘friend’

4.         Diversion
      •      escapism, entertainment, relaxing (emotional release &
             sexual arousal)
Gratifying needs
!   Problems:
   !   Highly individualistic
   !   Little attention paid to media form and content
   !   Ignores meanings attached to media
   !   Presumes the media are always functional
   !   Audience as too ACTIVE
Reception Studies
Stuart Hall (1973)
Encoding/Decoding model
Encoding/Decoding model




Media professionals              Media audiences

Technical skills                   Viewing skills

Established practices            Diverse interests

Constructed                          Deconstruct
Texts ‘mean’ different things
!   Texts are polysemic (can be read multiple ways)




!   There exists a ‘preferred reading’
Real audiences?
David Morley (1980)
Nationwide Audience
Tested Encoding/Decoding model with real
people
Schoolboys
Black FE
                                         Bank managers
students

                                          Apprentices
 Shop
 stewards

                             Trade
                             union
                             officials
            Trainee
            Teachers
                       HE Arts
                       Students
Recent investigations
Tanya Byron (2008)
Concerned about safety of young people online
Media effects?
Negative claims still made
Often based on ‘dodgy’ claims
Questions
!   Do we agree or disagree with the claim that the media
   ‘effects’ us?

!   What kind of form do these ‘effects’ take?

!   Is it possible to measure these ‘effects’? How would we
   do it?

!   What kind of variables or approaches need to be taken
   into account if we want to explore audience research
   fully?
Further Reading
!     Daniel Chandler has a series of useful essays summarising the major
      arguments
      !     Cultivation Theory: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/cultiv.html
      !     Encoding/Decoding: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem08c.html
      !     Nationwide Audience:
      !     http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/TF33120/morleynw.html

!     David Gauntlett also summarises many of the problems with claims
      around media effects
      !     10 Things Wrong With The Effects Model: http://www.theory.org.uk/david/effects.htm


!     Also, Tanya Bryon’s report into children and new technology has a useful
      appendix by Prof David Buckingham:
      !     http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/byronreview/pdfs/Buckingham%20Impact%20of%20Media%20Literature
             %20Review%20for%20the%20Byron%20Review.pdf

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Audiences

  • 2. Social conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1901) Dogs, bells & whistles = salivation
  • 3.
  • 4. Hypodermic syringe !   AKA Magic Bullet !   After Schramm (1961/1982) !   Mass media are so powerful they can 'inject' their messages into the audience !   AKA propaganda around WW1
  • 5. Social Cognitive Theory !   Albert Bandura (1959-77) !   ‘Bobo’ doll tests !   Many variations !   3 groups of children (aged 3-6) !   Rooms with toys !   Adult attacking bobo doll
  • 6. Social Cognitive Theory !   Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to show imitative aggressive behaviour themselves. !   Subjects exposed to the non-aggressive model, or no model at all, showed little imitative aggressive behaviour
  • 7. Social Cognitive Theory !   Problems !   Rather simple experiments !   Isolate variables and test response !   Establish the (artificial) conditions to test the response !   Draw conclusions about society? !   Audience as too PASSIVE
  • 8. Uses & Gratifications !   “Even the most potent of the mass media content cannot ordinarily influence an individual who has 'no use' for it in the social and psychological context in which he lives. !   The 'uses' approach assumes that people's values, their interests, their associations, their social rôles, are pre- potent, and that people selectively 'fashion' what they see and hear to these interests” (Katz, 1959 in McQuail, 1971)
  • 9. Gratifying needs 1.  Surveillance •  the need for knowledge 2.  Personal identity •  our dis/likes and comparisons 3.  Personal relationships •  TV facilitates discussion; acts as a ‘friend’ 4.  Diversion •  escapism, entertainment, relaxing (emotional release & sexual arousal)
  • 10. Gratifying needs !   Problems: !   Highly individualistic !   Little attention paid to media form and content !   Ignores meanings attached to media !   Presumes the media are always functional !   Audience as too ACTIVE
  • 11. Reception Studies Stuart Hall (1973) Encoding/Decoding model
  • 12. Encoding/Decoding model Media professionals Media audiences Technical skills Viewing skills Established practices Diverse interests Constructed Deconstruct
  • 13. Texts ‘mean’ different things !   Texts are polysemic (can be read multiple ways) !   There exists a ‘preferred reading’
  • 14. Real audiences? David Morley (1980) Nationwide Audience Tested Encoding/Decoding model with real people
  • 15.
  • 16. Schoolboys Black FE Bank managers students Apprentices Shop stewards Trade union officials Trainee Teachers HE Arts Students
  • 17. Recent investigations Tanya Byron (2008) Concerned about safety of young people online
  • 18. Media effects? Negative claims still made Often based on ‘dodgy’ claims
  • 19.
  • 20. Questions !   Do we agree or disagree with the claim that the media ‘effects’ us? !   What kind of form do these ‘effects’ take? !   Is it possible to measure these ‘effects’? How would we do it? !   What kind of variables or approaches need to be taken into account if we want to explore audience research fully?
  • 21. Further Reading !   Daniel Chandler has a series of useful essays summarising the major arguments !   Cultivation Theory: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/cultiv.html !   Encoding/Decoding: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem08c.html !   Nationwide Audience: !   http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/TF33120/morleynw.html !   David Gauntlett also summarises many of the problems with claims around media effects !  10 Things Wrong With The Effects Model: http://www.theory.org.uk/david/effects.htm !   Also, Tanya Bryon’s report into children and new technology has a useful appendix by Prof David Buckingham: !  http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/byronreview/pdfs/Buckingham%20Impact%20of%20Media%20Literature %20Review%20for%20the%20Byron%20Review.pdf