This document provides information on argumentation and the structure of argument essays. It defines argumentation as appealing to reason by connecting evidence in a logical chain to lead readers to an intended conclusion. There are four main types of arguments: definition, evaluation, cause-effect, and proposal. A good argument topic must be specific, controversial, researchable, rational, and relatable. An argument essay follows a basic structure with a claim, support/evidence, refutation of counter-arguments, and a conclusion that reinforces the claim. The introduction should grab the reader, provide background, and state the thesis. The body should present logical evidence and refute opposing views. The conclusion restates the key points and supports the thesis.

1. THE RHETORIC OFTHE RHETORIC OF
ARGUMENTATIONARGUMENTATION
How to state andHow to state and
support an opinion.support an opinion.

2. What is argumentation?What is argumentation?
ArgumentationArgumentation is anis an appeal to reasonappeal to reason,,
in which a writerin which a writer connects evidenceconnects evidence inin
aa logical chainlogical chain that leads readers to anthat leads readers to an
intended conclusion.intended conclusion.
 Appeals primarily toAppeals primarily to reasonreason, not, not emotionemotion
 ProvidesProvides mostly hard evidencemostly hard evidence
 Connects evidence in aConnects evidence in a logical chainlogical chain
 Has aHas a specific, predetermined effectspecific, predetermined effect onon
readers.readers.

3. 4 Types of Arguments4 Types of Arguments
 Definition:Definition: persuades readers to interpret a word or phrase in apersuades readers to interpret a word or phrase in a
particular way. (e.g., What is drug abuse? What makes an activity aparticular way. (e.g., What is drug abuse? What makes an activity a
sport?)sport?)
 Evaluation:Evaluation: persuades readers that an idea is good or bad,persuades readers that an idea is good or bad,
worthwhile or useless, etc. (e.g., legalizing pot is a bad idea; sportsworthwhile or useless, etc. (e.g., legalizing pot is a bad idea; sports
figures should not be paid so highly; corporate farms are bad for thefigures should not be paid so highly; corporate farms are bad for the
food chain)food chain)
 Cause-effect:Cause-effect: persuades readers that an existing situation resultspersuades readers that an existing situation results
from a particular cause, or that a situation will result in a particularfrom a particular cause, or that a situation will result in a particular
effect. (e.g., legalizing drugs will cause addiction; participating ineffect. (e.g., legalizing drugs will cause addiction; participating in
sports helps kids with socialization; Americans are fat because ofsports helps kids with socialization; Americans are fat because of
processed foods)processed foods)
 Proposal:Proposal: persuades readers that a particular solution or approachpersuades readers that a particular solution or approach
is needed to address the issue. (e.g., to solve economic problems, weis needed to address the issue. (e.g., to solve economic problems, we
should legalize and tax pot; communities should organize adult sportsshould legalize and tax pot; communities should organize adult sports
leagues to combat obesity; the government should forceleagues to combat obesity; the government should force
manufacturers to stop using trans fats to improve public heart health.)manufacturers to stop using trans fats to improve public heart health.)

4. Sample Argument ThesesSample Argument Theses
 Definition:Definition: Addiction is just another name forAddiction is just another name for
selfishness, because addicts put their need for a fix aheadselfishness, because addicts put their need for a fix ahead
of the needs of family, coworkers, and the community.of the needs of family, coworkers, and the community.
 Evaluation:Evaluation: The nation’s current immigration policies areThe nation’s current immigration policies are
cruel because they create anti-immigrant bigotry, separatecruel because they create anti-immigrant bigotry, separate
families, and unfairly discriminate against certainfamilies, and unfairly discriminate against certain
nationalities.nationalities.
 Cause/effect:Cause/effect: The 9-11 terrorist attacks destroyedThe 9-11 terrorist attacks destroyed
Americans’ privacy by subjecting them to data searches,Americans’ privacy by subjecting them to data searches,
security screenings, and secret surveillance.security screenings, and secret surveillance.
 Proposal:Proposal: All prospective parents should be required toAll prospective parents should be required to
take a nationally approve parenting class to ensure theirtake a nationally approve parenting class to ensure their
child’s health, safety, and emotional well-being.child’s health, safety, and emotional well-being.

5. Narrowing an Argument TopicNarrowing an Argument Topic
An argument topic must be:An argument topic must be:
** specific.specific. It must address only ONE aspectIt must address only ONE aspect
of a larger topic.of a larger topic.
* controversial.* controversial. There must be differingThere must be differing
opinions on the issue.opinions on the issue.
** researchable.researchable. There must be publishedThere must be published
information on the topic.information on the topic.
** rational.rational. An academic argument mustAn academic argument must
make sense to the average person.make sense to the average person.
** relatable.relatable. The average person must haveThe average person must have
some reason to care about the topic.some reason to care about the topic.

6. THE STRUCTURE OFTHE STRUCTURE OF
AN ARGUMENT ESSAYAN ARGUMENT ESSAY
An argument essay has a basic structure:An argument essay has a basic structure:
** CLAIMCLAIM (thesis):(thesis): The idea you will be arguing.The idea you will be arguing.
** SUPPORTSUPPORT (evidence):(evidence): How you will prove the idea isHow you will prove the idea is
valid.valid.
** REFUTATIONREFUTATION (counter-argument): What opponents(counter-argument): What opponents
claim, and why they are wrong.claim, and why they are wrong.
* REINFORCEMENT* REINFORCEMENT (restatement and summary):(restatement and summary):
Reminding readers how you proved your argument.Reminding readers how you proved your argument.

7. Basic Argument Essay StructureBasic Argument Essay Structure
Like every essay, an argumentation essay has threeLike every essay, an argumentation essay has three
basic parts:basic parts:
Introduction = CLAIM:Introduction = CLAIM: introduces topic, providesintroduces topic, provides
background, and states an opinion and how it willbackground, and states an opinion and how it will
be provedbe proved
Body = SUPPORT & REFUTATION:Body = SUPPORT & REFUTATION: creates acreates a
logical chain of evidence to support the thesis ANDlogical chain of evidence to support the thesis AND
refutes opposing argumentsrefutes opposing arguments
Conclusion = REINFORCEMENT:Conclusion = REINFORCEMENT: reminds thereminds the
reader of the opinion and how it was supportedreader of the opinion and how it was supported

8. REFINING YOUR CLAIMREFINING YOUR CLAIM
AA claimclaim is a statement that expressesis a statement that expresses aa point of viewpoint of view on aon a
narrow, debatable topic.narrow, debatable topic.
AA claimclaim isis based on a factbased on a fact. The writer’s opinion about that fact. The writer’s opinion about that fact
forms the argument’s focus.forms the argument’s focus.
A claim must be arguable. To check this, create aA claim must be arguable. To check this, create a logical counter-logical counter-
claimclaim, or opposite argument., or opposite argument.
FACT:FACT: Organic foods are more expensive than non-organic foods.Organic foods are more expensive than non-organic foods.
CLAIM:CLAIM: Organic foods are worth their extra cost.Organic foods are worth their extra cost.
COUNTER-COUNTER- Organic foods are not worth their extra costOrganic foods are not worth their extra cost..
CLAIM:CLAIM:

9. INTRODUCTION:INTRODUCTION:
Setting the ToneSetting the Tone
An introductionAn introduction must:must:
 establish rapportestablish rapport with the reader;with the reader;
 prepare the readerprepare the reader for the body of thefor the body of the
essay with explanations of the topic, itsessay with explanations of the topic, its
importance, and any controversy surroundingimportance, and any controversy surrounding
it;it;
 present an opinionpresent an opinion ; and; and
 explain how the opinion will beexplain how the opinion will be
supported/organizedsupported/organized ..
Use a
solid
grabber
Provide
background
info
State a thesis with ONE
main idea and at least
THREE reasons/supports

10. INTRO: ESTABLISH RAPPORTINTRO: ESTABLISH RAPPORT
Rapport is a personal connection between people. The writerRapport is a personal connection between people. The writer
must establish a personal relationship with his/her readers,must establish a personal relationship with his/her readers,
so that they trust the writer (ethos) and are invested inso that they trust the writer (ethos) and are invested in
what is being said (pathos).what is being said (pathos).
ToTo establish rapport,establish rapport, a writer must:a writer must:
 Analyze the audienceAnalyze the audience :: know the ages, education, assumptionsknow the ages, education, assumptions
(e.g., cultural mores), etc., of your readers, so you can choose(e.g., cultural mores), etc., of your readers, so you can choose
language and evidence that will connect with them.language and evidence that will connect with them.
 Consider and appeal to all viewpoints:Consider and appeal to all viewpoints: remember that someremember that some
people will agree with you, some will disagree, and some will bepeople will agree with you, some will disagree, and some will be
neutral. Choose language and evidence that will convince all of theseneutral. Choose language and evidence that will convince all of these
people that your ideas are valid. Avoid language that showspeople that your ideas are valid. Avoid language that shows
disrespect toward the other side, since some of these people maydisrespect toward the other side, since some of these people may
also be readers. Try not to just “preach to the choir,” but use evidencealso be readers. Try not to just “preach to the choir,” but use evidence
that can convince the “antis” that your position is well-founded.that can convince the “antis” that your position is well-founded.

11. INTRO: PREPARE THE READERINTRO: PREPARE THE READER
FOR THE BODY OF THE ESSAYFOR THE BODY OF THE ESSAY
Readers are more comfortable when they know what to expect from yourReaders are more comfortable when they know what to expect from your
essay. To prepare them, you must:essay. To prepare them, you must:
 Establish a tone:Establish a tone: Decide what attitude you will portray toward theDecide what attitude you will portray toward the
subject, and how you want readers to feel. Set a pattern of languagesubject, and how you want readers to feel. Set a pattern of language
that conforms to your intended tone.that conforms to your intended tone.
 Establish a style:Establish a style: Decide how you want to connect to the reader.Decide how you want to connect to the reader.
Will you use formal language that sets you up as an expert/authority,Will you use formal language that sets you up as an expert/authority,
or informal language that makes you the readers’ peer? Will you useor informal language that makes you the readers’ peer? Will you use
simple, straightforward language, or will you be more complex and/orsimple, straightforward language, or will you be more complex and/or
metaphorical? Your topic, as well as your main idea, will help youmetaphorical? Your topic, as well as your main idea, will help you
decide.decide.
 Be substantial:Be substantial: An essay’s introduction should be proportionate toAn essay’s introduction should be proportionate to
the essay’s length. It should also show that the writer is serious inthe essay’s length. It should also show that the writer is serious in
approaching the topic. Therefore, the intro should be a minimum ofapproaching the topic. Therefore, the intro should be a minimum of
five (5) sentences.five (5) sentences.

12. INTRO: PRESENT AN OPINION ANDINTRO: PRESENT AN OPINION AND
STATE HOW YOU WILL PROVE ITSTATE HOW YOU WILL PROVE IT
To establish ethos, you must be honest with readers aboutTo establish ethos, you must be honest with readers about
what you intend to prove and how you intend to prove it.what you intend to prove and how you intend to prove it.
To accomplish this, the writer must:To accomplish this, the writer must:
 State a thesis:State a thesis: At the end of the introduction, stateAt the end of the introduction, state
clearly what you will prove and how.clearly what you will prove and how.
 Make sure the thesis is complete:Make sure the thesis is complete: An argumentAn argument
thesis has three required parts:thesis has three required parts:
 SubjectSubject (the narrow topic you will address)(the narrow topic you will address)
 FocusFocus (your opinion on the topic)(your opinion on the topic)
 Specific languageSpecific language (the three most important(the three most important
reasons for holding your opinion)reasons for holding your opinion)

13. BODY:BODY:
Making the CaseMaking the Case
The body of the essay is where you proveThe body of the essay is where you prove
that your argument is valid. The bodythat your argument is valid. The body
must:must:
 supplysupply evidenceevidence
 establish aestablish a logical chain of reasoninglogical chain of reasoning ,,
andand
 refute opposing argumentsrefute opposing arguments ..

14. BODY: SUPPLY EVIDENCEBODY: SUPPLY EVIDENCE
In the essay’s body, you must prove to all readersIn the essay’s body, you must prove to all readers
that your ideas are valid. To do so, you mustthat your ideas are valid. To do so, you must
select the proper evidence:select the proper evidence:
 Consult at least five sourcesConsult at least five sources thatthat address your specific, narrowaddress your specific, narrow
subjectsubject
 Use as least four of the six types of evidence:Use as least four of the six types of evidence:
facts/statistics, historical record, expert opinion, personalfacts/statistics, historical record, expert opinion, personal
experience, collective experience, and common mores.experience, collective experience, and common mores.
 Use mostly hard evidenceUse mostly hard evidence :: facts/statistics, historical record,facts/statistics, historical record,
expert opinion.expert opinion.
 Plan how to organize your evidencePlan how to organize your evidence :: Be sure to create a
logical chain by organizing evidence in a pattern.

15. BODY:BODY: ESTABLISH A LOGICALESTABLISH A LOGICAL
CHAIN OF REASONINGCHAIN OF REASONING
For your ideas to make sense, you must establish aFor your ideas to make sense, you must establish a logical chain of evidencelogical chain of evidence byby
ensuring:ensuring:
 All evidence is specifically related to the focus.All evidence is specifically related to the focus. Don’t stray from theDon’t stray from the
subject at hand. All evidence must refer to the focus and the reasons for thesubject at hand. All evidence must refer to the focus and the reasons for the
opinion it expresses, as stated in the thesis.opinion it expresses, as stated in the thesis.
 All evidence is specifically related to all other evidence.All evidence is specifically related to all other evidence. Make sureMake sure
that all your evidence hangs together. No evidence presented should contradictthat all your evidence hangs together. No evidence presented should contradict
other evidence or lead readers in another direction.other evidence or lead readers in another direction.
 No evidence is repeated.No evidence is repeated. Never use the same piece of evidence twice inNever use the same piece of evidence twice in
different sections of the body. Only repeat evidence in conclusion, when you aredifferent sections of the body. Only repeat evidence in conclusion, when you are
referring back to it.referring back to it.
 Evidence is organized progressively, leading up to most importantEvidence is organized progressively, leading up to most important
pointspoints.. Present evidence in the same order as reasons are listed in the thesis.Present evidence in the same order as reasons are listed in the thesis.
Begin with background information necessary to understanding the argument.Begin with background information necessary to understanding the argument.
Save your strongest reason and best support for last, so that your essay buildsSave your strongest reason and best support for last, so that your essay builds
momentum.momentum.

16. BODY:BODY: REFUTE OPPOSINGREFUTE OPPOSING
ARGUMENTSARGUMENTS
Refuting meansRefuting means pointing out flawspointing out flaws . To refute opposing. To refute opposing
arguments is to show how those who disagree with you arearguments is to show how those who disagree with you are
wrong. To do this, you must:wrong. To do this, you must:
 Anticipate disagreement:Anticipate disagreement: Understand what the opposing sideUnderstand what the opposing side
believes, so you can expect their objections and counter them.believes, so you can expect their objections and counter them.
Address not only obvious and well-known disagreements, but othersAddress not only obvious and well-known disagreements, but others
that may arise.that may arise.
 Explain how/why those who disagree are wrong:Explain how/why those who disagree are wrong: Just as weJust as we
associate our own ideas with admirable ideals, we must show thatassociate our own ideas with admirable ideals, we must show that
opposing ideas are unfair, weak, or unsound logically. Presentopposing ideas are unfair, weak, or unsound logically. Present
examples that show how readers would suffer if opponents win, or howexamples that show how readers would suffer if opponents win, or how
readers can benefit from your view. Or show that the opponents don’treaders can benefit from your view. Or show that the opponents don’t
share the values that readers hold dear.share the values that readers hold dear.
 Respect those who disagree:Respect those who disagree: Don’t make the opposition out to beDon’t make the opposition out to be
evil; this can backfire. Show respect for opposition, even if you don’tevil; this can backfire. Show respect for opposition, even if you don’t
feel it. Suggest that they mean well, but just “don’t get it.”feel it. Suggest that they mean well, but just “don’t get it.”

17. CONCLUSION:CONCLUSION:
RESTATE, REITERATE, REINFORCERESTATE, REITERATE, REINFORCE
The conclusion is a “mirror” of the introduction, so it willThe conclusion is a “mirror” of the introduction, so it will
always be organized in the same way:always be organized in the same way:
 Restate your thesis:Restate your thesis: Using slightly different language to avoidUsing slightly different language to avoid
boring the reader, restate your opinion and reasons at the start ofboring the reader, restate your opinion and reasons at the start of
your conclusion.your conclusion.
 Reiterate your strongest evidence:Reiterate your strongest evidence: Choose the evidence youChoose the evidence you
believe is the most impressive, and remind the reader how powerfulbelieve is the most impressive, and remind the reader how powerful
this evidence is in proving that your point is valid.this evidence is in proving that your point is valid.
 Reinforce your tone and opinion with a clincher:Reinforce your tone and opinion with a clincher: End yourEnd your
essay with a powerful, memorable last line that drives your pointessay with a powerful, memorable last line that drives your point
home and that will stick with the reader.home and that will stick with the reader.

18. TO SUMMARIZE:TO SUMMARIZE:
 An argument is anAn argument is an appeal to reason,appeal to reason, not emotion.not emotion.
 There areThere are four typesfour types of arguments:of arguments: definition,definition,
evaluation, cause-effect,evaluation, cause-effect, andand proposal.proposal.
 An argument essay centers on aAn argument essay centers on a solid, scholarly thesis.solid, scholarly thesis.
 An argument essay follows theAn argument essay follows the basic college essaybasic college essay
format.format.
 An argument essay adds aAn argument essay adds a fourth sectionfourth section to the threeto the three
body sections: abody sections: a refutation of opposing arguments.refutation of opposing arguments.
 An argument is supported byAn argument is supported by four of the six types offour of the six types of
evidence,evidence, withwith mostly hard evidence.mostly hard evidence.