This document reviews the current state of knowledge regarding pediatric appendicitis. Key points include:
1) The diagnosis and treatment of appendicitis has significantly changed in the last two decades due to evidence-based research from randomized controlled trials and large database studies.
2) The best diagnostic approach is a standardized clinical pathway using a scoring system and selective imaging. Non-operative management may be reasonable for some cases of simple appendicitis, though data in children is still limited.
3) Laparoscopic appendectomy is now the standard procedure in US and European children's hospitals.
The document discusses the history and evolution of theories of disease causation and treatment from ancient Greece to modern times. It describes how theories have progressed from associating disease with humors and elements, to ideas of contagion and miasmas, to the germ theory of disease established by Pasteur and Koch. It also outlines the development of veterinary medicine and changing roles of veterinarians from a focus on individual animal treatment to herd health management, food safety, and animal welfare.
Soil-transmitted helminth infections (STH) and schistosomiasis constitute major public health challenges among school‐age children in sub-Saharan Africa. Chemotherapy with the Benzimidazole chemical family is one of the most effective strategies to lower the rates of morbidity and mortality. But now a day anthelmintic resistance in the treatment and control of human helminthes has been reported in different areas in Ethiopia. The objective of this study, therefore, is to assess the efficacy of albendazole (400 mg, manufactured by Khandeiwal Laboratories Pvt. Ltd) currently in use against soil-transmitted helminth infections among school children in many areas of Ethiopia. A total of 180 elementary school children were chosen using random sampling technique. Each student was instructed to submit fresh stool specimen. Formal ether concentration technique and Kato-Katz method were done at the study sites and Aksum University, laboratory of Department of Biology and Biotechnology. Among the total study children, 170 submitted fresh stool samples giving a response rate of 96.77%. The overall prevalence of helminth infection was 66.7 % (Adiet), 67.9% (Adwa) and 51.7% (Aksum). In all the study sites albendazole was effective against most soil-transmitted helminthes, with cure rate > 85%, and egg reduction rate >90%. However, it was less effective against Trichuris trichiura with cure rate 58.5% and 57.9% at Adiet and Adwa, respectively. Therefore, due attention should be given with regard to treating helminth positive individuals together with intense environmental sanitation to curb the burden of helminth infection and alternative chemotherapy against Trichuris trichiura should be supplied to the study areas.
Epidemiology is the study of disease occurrence and distribution in populations. It derives from Greek words meaning "upon people." Key concepts in epidemiology include disease frequency (prevalence and incidence), distribution (who, where, when disease occurs), and determinants (causes and spread). The epidemiological triad of host, agent, and environment, along with their interactions in a disease cycle, help explain how diseases manifest and spread. Understanding epidemiology allows public health efforts to better control health problems.
This document reviews appendicitis in children. It discusses the demographics, natural history, diagnosis, medical and surgical management of both acute and perforated appendicitis. Key points include that appendicitis is most common in adolescents, is caused by luminal obstruction, and diagnosis involves clinical exam and imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment involves antibiotics for uncomplicated cases or appendectomy for acute or perforated cases, which can be performed laparoscopically or openly. Outcomes of laparoscopic appendectomy are generally better with less complications compared to open surgery.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. There are several key methods used in epidemiology including observational studies like cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies which examine disease occurrence without intervention. Experimental studies like randomized controlled trials can also be used to study the effects of interventions on disease.
This document provides an introduction to the course MPH 5101: Epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in human populations. The document summarizes the historical evolution of epidemiology, from Hippocrates to John Snow. It also lists the key features and uses of descriptive and analytic epidemiology, and components of the epidemiologic triad.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants among populations. It then discusses the aims of epidemiology according to the International Epidemiological Association. This includes describing disease distribution and magnitude, identifying risk factors, and providing data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control services. The document also covers the scope, uses, and terminologies of epidemiology such as infection, contamination, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic.
The document discusses the history and evolution of theories of disease causation and treatment from ancient Greece to modern times. It describes how theories have progressed from associating disease with humors and elements, to ideas of contagion and miasmas, to the germ theory of disease established by Pasteur and Koch. It also outlines the development of veterinary medicine and changing roles of veterinarians from a focus on individual animal treatment to herd health management, food safety, and animal welfare.
Soil-transmitted helminth infections (STH) and schistosomiasis constitute major public health challenges among school‐age children in sub-Saharan Africa. Chemotherapy with the Benzimidazole chemical family is one of the most effective strategies to lower the rates of morbidity and mortality. But now a day anthelmintic resistance in the treatment and control of human helminthes has been reported in different areas in Ethiopia. The objective of this study, therefore, is to assess the efficacy of albendazole (400 mg, manufactured by Khandeiwal Laboratories Pvt. Ltd) currently in use against soil-transmitted helminth infections among school children in many areas of Ethiopia. A total of 180 elementary school children were chosen using random sampling technique. Each student was instructed to submit fresh stool specimen. Formal ether concentration technique and Kato-Katz method were done at the study sites and Aksum University, laboratory of Department of Biology and Biotechnology. Among the total study children, 170 submitted fresh stool samples giving a response rate of 96.77%. The overall prevalence of helminth infection was 66.7 % (Adiet), 67.9% (Adwa) and 51.7% (Aksum). In all the study sites albendazole was effective against most soil-transmitted helminthes, with cure rate > 85%, and egg reduction rate >90%. However, it was less effective against Trichuris trichiura with cure rate 58.5% and 57.9% at Adiet and Adwa, respectively. Therefore, due attention should be given with regard to treating helminth positive individuals together with intense environmental sanitation to curb the burden of helminth infection and alternative chemotherapy against Trichuris trichiura should be supplied to the study areas.
Epidemiology is the study of disease occurrence and distribution in populations. It derives from Greek words meaning "upon people." Key concepts in epidemiology include disease frequency (prevalence and incidence), distribution (who, where, when disease occurs), and determinants (causes and spread). The epidemiological triad of host, agent, and environment, along with their interactions in a disease cycle, help explain how diseases manifest and spread. Understanding epidemiology allows public health efforts to better control health problems.
This document reviews appendicitis in children. It discusses the demographics, natural history, diagnosis, medical and surgical management of both acute and perforated appendicitis. Key points include that appendicitis is most common in adolescents, is caused by luminal obstruction, and diagnosis involves clinical exam and imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment involves antibiotics for uncomplicated cases or appendectomy for acute or perforated cases, which can be performed laparoscopically or openly. Outcomes of laparoscopic appendectomy are generally better with less complications compared to open surgery.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. There are several key methods used in epidemiology including observational studies like cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies which examine disease occurrence without intervention. Experimental studies like randomized controlled trials can also be used to study the effects of interventions on disease.
This document provides an introduction to the course MPH 5101: Epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in human populations. The document summarizes the historical evolution of epidemiology, from Hippocrates to John Snow. It also lists the key features and uses of descriptive and analytic epidemiology, and components of the epidemiologic triad.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants among populations. It then discusses the aims of epidemiology according to the International Epidemiological Association. This includes describing disease distribution and magnitude, identifying risk factors, and providing data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control services. The document also covers the scope, uses, and terminologies of epidemiology such as infection, contamination, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic.
A Case of Postmenopausal Pyometra Caused By Endometrial Tuberculosisiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
Emerging and reemerging infectious diseasesarijitkundu88
Various emerging and reemerging diseases. Factors contributing to the emergence of infectious diseases. Antibiotic resistance. The global response to control them. Laboratories network in surveillance.
The document discusses the history and discovery of Helicobacter pylori and its role in peptic ulcer disease. It describes how in the 1980s, Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren discovered that H. pylori infection was a major cause of peptic ulcers, overturning decades of belief. Their discovery was initially met with resistance from the medical community but was later recognized with the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The document also discusses the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and antibiotic resistance of H. pylori infection.
There are several key reasons why infectious disease outbreaks have been increasing globally in recent decades. Increased travel, trade, and urbanization have made it easier for pathogens to spread to new areas. Climate change is also enabling some disease-carrying mosquitoes and other animals to thrive in new environments. However, public health organizations have gotten better at detecting and responding to outbreaks early, meaning fewer cases per outbreak overall. Still, underfunding of disease surveillance programs in some areas has allowed certain illnesses to resurge. Continued challenges include poverty, conflict, and environmental degradation. Proper isolation of infectious patients also remains important for control.
Napa County Public Health is holding a tabletop exercise on 10/28/13 to discuss the response to an e. Coli outbreak. This is in conjunction with the CA Dept of Public Health and anticipation of the upcoming statewide functional exercise. Slides prepared by The Abaris Group
The One Health Center aims to improve global health through an integrated approach addressing connections between human, animal, food, and environmental factors. Its mission is to assess and respond to health problems at this human-animal-environment interface through multidisciplinary and collaborative efforts. Key areas of research and intervention include improved water management, poultry immunization, disease surveillance, food safety, and combating malnutrition. A signature project will pilot interventions in these areas in Uganda to evaluate the added benefits of One Health approaches.
This study examined seasonal variations in the onset of acute pancreatitis at a hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan from 2005-2006. The researchers found:
- There were 121 cases of acute pancreatitis included in the study, with slightly more male patients. The average age was 42.
- Gallstones and alcoholism were the leading risk factors, accounting for 39.7% and 12.4% of cases respectively.
- There was a peak in onset of acute pancreatitis in the months of September-December, particularly for patients with gallstones or a history of alcoholism.
- Events occurring in October-December had a significantly higher mortality rate compared to other times of year.
The general shift from acute infectious and deficiency diseases characteristic of underdevelopment to chronic non-communicable diseases characteristic of modernization and advanced levels of development is usually referred to as the "epidemiological transition".
Founders of epidemiology and thier contributionsShareef Ngunguni
Hippocrates was the first to examine relationships between disease and environmental factors, rejecting supernatural causes. James Lind conducted experiments on scurvy prevention that established clinical research standards. Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine through observation of immunity from cowpox. Ignaz Semmelweis pioneered hand washing to prevent spread of infections from cadavers to mothers. John Snow carefully mapped cholera cases in London and used statistics to show its water source, establishing epidemiology.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors influencing these patterns. Some key points:
- Epidemiology aims to determine disease origins, investigate control, and understand ecology and impacts on populations.
- Descriptive epidemiology characterizes disease distribution, who is affected, when and where. Analytic epidemiology examines why through comparing groups and potential risk factors.
- Studies include experimental, cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort designs to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes.
- Methods include surveys, monitoring, surveillance and studying sentinel populations to track disease occurrence and changes over time.
This summary provides an overview of a retrospective study analyzing seasonal variation in cases of non-neonatal tetanus (NNT) over a 7-year period from 2004-2010 at a hospital in Jaipur, India. The study found that post-monsoon season had significantly more NNT cases than other seasons each year. Specifically, over one-third of total cases and deaths occurred in post-monsoon months of June-July and November-December. Additionally, winter season had the lowest number of cases but the highest case fatality rate of NNT. The study aims to better understand seasonal trends in NNT occurrence to help guide future elimination strategies.
Crohn's disease and tuberculosis can be difficult to differentiate based on clinical features alone. Key factors that may help include disease duration, family history, presence of extraintestinal manifestations, and endoscopic and histological findings on biopsies. Radiological imaging findings can also provide clues but often overlap between the two conditions. A high index of suspicion is needed and further investigations including microbiological tests may be required in uncertain cases to arrive at the correct diagnosis and avoid unnecessary double treatment.
This document contains 63 multiple choice questions about general epidemiology. The questions cover a range of epidemiological topics including levels of prevention (primordial, primary, secondary, tertiary), disease transmission and distribution, outbreak investigation, and risk factors. Correct answers are provided for each question.
This document discusses emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. It defines emerging diseases as newly identified infectious agents causing public health issues, and reemerging diseases as known agents resurging after being controlled. Factors contributing to their emergence and reemergence include changes in human, agent and environmental factors. Examples provided are hepatitis C, tuberculosis, cholera and dengue. Key tasks in dealing with them are surveillance, early control measures, prevention and monitoring. International collaboration through networks like GOARN is important for coordinated response. Multiple expertise from public health, epidemiology, laboratories etc. is required to tackle this challenge.
Ogilvie syndrome, also known as acute colonic pseudo-obstruction, is characterized by massive dilation of the colon without any mechanical obstruction. The exact cause is unknown but is thought to involve an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system with increased sympathetic tone and/or decreased parasympathetic tone. Left untreated, it carries risks of perforation, peritonitis, and death. Initial treatment involves conservative management but neostigmine, a cholinesterase inhibitor, is often effective in resolving the pseudo-obstruction and avoids the need for invasive procedures.
A historical review of diseases and disease prevention in gold coastAlexander Decker
This document provides a literature review on the history of diseases and disease prevention in the Gold Coast region, with a focus on the Asante kingdom from 1900 to 1957. It discusses several diseases that were present in the region, including malaria, trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis. The document also examines how the environment and ecology contributed to the spread of diseases. While early European observers viewed the climate as unhealthy, some indigenous areas like Asante were seen as healthier due to factors like regular rainfall. The document reviews efforts by indigenous peoples and later the colonial administration to prevent and treat diseases in the region.
This document summarizes information about emerging foodborne pathogens and the complex modern food system. It discusses factors that allow microbes to adapt and become emerging pathogens, such as genetic mutations, stress responses, and antibiotic resistance. Specific emerging pathogens that pose food safety risks are described in detail, including enterohemorrhagic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio species, Clostridium difficile, Yersinia enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella species, and Enterobacter sakazakii. The document contrasts the modern global and industrialized food system with past local systems and reviews foodborne disease surveillance data.
Dr. Balakrishna Shetty is a pediatric radiologist who discusses several acute abdominal conditions that present similarly in children and adults, such as appendicitis. He notes that some findings differ in children, such as appendicitis sometimes presenting without fecalith. Transient intussusception is more common in children and often associated with mesenteric adenitis. Pneumonia can also mimic acute abdominal conditions. Overall, many pediatric abdominal issues are non-surgical and can be managed conservatively with careful evaluation to rule out serious conditions requiring surgery.
A 49-year-old female presented with right upper quadrant pain and was found to have multiple gallbladder polyps on ultrasound. She underwent a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Histopathology revealed the polyps were benign. Gallbladder polyps can present ambiguously with biliary colic-like pain. While polyps larger than 1 cm or in patients over 50 increase malignancy risk, the relationship between polyp number and risk is still unclear. Treatment depends on polyp size, with observation for polyps under 6 mm and cholecystectomy for larger polyps.
A Case of Postmenopausal Pyometra Caused By Endometrial Tuberculosisiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
Emerging and reemerging infectious diseasesarijitkundu88
Various emerging and reemerging diseases. Factors contributing to the emergence of infectious diseases. Antibiotic resistance. The global response to control them. Laboratories network in surveillance.
The document discusses the history and discovery of Helicobacter pylori and its role in peptic ulcer disease. It describes how in the 1980s, Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren discovered that H. pylori infection was a major cause of peptic ulcers, overturning decades of belief. Their discovery was initially met with resistance from the medical community but was later recognized with the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The document also discusses the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and antibiotic resistance of H. pylori infection.
There are several key reasons why infectious disease outbreaks have been increasing globally in recent decades. Increased travel, trade, and urbanization have made it easier for pathogens to spread to new areas. Climate change is also enabling some disease-carrying mosquitoes and other animals to thrive in new environments. However, public health organizations have gotten better at detecting and responding to outbreaks early, meaning fewer cases per outbreak overall. Still, underfunding of disease surveillance programs in some areas has allowed certain illnesses to resurge. Continued challenges include poverty, conflict, and environmental degradation. Proper isolation of infectious patients also remains important for control.
Napa County Public Health is holding a tabletop exercise on 10/28/13 to discuss the response to an e. Coli outbreak. This is in conjunction with the CA Dept of Public Health and anticipation of the upcoming statewide functional exercise. Slides prepared by The Abaris Group
The One Health Center aims to improve global health through an integrated approach addressing connections between human, animal, food, and environmental factors. Its mission is to assess and respond to health problems at this human-animal-environment interface through multidisciplinary and collaborative efforts. Key areas of research and intervention include improved water management, poultry immunization, disease surveillance, food safety, and combating malnutrition. A signature project will pilot interventions in these areas in Uganda to evaluate the added benefits of One Health approaches.
This study examined seasonal variations in the onset of acute pancreatitis at a hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan from 2005-2006. The researchers found:
- There were 121 cases of acute pancreatitis included in the study, with slightly more male patients. The average age was 42.
- Gallstones and alcoholism were the leading risk factors, accounting for 39.7% and 12.4% of cases respectively.
- There was a peak in onset of acute pancreatitis in the months of September-December, particularly for patients with gallstones or a history of alcoholism.
- Events occurring in October-December had a significantly higher mortality rate compared to other times of year.
The general shift from acute infectious and deficiency diseases characteristic of underdevelopment to chronic non-communicable diseases characteristic of modernization and advanced levels of development is usually referred to as the "epidemiological transition".
Founders of epidemiology and thier contributionsShareef Ngunguni
Hippocrates was the first to examine relationships between disease and environmental factors, rejecting supernatural causes. James Lind conducted experiments on scurvy prevention that established clinical research standards. Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine through observation of immunity from cowpox. Ignaz Semmelweis pioneered hand washing to prevent spread of infections from cadavers to mothers. John Snow carefully mapped cholera cases in London and used statistics to show its water source, establishing epidemiology.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors influencing these patterns. Some key points:
- Epidemiology aims to determine disease origins, investigate control, and understand ecology and impacts on populations.
- Descriptive epidemiology characterizes disease distribution, who is affected, when and where. Analytic epidemiology examines why through comparing groups and potential risk factors.
- Studies include experimental, cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort designs to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes.
- Methods include surveys, monitoring, surveillance and studying sentinel populations to track disease occurrence and changes over time.
This summary provides an overview of a retrospective study analyzing seasonal variation in cases of non-neonatal tetanus (NNT) over a 7-year period from 2004-2010 at a hospital in Jaipur, India. The study found that post-monsoon season had significantly more NNT cases than other seasons each year. Specifically, over one-third of total cases and deaths occurred in post-monsoon months of June-July and November-December. Additionally, winter season had the lowest number of cases but the highest case fatality rate of NNT. The study aims to better understand seasonal trends in NNT occurrence to help guide future elimination strategies.
Crohn's disease and tuberculosis can be difficult to differentiate based on clinical features alone. Key factors that may help include disease duration, family history, presence of extraintestinal manifestations, and endoscopic and histological findings on biopsies. Radiological imaging findings can also provide clues but often overlap between the two conditions. A high index of suspicion is needed and further investigations including microbiological tests may be required in uncertain cases to arrive at the correct diagnosis and avoid unnecessary double treatment.
This document contains 63 multiple choice questions about general epidemiology. The questions cover a range of epidemiological topics including levels of prevention (primordial, primary, secondary, tertiary), disease transmission and distribution, outbreak investigation, and risk factors. Correct answers are provided for each question.
This document discusses emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. It defines emerging diseases as newly identified infectious agents causing public health issues, and reemerging diseases as known agents resurging after being controlled. Factors contributing to their emergence and reemergence include changes in human, agent and environmental factors. Examples provided are hepatitis C, tuberculosis, cholera and dengue. Key tasks in dealing with them are surveillance, early control measures, prevention and monitoring. International collaboration through networks like GOARN is important for coordinated response. Multiple expertise from public health, epidemiology, laboratories etc. is required to tackle this challenge.
Ogilvie syndrome, also known as acute colonic pseudo-obstruction, is characterized by massive dilation of the colon without any mechanical obstruction. The exact cause is unknown but is thought to involve an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system with increased sympathetic tone and/or decreased parasympathetic tone. Left untreated, it carries risks of perforation, peritonitis, and death. Initial treatment involves conservative management but neostigmine, a cholinesterase inhibitor, is often effective in resolving the pseudo-obstruction and avoids the need for invasive procedures.
A historical review of diseases and disease prevention in gold coastAlexander Decker
This document provides a literature review on the history of diseases and disease prevention in the Gold Coast region, with a focus on the Asante kingdom from 1900 to 1957. It discusses several diseases that were present in the region, including malaria, trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis. The document also examines how the environment and ecology contributed to the spread of diseases. While early European observers viewed the climate as unhealthy, some indigenous areas like Asante were seen as healthier due to factors like regular rainfall. The document reviews efforts by indigenous peoples and later the colonial administration to prevent and treat diseases in the region.
This document summarizes information about emerging foodborne pathogens and the complex modern food system. It discusses factors that allow microbes to adapt and become emerging pathogens, such as genetic mutations, stress responses, and antibiotic resistance. Specific emerging pathogens that pose food safety risks are described in detail, including enterohemorrhagic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio species, Clostridium difficile, Yersinia enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella species, and Enterobacter sakazakii. The document contrasts the modern global and industrialized food system with past local systems and reviews foodborne disease surveillance data.
Dr. Balakrishna Shetty is a pediatric radiologist who discusses several acute abdominal conditions that present similarly in children and adults, such as appendicitis. He notes that some findings differ in children, such as appendicitis sometimes presenting without fecalith. Transient intussusception is more common in children and often associated with mesenteric adenitis. Pneumonia can also mimic acute abdominal conditions. Overall, many pediatric abdominal issues are non-surgical and can be managed conservatively with careful evaluation to rule out serious conditions requiring surgery.
A 49-year-old female presented with right upper quadrant pain and was found to have multiple gallbladder polyps on ultrasound. She underwent a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Histopathology revealed the polyps were benign. Gallbladder polyps can present ambiguously with biliary colic-like pain. While polyps larger than 1 cm or in patients over 50 increase malignancy risk, the relationship between polyp number and risk is still unclear. Treatment depends on polyp size, with observation for polyps under 6 mm and cholecystectomy for larger polyps.
- Acute appendicitis is a common condition with an incidence of about 5 cases per 1000 people in Europe. It most often presents with localized right lower quadrant abdominal pain, anorexia, nausea, and tenderness over McBurney's point. Leukocytosis is also common.
- Diagnosis can sometimes be difficult, especially in women, children, elderly patients, and pregnant women where symptoms may be atypical. Observation over several hours is recommended in equivocal cases. Imaging like ultrasound and CT scans can help in diagnosis but are not always necessary.
- Untreated acute appendicitis can lead to complications like appendicular abscess or generalized peritonitis. Early appendectomy remains the standard treatment
This document provides background information and summarizes key principles regarding acute appendicitis. It begins by discussing the appendix's role in the digestive system and risk factors for appendicitis. The anatomy and pathophysiology of appendicitis are then described, noting that obstruction of the appendix is the underlying cause. Common presenting symptoms are reviewed, emphasizing that the classic presentation is seen in less than 50% of cases, making diagnosis challenging. Differential diagnoses and the role of laboratory tests, imaging, and clinical assessment in evaluation are also summarized. Throughout, it is stressed that diagnosis relies on integrating multiple factors rather than any single finding.
This document provides information on the anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, and treatment of appendicitis. It discusses the typical presentation of acute appendicitis including abdominal pain localized to the right lower quadrant. It also covers complications such as perforation and abscess formation. Treatment is generally surgical removal of the appendix (appendectomy), which can be performed openly or laparoscopically. Prognosis is generally good, though delayed diagnosis and treatment can increase risks of complications.
Abdominal Tuberculosis Revisited–A single institutional experience of 72 case...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
This document discusses typhoid fever and its surgical complications. It provides background on the disease, including its history, distribution, risk factors, presentation and various complications. Intestinal perforation is a major complication that can require surgery. Other surgical complications mentioned include intestinal hemorrhage, typhoid cholecystitis, and chronic gallbladder carriage. The document emphasizes the importance of prompt treatment to improve prognosis from complications.
The document discusses recent changes in guidelines for diagnosing and treating Helicobacter pylori infection. It recommends proactively testing high-risk groups like immigrants from countries with high H. pylori prevalence and family members of infected individuals. Diagnostic methods include noninvasive tests like the urea breath test and stool antigen test, as well as endoscopic tests during colonoscopy. Treatment is becoming more challenging with increasing antibiotic resistance, requiring alternatives to common triple therapies.
1. Abdominal pain is the primary symptom of acute appendicitis, which typically begins in the lower abdomen and migrates to the right lower quadrant. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and symptoms, and may be supplemented by imaging or bloodwork.
2. Treatment for acute appendicitis is surgical removal of the appendix, either through open appendectomy or laparoscopic appendectomy. Antibiotic administration before and after surgery can help prevent surgical site infections.
3. The differential diagnosis of right lower quadrant pain includes conditions like mesenteric adenitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, ovarian cysts, and intestinal illnesses. Timely diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications from appendiceal rupture
Study on Clinical observation in Patients Presenting With Right Iliac Fossa P...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:Patients presenting with pain in the right iliac fossa is common for a surgeon. The causes differ based on the organ of origin. The common conditions include acute appendicitis, right ureteric calculus, mesenteric adenitis or ileocecal tuberculosis and right ovarian cyst. Other causes are appendicular abscess and ascending colon carcinoma. Rare conditions include Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, caecal carcinoma, amoeboma, lymph node mass, iliopsoas mass, retroperitoneal mass and Crohn’s disease. This makes it difficult to diagnose and manage these patients. Hence a prospective study on right iliac fossa masses was conducted. Out of a total of 50 patients, the most common cause was of appendicular origin, mainly appendicitis followed by right ureteric calculus. Pain, fever and leucocytosis were predominantly noted in inflammatory conditions whereas weight loss, anaemia and painless mass were noted in neoplastic causes. Appendicular mass patients were treated conservatively followed by interval appendectomy. Appendicular abscess was drained extraperitoneally. Right hemi-colectomy was done for carcinoma in the cecum and ascending colon. Tubercular patients with intestinal obstruction also underwent right hemi-colectomy. Intra-venous antibiotics were administered to all infective cases. Tubercular masses were started on anti-tubercular drugs. Carcinoma patients received adjuvant therapy. Crohn’s disease and non-specific lymphadenitis were treated medically. Hence our study shows that managing right iliac fossa mass patients can be challenging and requires vigilance.
This document summarizes a study of 77 cases of small bowel diverticula treated over 29 years. It finds:
1) Nearly half of diverticula were found incidentally, with Meckel's diverticula making up 43% of cases.
2) Over half of cases (53%) experienced complications like inflammation, perforation, bleeding, or obstruction.
3) Diagnosis before surgery was often impossible (44% of complicated cases), though enteroclysis and CT scans helped in some cases.
4) Most symptomatic or complicated cases, including all Meckel's diverticula, were treated surgically with no reported late complications.
The document provides information about acute appendicitis including:
1. Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix and remains a common acute surgical condition. It has a lifetime occurrence of approximately 12% in men and 25% in women.
2. The cause is unclear but obstruction is thought to play a main role by causing inflammation. This can lead to perforation or gangrene if not treated.
3. The diagnosis is typically based on the patient's history and symptoms of abdominal pain migrating to the lower right quadrant, as well as signs on examination like tenderness at McBurney's point. Imaging studies like CT scans can help diagnose unclear cases.
C.M. presented with chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss. Her symptoms progressed to include bloody stools. Physical exam revealed arthritis in her left knee and abdominal tenderness. Stool exam showed red and white blood cells but no infectious cause was found. The most likely cause is inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), specifically ulcerative colitis (UC). UC causes inflammation and ulcers confined to the colonic mucosa. C.M.'s symptoms, physical exam findings, and stool exam results provide evidence for a diagnosis of UC. Her signs and symptoms should be managed with medications aimed at inducing remission of her UC.
Appendicitis is a common condition in children that requires surgical removal of the appendix (appendectomy). It occurs when the appendix becomes blocked, usually by lymphoid hyperplasia or fecalith, leading to bacterial infection inside the appendix. This causes abdominal pain localized to the right lower quadrant. Left untreated, the infection and pressure can cause the appendix to perforate, spreading infection into the abdomen. An appendectomy is required once appendicitis is diagnosed to prevent perforation or treat one that has already occurred. Pre-operative resuscitation and antibiotics may be needed for severely infected patients before surgery.
PowerPoint presentation on Choledochal Cysts, also known as biliary cyst, uploaded by Dr. Vaskar Humagain, first presented in 31st December, 2013. This presentation contains all the information about Choledochal Cysts, the original and revised Todani classification of choledochal cysts, pathogenesis, other associated congenital anomalies, clinical features in infant and adult, management of choledochal cysts. Comments are highly welcome :)
This document provides information on tracheo-esophageal fistula (TEF). It discusses the embryology, anatomy, classification, associated anomalies, symptoms, diagnosis, management including surgical repair, and postoperative complications of TEF. TEF is an abnormal connection between the esophagus and trachea that occurs due to a disruption in the separation of the respiratory and digestive tubes during embryonic development. Surgical repair involves ligating the fistula and anastomosing the esophageal ends. Complications include anastomotic leaks, strictures, and recurrent fistula formation.
This document discusses tracheo-esophageal fistula (TEF), including its history, epidemiology, embryology, anatomy, classification, associated anomalies, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, preoperative management, and surgical repair. Key points include:
- TEF is an abnormal connection between the esophagus and trachea that often occurs with esophageal atresia.
- It has no known cause but risk factors include certain medications in pregnancy and maternal diabetes.
- Surgical repair via thoracotomy aims to ligate the fistula and anastomose the esophageal ends in a single stage for optimal outcomes.
- Prognosis depends on factors like birth weight and presence of cardiac defects.
Cysts of the mesentery are among surgical rarities and of varied aetiology with variable presentations and
this has surgical implications in the pediatric age group. They may be derived from the gastrointestinal
tract, the genitourinary system, previous inflammation (pseudocysts) or malignant cystic tumours, but the
commonest cause is generally considered to be a congenital lymphatic cyst. The clinical presentation is not
characteristic and in addition, the preoperative imaging although suggestive is not diagnostic. In most
cases, the diagnosis is confirmed after surgical exploration and removal of the cyst. A case report of a
baby aged 6 months is being reported. Hope that this information will reinforce the diagnostic and
treatment strategy
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2. Key findings discussed include patterns of bowel gas, which can indicate ileus, small bowel obstruction, or large bowel obstruction like sigmoid volvulus.
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It has been reported that duodenal diverticula are common but perforated duodenal diverticulum is a rare entity. At this time, there is no standardized management for perforated duodenal diverticulum. In these cases, patients usually complain of vague abdominal pain and computed tomography scan is mostly ordered used as an important diagnostic method. Diagnosis and the severity of the disease need to be assessed before any intervention. Essentially, the perforated small bowel is treated with surgical intervention. However, conservative treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics and strict nil per os has been offered in the past for stable patients. Below, we report one case of perforated duodenal diverticulum that we managed with conservative treatment.
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Compound C
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1. REVIEW ARTICLE
Pediatric appendicitis: state of the art review
Rebecca M. Rentea1 • Shawn D. St. Peter1 • Charles L. Snyder1
Accepted: 5 October 2016
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Abstract Appendicitis is a common cause of abdominal
pain in children. The diagnosis and treatment of the disease
have undergone major changes in the past two decades,
primarily as a result of the application of an evidence-based
approach. Data from several randomized controlled trials,
large database studies, and meta-analyses have funda-
mentally affected patient care. The best diagnostic
approach is a standardized clinical pathway with a scoring
system and selective imaging. Non-operative management
of simple appendicitis is a reasonable option in selected
cases, with the caveat that data in children remain limited.
A minimally invasive (laparoscopic) appendectomy is the
current standard in US and European children’s hospitals.
This article reviews the current ‘state of the art’ in the
evaluation and management of pediatric appendicitis.
Keywords Appendicitis Á Appendectomy Á
Scoring system Á Laparoscopy Á Abscess Á Children Á
Pediatric Á Non-operative management Á Abdominal pain Á
Right lower quadrant
Abbreviations
AIR Appendicitis inflammatory response
BMI Body mass index
CI Confidence interval
CRP C-reactive protein
CT Computed tomography
ED Emergency department
GALT Gut-associated lymphoid tissue
ICU Intensive care unit
IR Interventional Radiology
LOS Length of stay
LR Likelihood ratio
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
NPV Negative predictive value
NSQIP National Surgical Quality Improvement Program
PA Perforated appendicitis
PAS Pediatric Appendicitis Score
PHIS Pediatric Health Information Systems
PPV Positive predictive value
RCT Randomized controlled trial
SSI Surgical site infection
US Ultrasound
WBC White blood cell
History
Appendiceal disease has a long and interesting history
(Tables 1, 2) [1–4]. The first successful appendectomy was
done nearly 300 years ago, and it became the accepted
treatment for appendicitis at the beginning of the twentieth
century.
Pathophysiology
The etiology of appendicitis is still largely unknown
despite being such a common condition. Luminal
obstruction from stool, appendicoliths, lymphoid hyper-
plasia, or neoplasm is a factor in about half the cases [5, 6],
but it does not explain the increased incidence in summer
[7, 8], or racial/geographic variations [9].
& Rebecca M. Rentea
rrentea@cmh.edu
1
Department of Surgery, Children’s Mercy Hospital, 2401
Gillham Road, Kansas, MO 64108, USA
123
Pediatr Surg Int
DOI 10.1007/s00383-016-3990-2
2. Genetic, environmental, and infectious etiologies (bac-
terial, viral, fungal, and parasitic) have been implicated in
appendicitis [10, 11]. A family history is associated with a
nearly threefold increased appendicitis risk [9]. Genetic
factors may account for 30 % of appendicitis risk [12].
Data from 23andMe were analyzed for genetic heritability
of appendicitis. A GWAS (genome-wide association study)
was done in 18,773 self-reported appendectomy cases and
compared to 114,907 controls. One locus had genome-wide
significance, and a candidate gene (PITX2) was identified
which was associated with a protective effect for appen-
dicitis [13].
Function
The appendix may serve as a ‘safe house’ for normal
intestinal flora, potentially repopulating normal microbial
balance after diarrheal illnesses [6, 14]. The appendix has
the highest concentration of gut-associated lymphoid tissue
(GALT) in the intestine. GALT’s function is poorly
understood. Appendectomy decreases the risk of ulcerative
colitis, and increases the risk of recurrent Clostridium
difficile-associated colitis [5, 6].
Epidemiology
Between 60,000 and 80,000 pediatric appendectomies are
performed annually, with a mean cost of about $9000 [15].
The estimated lifetime risk of appendicitis is 7–9 %
[16–18]. The U.S. incidence of appendicitis is *1 per 1000
[19] and is increasing [5, 16, 20]. The incidence is higher in
South Korea [21] and lower in Africa [22]. The peak
incidence occurs between 10 and 19 years of age
[5, 16, 17], and mean age at diagnosis is increasing [19].
Appendicitis is less common in very young children; pre-
school-aged children account for 5 % of cases [23]. There
is a male preponderance (55–60 %).
Appendicitis is increasing in Hispanics, Asians, and
Native Americans, while the rates in Whites and African–
Americans have declined [19, 24]. In large database anal-
yses, African–American and Hispanic children presented
with perforation more often than other racial groups [25]
and had longer hospital stays and more complications, even
after adjusting for perforation. African–American and low-
income children had increased odds of PA, less imaging,
more ICU admissions, and longer hospitalizations [26].
The percentage of appendicitis that is perforated varies
widely from 15 to 50 % [16, 19, 24, 27–30]. The incidence
of perforation also depends on age, gender, socioeconomic
status, and ethnic/racial background [31, 32], as well as the
definition of ‘perforation.’ The currently accepted defini-
tion is a hole in the appendix or an appendicolith in the
abdomen [33].
Diagnosis
There are two aspects to the diagnosis of appendicitis:
detecting the disease and identifying perforation. The
advent of antibiotic-only treatment increases the impor-
tance of the latter distinction. There is significant variation
Table 1 History of appendicitis
Year Event
1492 The appendix is depicted clearly in drawings by da Vinci
1521 Jacopo Berengario da Carpi first described the appendix
1711 Lorenz Heister describes perforated appendix with abscess
1735 The first successful appendectomy was performed by
Claudius Amyand
1812 John Parkinson provided a description of fatal appendicitis
1800s Surgeons began draining localized abscesses from
appendicitisa
1880 Robert Lawson Tait made the first diagnosis of appendicitis
and surgically removed the appendix
1886 Reginald Heber Fitz published a study on appendicitis and
named the procedure an appendectomy. This was the first
use of the term ‘appendicitis’ (Gr. suffix with Latin stem)
1893 McBurney proposed his original muscle splitting operation
1889 2500 articles or books dealing with the appendix had been
published. By 1950, more than 13,000 articles or books
dealing with the appendix had been published
1981 Kurt Semm performed the first laparoscopic appendectomy
a
In the early 1800s, French physicians reported cases of perforated
appendicitis and suggested surgical removal of the appendix. How-
ever, they were strongly opposed by the famous Baron Guillaume
Dupuytren, who felt that the origin of right lower abdominal pain was
the cecum, not the appendix. He was apparently a quarrelsome and
difficult individual: ‘‘I have been mistaken, but I have been mistaken
less than other surgeons [155]’’
Table 2 Famous historical figures with appendicitis
Person Year
Harvey Cushing (physician)a
1897
King Edward VII (Eng)b
1902
Walter Reed (physician) 1902
George Ryerson Fowler (surgeon, Fowler’s position) 1906
Frederick Remington (artist) 1909
a
Operated (successfully) by Halstead for appendicitis
b
Edward delayed his coronation when told by Sir Frederick Treves
(physician to the ‘Elephant Man’) that if he refused operation for his
appendicitis and went anyway, ‘‘Then Sir, you will go as a corpse
[156].’’ Notably, Treves’ daughter also died of appendicitis many
years later
Pediatr Surg Int
123
3. in methods of diagnosis and treatment of appendicitis
among hospitals [34]. However, negative appendectomy
rates have decreased to under 5 % [30, 31, 35–37].
Symptoms and signs
An experienced clinician can achieve over 90 % accuracy
in the diagnosis of appendicitis [38]. The most common
presenting symptom is gradual onset of abdominal pain
migrating from a periumbilical location to the right lower
abdomen. Nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fever and diarrhea
may follow. PA is uncommon in children ill for less than
24 h, and is usually present after 48 h of symptoms. Per-
foration may be initially accompanied by a slight decrease
in pain, which then may become more diffuse unless the
perforation is contained.
Common physical signs include tenderness in the right
lower abdomen, rebound tenderness or guarding, abdominal
distention, and fever. Rovsing’s sign (right-sided pain from
left lower abdominal palpation), obturator sign (pain with
flexion and internal rotation of the right hip), psoas sign
(pain with left side down right hip extension), Dunphy’s sign
(pain with coughing), or a positive Markle test (pain with
heel-drop) may all be seen in acute appendicitis. A mass may
be palpable in advanced disease, and the child may be febrile
and ill-appearing, preferring to avoid movement.
Classic symptoms and signs are present in less than half
of children [39, 40], and in very young children, the
diagnosis can be particularly difficult. Over 80 % of chil-
dren under 3 years of age present with PA [40].
Mid-abdominal pain migrating to the right lower quad-
rant had a likelihood ratio (LR) of 1.9–3.1 for appendicitis,
and fever an LR of 3.4. Absence of fever lowered the
likelihood of appendicitis by two-thirds [39]. The only
physical finding correlated with an increased likelihood of
appendicitis was rebound tenderness (LR 2.3–3.9).
Absence of tenderness in the right lower quadrant resulted
in a 50 % decrease in the likelihood of appendicitis
[41–43].
Pediatric appendicitis risk scores
Scoring systems help to estimate the risk of appendicitis by
combining the predictive value of clinical symptoms,
physical exam findings, and laboratory data to maximize
the diagnostic information considered individually [44]. In
1986, Alfredo Alvarado described a 10-point scoring sys-
tem (Table 3) for acute appendicitis [45]. The Alvarado
score differs from the PAS score (below) to include points
given for leukocytosis and in the assessment of abdominal
pain on physical exam. A meta-analysis of 42 studies found
that a score 5 ruled out appendicitis with a pooled sen-
sitivity of 99 % (95 % CI 97–99 %) and specificity of
43 % (CI 36–51 %) [17]. The overall sensitivity and
specificity was slightly greater than 80 %, with inconsis-
tency in children and over-estimation in women [17]. Other
reports confirm the utility of the Alvarado score in elimi-
nating the diagnosis in children with a score 5, and the
lower accuracy in younger children [46, 47].
In 2002, Samuel described the Pediatric Appendicitis
Score, (Table 4) specifically designed for children aged
4–15 years, and based on 1170 children from Great
Ormond Street [42]. The PAS is a ten-point score com-
prising eight elements which include symptoms, physical
examination findings and WBC data (Table 4). Scores
from 4 to 7 indicate a ‘gray zone’ where further testing/
imaging is indicated. In the original study of the PAS score,
the author reported a 100 % sensitivity and 92 % sensi-
tivity for PAS in diagnosing appendicitis when using a
scoring threshold of 6 points or higher [42]. The reported
sensitivities and specificities are approximately 70–80 %
[42, 48–52]. The authors’ institution uses the PAS score as
part of the emergency room workup to evaluate a patient
with suspected appendicitis, in order to rely on the least
amount of laboratory/subjective information.
The Appendicitis Inflammatory Response (AIR) score
consists of eight variables based on weighted ordered
logistic regression analysis [53, 54] (Table 5). The area
under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the AIR
score was 0.96 in 941 patients with suspected appendicitis,
versus 0.82 for the Alvarado score. The AIR score may be
preferable in young children since the Alvarado score
requires children to identify nausea, anorexia, and migra-
tion of pain [54]. The Alvarado score compares more
favorably to the AIR score in adolescents.
Scoring systems have been successfully used to differ-
entiate simple acute appendicitis from PA, but the quality
of data is poor and no particular system is widely accepted.
Table 3 Alvarado Score, also known as the MANTREL score (Mi-
gration of pain, Anorexia, Nausea, etc.—an acronym of the eight
components of the scoring system)
Migration of pain 1
Anorexia 1
Nausea 1
Tenderness in RLQ 2
Rebound pain 1
Increase in temperature ([37 °C) 1
Leukocytosis ([10,000/lL) 2
Left shift in WBC count
Polymorphonuclear neutrophilia ([75 %)
1
Total 10
Scores are categorized as: low probability of appendicitis (1–4
points); intermediate (5–6); or high (7–10)
Pediatr Surg Int
123
4. However, using clinical, laboratory, and radiographic (both
CT and US were evaluated separately) scoring systems
allowed differentiation of simple and PA with an NPV of
95 % (CT) and 97 % (US) in one recent study [55].
Appendicitis risk scores are neither sensitive nor specific
enough to be effective diagnostic tools in isolation. Scoring
is best used as a screening adjunct to identify moderate-to-
high-risk patients for additional imaging or surgical con-
sultation, as many children without appendicitis will meet
the scoring threshold and potentially be at risk for a neg-
ative appendectomy.
Biomarkers
Biomarkers include laboratory studies such as WBC count
and differential, C-reactive protein (CRP), bilirubin, pro-
calcitonin and other measures. They can be used to: (1)
diagnose acute appendicitis, (2) differentiate simple acute
appendicitis from PA, (3) predict failure of attempted
antibiotic-only management of acute appendicitis, and (4)
predict postoperative complications.
Acute appendicitis
No single biomarker or combination of laboratory stud-
ies has adequate sensitivity or specificity for the diag-
nosis of appendicitis [39, 56–58]. However, in
combination with clinical and radiographic factors, they
are a part of every appendicitis scoring system. PPV and
NPV were calculated from over 1000 patients with
possible appendicitis in an international study. 580
(57 %) were eventually found to have appendicitis [59].
No combination of WBC count or CRP level resulted in
an NPV of more than 90 % or a PPV of [80 %,
regardless of the duration of symptoms. However, 1 % of
the study group (WBC count [20,000 and symptoms
[48 h) had a PPV of 100 %.
Antibiotic-only therapy
A recent use of biomarkers is monitoring patients managed
with antibiotics-only, to identify those more likely to fail
medical management [60]. In adult studies, WBC count
[18,000 cells/uL or CRP [4 mg/dL have variously been
reported as predictive of failure [15, 61–64].
Differentiation of simple versus complex
appendicitis
WBC count, CRP, and procalcitonin have been used to
differentiate simple from perforated appendicitis
[59, 65–67]. Serum bilirubin, CA-125, and hyponatremia
have also been reported to be markers of complex appen-
dicitis [68, 69]. Better predictive models also include
clinical and radiographic data [66].
Predictor of complications
Manypre-operative predictorsofpostoperative complications
have been suggested: high CRP, high WBC, and appendiceal
size [70, 71]. However, many of these markers may actually
be differentiating simple and perforated appendicitis, the
latter with a much higher complication profile [72].
Radiographic studies
The use of radiographic adjuncts in the diagnosis of
appendicitis has evolved over the last few decades. Wide-
spread use of CT scans for appendicitis in children peaked in
the late 1990s to approximately 2010 [35, 44, 73].
Table 4 Pediatric Appendicitis Score (PAS)
Parameter Score
Migration of pain 2
Anorexia 1
Nausea/emesis 1
Tenderness in right lower
quadrant cough/hopping/percussion
2
Cough/percussion tenderness 1
Fever 1
Leukocytosis ([10,000/lL) 1
Left shift of WBC count
Polymorphonuclear neutrophilia ([75 %)
1
Total 10
Table 5 Appendicitis Inflammatory Response (AIR) score
Component Score
Vomiting 1
RLQ Pain 1
Rebound or guarding, mild 1
Rebound or guarding, moderate 2
Rebound or guarding, severe 3
T [ 38.5 1
WBC 10,000–14,900 1
WBC C15,000 2
CRP 10–49 g/L 1
CRP C 50 g/L 2
Total 12
0–4 low probability. Outpatient follow-up if unaltered general con-
dition, 5–8 indeterminate group. In-hospital active observation with
re-scoring/imaging or diagnostic laparoscopy according to local tra-
ditions, 9–12 high probability. Surgical exploration is proposed
Pediatr Surg Int
123
5. Recognition of the radiation risks led to a transition from CT
scans to US. A 2015 review of more than 50,000 children
with appendicitis found that about half did not have either a
CT scan or US. 31 % had an US only, 16 % a CT scan only,
and about 5 % had both [74]. There was a 46 % increase in
the use of US alone and a 48 % decline in CT scans during
the four-year study interval. Negative appendectomy rates
decreased, while the proportion with PA and those with ED
revisits did not change.
Ultrasound
Advantages of US include low cost, ready availability,
rapidity, and avoidance of sedation, contrast agents, and
radiation exposure. It is currently the imaging study of
choice in children with an equivocal diagnosis. Standard-
ized reporting protocols are very useful, particularly in
indeterminate cases or those with appendiceal non-visual-
ization [75, 76].
Sensitivity and specificity are approximately 88 and
94 % [77–80], but US is very operator-dependent and
results are widely variable. Visualizing the appendix is
difficult in obese individuals or those with low clinical
suspicion. US sensitivity and specificity can be improved
by increasing minimum appendix thickness for diagnosis
from 6 to 7 mm, having dedicated sonographers, repeating
questionable studies after several hours, and altering the
study population (increased accuracy correlates with longer
pain duration) [81–84].
US reports should have a description of the findings, and
are usually categorized (Fig. 1a–e): Category 1: Appendix
visualized, normal; Category 2: Non-visualized appendix,
no secondary signs of appendicitis; Category 3: Non-visu-
alized appendix with secondary signs; and Category 4:
Clear appendicitis with or without abscess. The appendiceal
non-visualization rate ranges from 25 to 60 % [76, 85]. The
NPV for Category 1 and 2 studies is 95–99 %.
CT scan
CT scans are readily available, rapidly completed, and
highly accurate (Fig. 2a–c). A meta-analysis of 2500
patients found a consistent sensitivity and specificity of
approximately 95 % [78]. CT scans are more accurate
when IV contrast is given, but GI contrast is unnecessary
[86, 87]. Appendiceal non-visualization has a high
(98.7 %) NPV [88]. CT is much less accurate in identifying
perforation (sensitivity 62 %, specificity 82 %) [89].
The risk of future malignancy in children from ionizing
radiation is increased but unknown. Population-based
Fig. 1 Ultrasound imaging of the appendix. a Category 1 US (normal
appendix without secondary findings). b Category 3 US (appendix
non-visualized, but positive secondary findings with inflammatory
changes). c Category 4 US, with a non-compressible, thickened
appendix (arrow). d Category 4 US, with a non-compressible,
thickened appendix and a shadowing appendicolith (arrows). e US
demonstrating appendiceal perforation with hyperechoic enlarged
appendix surrounded by heterogeneous fluid collection/abscess and
surrounding inflammatory change
Pediatr Surg Int
123
6. estimates are 13.1 to 14.8 malignancies per 10,000
abdominal CT scans for boys, and nearly double that for
girls [90]. Strategies to diminish this risk include
decreasing: (1) the use of CT scans in suspected appen-
dicitis, (2) the radiation dosage used, and (3) the size of the
exposed area (focused scans) and (4) the number of images
[91].
There is significant institutional variation in the use
of CT scans for suspected appendicitis. A review of
2538 children identified significantly higher odds of CT
use in adult hospitals and lower rates of concordance
[92]. More than 99 % of children in adult institutions
had some form of pre-operative imaging. Radiation
exposure per scan is also higher in adult hospitals.
Lower tube kilovoltage and altered technique in pedi-
atric abdominal CT for appendicitis resulted in a greater
than 60 % reduction in radiation dose, while preserving
diagnostic accuracy [93, 94]. Larger and older children
required more radiation.
CT scan has a sensitivity of appendiceal perforation
[95]. The accuracy of positive predictive value for detect-
ing appendiceal perforation by CT scan was 67 % fol-
lowing review of 200 CT scans obtained for appendicitis
[89]. The study concluded that the triage of patients based
on pre-operative CT scans is imprudent.
Multiple studies have documented a reduction in both
CT and US with a clinical pathway or scoring system while
maintaining a low negative appendectomy rate [96–98].
MRI
MRI is infrequently obtained in suspected appendicitis,
although its use is increasing. In a 2015 review of 52,275
children with appendicitis, only 0.2 % underwent MRI
[81]. Nonetheless, the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy
are excellent [99–101]: the sensitivity was 96.8 %,
specificity 97.4 %, PPV 92.4 %, NPV 98.9 %, and false-
positive rate 3.1 % in a series of 510 children [102].
MRI availability, scan time, motion sensitivity, and cost
are factors responsible for its lack of use. Improved MRI
technology with faster imaging times, better resolution,
lower cost, and increased availability makes it an increas-
ingly attractive option [103].
Combining laboratory, clinical scores
and ultrasound data
The combined predictive value of laboratory and ultrasound
data for the diagnosis of appendicitis was retrospectively
reviewed in 845 patients presenting for surgical consultation
of possible appendicitis [56]. A high rate of equivocal ultra-
sounds with a lack of secondary signs of appendicitis was
demonstrated(50 %).Inthisgroup,appendicitiswas18 % for
those with an equivocal study but decreased to 3 % in the
absence of leukocytosis (WBC9000/uL and PMN65 %)
and increased to 48 % when leukocytosis was present [56].
The reverse, however, was found to be true as well in that US
with secondary findings and leukocytosis were predictive of
appendicitis approximately 79–97 % of the time. The authors
concluded that they were not able to generate specific
thresholds or cutoffs as these are institution-specific thresh-
olds. However, by creating and combining US and laboratory
data, high- and low-risk patients were identified where further
imagingandobservationislowyield,butalsopatientswhoare
particularly at high risk for negative appendectomy [44, 56].
Clinical pathways
The goal of a clinical pathway is to standardize care,
improve outcomes and reduce resource utilization in car-
rying out a diagnostic or treatment care plan [44]. A
Fig. 2 CT scan of appendicitis. a CT scan, sagittal view, with an inflamed acute appendicitis (arrow demonstrates the appendix). b CT scan with
acute appendicitis (arrow demonstrates appendix). c CT scan, sagittal view, with perforated appendicitis and phlegmon (arrow)
Pediatr Surg Int
123
7. process of care and resource utilization efficiency can be
streamlined by a clinical pathway. Using appendicitis risk
scores, laboratory and selective imaging many clinical
pathways for appendicitis have demonstrated improved
diagnostic ability of appendicitis, decreased CT scan uti-
lization (6.6 %) and cost of hospital stay without nega-
tively changing time to appendectomy or negative
appendectomy rates [56, 104, 105].
Diagnosis: summary
A reasonable diagnostic approach is an initial history and
physical examination by an experienced clinician and a
WBC and differential. A standardized scoring system is
useful. With an equivocal exam or score, US is the best
initial imaging study. CT scan is a conditional alternative
which may be useful when the clinical picture is confusing.
We currently use the algorithm shown in Fig. 3.
Treatment
Laparoscopic appendectomy is currently the most common
surgical approach, with open appendectomy markedly
declining [106, 107]. Over the past 2–3 decades, length of
hospital stay for both simple and PA has decreased.
Appendectomy for simple acute appendicitis is now an
outpatient procedure at many children’s hospitals [20, 24]
and the length of stay for PA averages 4–5 days.
Antibiotics-timing and choice
Antibiotics are initiated once the diagnosis of appendicitis
has been made. For more than 30 years, pediatric surgeons
used a triple-antibiotic regimen when dealing with appen-
dicitis, consisting of ampicillin, gentamicin, and clin-
damycin [108]. With changes in adult antibiotic regimens,
pediatric surgery has also changed to include simpler sin-
gle-drug regimen, and has been demonstrated to be at least
as efficacious [109]. In general, broad-spectrum coverage is
recommended before operation. We prefer a single dose of
Rocephin and Flagyl. We do not re-administer medication
at the time of surgery as the patients are viewed as already
on antibiotic prophylaxis for the operating room.
Non-operative management of appendicitis
A recent trend is non-operative management of children
with acute uncomplicated appendicitis, prompted by: (1)
successful management of diverticulitis, complications of
Crohn’s disease, gynecologic infections, and necrotizing
enterocolitis with antibiotics alone, (2) antibiotic-only
treatment of children with PA, (3) adult RCTs using
antibiotic-only therapy for acute appendicitis with success
rates of 70–85 [15], and (4) potential avoidance of post-
operative complications and general anesthesia.
A meta-analysis of five adult trials (980 patients) con-
cluded that non-operative management had fewer compli-
cations, better pain control, and shorter sick leave, but a
high rate of recurrence compared to appendectomy
[64, 110–113]. Antibiotic regimens varied, but most con-
sisted of an initial 1–2 days of cefotaxime and metron-
idazole (or tinidazole), followed by either
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid or ciprofloxacin with metron-
idazole (or tinidazole).
Other adult RCTs (NOTA, Non Operative Treatment for
Acute Appendicitis from Italy in 2014 and the Finnish
Appendicitis Acuta, APPAC) had a 13.8 % recurrence rate
at 2 years, and a 27.3 % appendectomy rate at 1 year,
respectively [61, 63].
The literature on the use of non-operative management
of pediatric appendicitis is evolving (Table 6)
[65, 114–122]. Most studies are very recent with only small
numbers of patients. The long- and short-term failure rates
in children are not well known. National and international
multicenter RCTs of non-operative management for pedi-
atric appendicitis are currently underway.
An appendicolith has been an adverse indicator for
antibiotic-only treatment in many reports [122–124].
Abdominal pain for [48 h; WBC [18,000 and/or pro-
nounced bandemia; CRP [4 mg/dL; and signs of bowel
obstruction, abscess or phlegmon on imaging are also
markers of non-operative failure [61–64, 111, 113, 125].
Parenteral and patient understanding of appendicitis
may sharply differ from that of the clinician. It is a com-
mon misperception (82 % of 100 patients and caregivers)
that delay in appendectomy is likely to lead to a ruptured
appendix, with a high likelihood of major complications or
death [126]. The authors pointed out that, in fact, death
from a lightning strike is about 2.5 times more likely than
from appendicitis.
Surgery
Incidental appendectomy
Incidental appendectomy is infrequent. More accurate
diagnostic techniques for appendicitis, the advent of
laparoscopy, and use of the appendix for urinary recon-
struction or access for antegrade enemas have largely
eliminated this procedure. However, Ladd’s procedure for
malrotation, Meckel’s diverticulectomy, and surgical
Pediatr Surg Int
123
8. reduction of intussusception may still include incidental
appendectomy. An estimated 36 incidental appendectomies
are required to prevent one case of appendicitis [24].
Operative timing
Duration of symptoms is often hard to accurately quan-
titate, but a correlation with perforation is well accepted.
The relationship between operative delay (time from ED
arrival until operation) and outcome is unclear. An
increased risk of SSI (surgical site infection) [127] or
perforation [128] with longer delays was initially repor-
ted. However, most centers avoid middle-of the-night
operations in favor of admission and surgery the next day
[129]. A 2014 report studied 2510 patients with acute
appendicitis and found that delays less than 24 h were not
associated with increased rates of perforation, gangrene,
or abscess [130]. A meta-analysis of 11 other non-ran-
domized studies consisting of 8858 total patients con-
cluded that a delay of 12–24 h did not increase the risk of
PA. A recently published study evaluated a prospective
cohort of 7548 adults undergoing appendectomy at hos-
pitals across Washington State and related that overall,
63 % of patients presented between noon and midnight.
Interestingly, they demonstrated that most patients with
appendicitis presented in the afternoon/evening and that
socioeconomic characteristics did not vary with time-of-
presentation. Patients who presented during the workday
were more often perforated [131]. Another recent review
found no increased SSI risk after 16-h delay from ED
presentation, or a 12-h delay from admission to appen-
dectomy [132]. Since many children (70–85 %) with
acute appendicitis can be successfully managed with
antibiotics alone, it is logical to assume that the key
interval is onset of symptoms to administration of IV
antibiotics, not symptom onset to appendectomy.
Appendectomy for acute appendicitis
The patient is admitted after the diagnosis is made, and if
otherwise healthy and the operative schedule permits
(‘daytime hours’), laparoscopic appendectomy is done
electively that day with same-day discharge as the norm.
Children who present ‘after hours’ are admitted overnight,
hydrated, and given the same antibiotic regimen. At our
institution, a single dose of ceftriaxone and metronidazole
is administered IV after the diagnosis and prior to oper-
ation, and no further antibiotics are given unless a 24-h
interval has passed (rare). Elective operation is done the
next morning or early afternoon, and then, the child is
discharged later that day. This general protocol is a very
common approach in many children’s hospitals. Cur-
rently, we have not analyzed or evaluated if there was a
cost associated with an overnight stay prior or after to a
Fig. 3 Clinical pathway (algorithm) for the diagnosis of appendicitis
Pediatr Surg Int
123
9. laparoscopic appendectomy for non-perforated appen-
dicitis. As many hospitals continue to keep children
overnight following surgery, we believe the cost to the
family is included in the global operative cost.
Appendectomy for perforated appendicitis
Children with PA have two primary management options,
early appendectomy (EA) after hydration/resuscitation and
administration of antibiotics; or initial antibiotic-only
treatment (with or without IR abscess drainage) followed
by interval appendectomy (IA) in 6–10 weeks. IA advo-
cates cite the difficulty of appendectomy in a hostile
abdomen (abscess, phlegmon, and severe inflammation)
[133]. In contrast, IA is usually an outpatient procedure.
The need of IA in retrospective studies has shown that up
to 80 % of children may not require appendectomy and that
3 % of patients suffer a complication secondary to IA
[134]. More recent prospective studies have shown a
recurrence rate of 8–43 % with an increased rate of reoc-
currence among patients with appendicolith [135, 136]. EA
proponents point to immediate one-step definitive treat-
ment, and feel that the increased difficulty of the operation
is rarely clinically significant. Initial abscess drainage also
incurs significant cost and non-trivial risks of visceral
perforation, bleeding, fistula, and soft tissue abscess [137].
A third option is initial non-operative management with
elimination of the interval appendectomy. Surveys show
that pediatric surgeons choose this option infrequently
[138].
Distinguishing acute appendicitis from PA can be dif-
ficult. Laboratory studies are imprecise, and even CT scans
predict perforation with poor accuracy [89]. Delaying
surgery for false-positive ‘perforations’ may result in pro-
longed hospitalization, needless days of IV antibiotics, and
IA for what could have been a 30-min operation with same-
day discharge.
A 2016 meta-analysis of two pediatric RCTs comparing
EA to IA found that EA reduced the odds of an adverse
event, unplanned readmission, and total charges in children
without a well-defined intra-abdominal abscess. There was
no significant difference in outcomes for children with an
abscess [137, 139, 140].
Surgical technique
Laparoscopic appendectomy can be performed with an
umbilical camera via a 5- or 10-mm port, and two lower
abdominal ports or stab incisions. Single-incision laparo-
scopy (SILS) is an alternative whereby instruments are also
placed through the umbilical camera port with the appendix
removed either intra- or extra-corporeally. Similar out-
comes are obtained, and long-term cosmetic differences are
minimal [141–143]. Many interventions once widely used
in the treatment of appendicitis including intra-abdominal
drains, prolonged nasogastric and Foley catheter drainage,
wound packing, central lines and parenteral nutrition are all
very rarely used nowadays.
Antibiotics after discharge
Home antibiotics are unnecessary after appendectomy for
simple acute appendicitis. Administration of antibiotics
after hospital discharge for PA has changed. Oral and IV
administration are equivalent [144–147], and the duration
of treatment has decreased. A prospective study of 540
children with PA found that those meeting discharge
criteria with normal WBCs after 5 days of IV antibiotic
therapy can be safely discharged without oral antibiotics
[148].
Table 6 Summary of studies of non-operative management of pediatric appendicitis
Year Author Origin Study design Comparison
study
N Success rate
(%)
Length of FU
(months)
2004 Kaneko [117] Japan Prospective cohort, NR No 22 73 36
2007 Abes [114] Turkey Retrospective cohort No 16 87 12
2014 Armstrong [115] Canada Retrospective cohort Yes 12 75 6.5
2014 Koike [118] Japan Retrospective cohort, parent preference No 130 81 30.6
2015 Gorter [65] International Prospective cohort, NR Yes 25 92 2
2015 Hartwich [116] USA Prospective parent preference feasibility, NR Yes 24 71 14
2015 Svensson [121] International Pilot RCT Yes 24 63 12
2015 Steiner [120] Israel Prospective cohort, NR No 45 83 14
2015 Tanaka [122] Japan Prospective cohort, parent preference Yes 78 71 51.6
2016 Minneci [119] USA Prospective parent preference Yes 37 76 12
Success rate did not require appendectomy, Comparative included a comparison group who underwent appendectomy, NR non-randomized
Pediatr Surg Int
123
10. Complications
The overall complication rate is approximately 10–15 %
[149, 150]. A superficial SSI occurs in about 1–3 % of
children after laparoscopic appendectomy [150]. The
incidence of superficial SSI is lower in laparoscopic
appendectomy compared to open; the rate of intra-ab-
dominal abscess is similar [16, 151, 152]. The readmission
rate is 5–10 %, most commonly for infection, followed by
bowel obstruction or ileus and pain or malaise. Less than
1 % require reoperation (excluding IR abscess drainage)
[150]. Mortality after appendectomy is quite rare (*0.1 %
or less) [24, 150].
Postoperative intra-abdominal abscess develops in
approximately 15–20 % of children with PA, and 1 % of
non-perforated appendicitis [33, 34, 153]. Increasing age,
weight and BMI correlate with the risk of a postoperative
abscess, as does the presence of diarrhea at presentation.
The only admission CT finding found to predict abscess
was the presence of a high-grade obstruction [154].
The timing of abscess development is variable. There is
a progressively increasing positive correlation between
postoperative abscess and the maximum temperature each
successive day, significant after the third day. Many centers
wait until postoperative day seven to radiographically
evaluate for abscess. Mildly delaying diagnostic evaluation
results in fewer interventions (CT scans, IR drainage)
without adverse outcomes [29].
Summary
The diagnosis and treatment of appendicitis have
undergone substantial change in recent years. Clinical
pathways, scoring systems, and selective imaging can
maximize diagnostic accuracy while reducing costs,
unnecessary imaging, and ionizing radiation exposure.
US is the best imaging study, preferably with dedicated
pediatric sonographers and standardized reports. Non-
operative management for selected children with acute
appendicitis is possible, but pediatric data are still lim-
ited and long-term outcomes are unknown. Semi-elective,
non-emergent operation (laparoscopic) is safe and does
not worsen outcomes. Same-day discharge without
additional antibiotics is appropriate for simple acute
appendicitis. PA without a distinct intra-abdominal
abscess is best treated with early appendectomy. Abscess
is the most common complication.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors have no disclosures or conflicts of
interest.
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