Research has been very interesting discipline to scholars and researchers for the past decades, but now new researchers and even final year students might find it difficult because their experience towards it may be very limited even thought they are expected to do and present their final project proposals. The fact remains that, research is so interesting and exciting subject, all you need is to be interested your area of research, select good topic and be ready to contribute.
This essay is a Walden University course (EDUC-8102) assignment. It overviews the philosophy of research core concepts and other approaches to research. Philosophical frameworks include empiricism, scientific method, positivism, post-positivism, social constructivism, pragmatism, and advocacy liberatory. The document is written in APA format and includes references.
Commonly Confused Aspects of Research Paper: Discussion PaperAhmed Alkhaqani
Â
Background: Confusion about elements of a research paper is common among students. The key to writing a good research paper is to know these common elements and their definitions. Maybe find that writing a research paper is not as easy as it seems. There are many parts and steps to the process, and it can be hard to figure out what needs to do and when.
Objective: This article aims to teach these common aspects of a research paper to avoid common mistakes while drafting own.
Conclusion: Each section of the research paper serves a distinct purpose and highlights a different aspect of the research. However, before starting drafting the manuscript, having a clear understanding of each section's purposes will help avoid mistakes.
Research has been very interesting discipline to scholars and researchers for the past decades, but now new researchers and even final year students might find it difficult because their experience towards it may be very limited even thought they are expected to do and present their final project proposals. The fact remains that, research is so interesting and exciting subject, all you need is to be interested your area of research, select good topic and be ready to contribute.
This essay is a Walden University course (EDUC-8102) assignment. It overviews the philosophy of research core concepts and other approaches to research. Philosophical frameworks include empiricism, scientific method, positivism, post-positivism, social constructivism, pragmatism, and advocacy liberatory. The document is written in APA format and includes references.
Commonly Confused Aspects of Research Paper: Discussion PaperAhmed Alkhaqani
Â
Background: Confusion about elements of a research paper is common among students. The key to writing a good research paper is to know these common elements and their definitions. Maybe find that writing a research paper is not as easy as it seems. There are many parts and steps to the process, and it can be hard to figure out what needs to do and when.
Objective: This article aims to teach these common aspects of a research paper to avoid common mistakes while drafting own.
Conclusion: Each section of the research paper serves a distinct purpose and highlights a different aspect of the research. However, before starting drafting the manuscript, having a clear understanding of each section's purposes will help avoid mistakes.
Creativity Through Applying Ideas From Fields OtherThan Oneâ.docxvanesaburnand
Â
Creativity Through Applying Ideas From Fields Other
Than Oneâs Own: Transferring Knowledge From Social
Psychology to Industrial/Organizational Psychology *
Abstract
Subfields of psychology can be arguably characterized as
islands of unconnected knowledge. The underlying theme
of this paper is that these subfields have much to gain by
looking at and studying each otherâs respective literature.
This paper explains how the field of industrial/organiza-
tional (I/O) psychology has benefited from theory and
research in social psychology, and suggests ways it can ben-
efit even more so. Specifically, moral development, the
group-serving bias, as well as inducing feelings of hypocrisy
so as to foster subsequent behaviour change are discussed.
Their potential for leading to further insight into existing
problems, refining existing theories, and for raising new
questions in I/O psychology is described.
Psychology is a behavioural science whose literature
has grown rapidly. However, psychology has often
failed to transfer knowledge across its subfields.
Scientists and practitioners within the subfields fre-
quently appear ignorant of ways they can benefit from
cross-subfield research. These subfields, whether bio-
logical, clinical, educational, social, or industrial, con-
tain interdependent ideas that should be shared in
order to advance psychology for all.
Since the authors are researchers of organizational
behaviour, this paper provides insights as to how trans-
ferring knowledge from social psychology has already
enriched the science and practice of I/O psychology.
In addition, new ideas as to how I/O psychology can
benefit from social psychology are explored.
Benefits of Reading Literature Other than Oneâs Own
The benefits of researching literature other than oneâs
own are at least four-fold. First, sharing concepts
among psychologyâs subfields allows researchers to
extend their work to other areas (i.e., generalization).
Second, it enables them to theorize and contextualize
their research so as to connect their findings within
larger conversations. Research designs often yield rela-
tively sterile pieces of data that contribute little to
knowledge and understanding when they are confined
to narrow disciplines, or kept within the borders of a
specific field (e.g., Locker, 1994; Sternberg &
Grigorenko, 2001). Third, it helps researchers to be
constructively critical of both the fields from which
they draw information and of that in which they work.
It can lead to proposals for using alternative method-
ologies in a particular program of research. Fourth, it
enables researchers to raise questions not previously
considered. Sharing knowledge across subfields may
even lead researchers who investigate the same phe-
nomenon, but who are in different areas of psycholo-
gy, and hence have different perspectives and instru-
ments, to interact with one another in ways that facili-
tate both knowledge creation and knowledge applica-
tion.
History
I/O .
Critical Qualitative Research Designpages 70â76Related to un.docxwillcoxjanay
Â
Critical Qualitative Research Design
pages 70â76
Related to understanding your goals as a researcher is the development of the rationale of the study. A rationale is the reason or argument for why a study matters and why the approach is appropriate to the study. Rationales can range from improving your practice and the practice of colleagues (as in practitioner research), contributing to formal theory (e.g., where there may be a gap in or lack of research in an area), understanding existing research in a new context or with a new population, and/or contributing to the methodological literature and approach to an existing corpus of research in a specific area or field. Thinking about and answering the questions in Table 3.1 can aid in this process. Considering these kinds of questions is central to developing empirical studies, and it is important to understand that these rationales and goals will also lead you to conduct different types of research, guiding your many choicesâfrom the theories used to frame the study to the selection of various methods to the actual research questions as well as designs chosen and implemented.
There are many strategies for engaging in a structured inquiry process and through it an exploration of research goals and the overall rationale of a study. These strategies can include the writing of various kinds of memos, structured dialogic engagement processes, and reflective journaling. Across these strategies, creating the conditions and structures for regular dialogic engagement with a range of interlocutors is an absolutely vital and necessary part of refining your understanding of the goals and rationales for the research. We describe each of these strategies in the subsequent sections.
Memos on Study Goals and Rationale
Memos are important tools in qualitative research and tend to be written about a variety of different topics throughout the phases of a qualitative study. Memos are a way to capture and process, over time, your ongoing ideas and discoveries, challenges associated with fieldwork and design, and analytic sense-making. Depending on your research questions, memos can also become data sources for a study. There is no âwrongâ way of writing memos, as their goal is to foster meaning making and serve as a chronicle of emerging learning and thinking. Memos tend to be informal and can be written in a variety of styles, including prose, bullet points, and/or outline form; they can include poetry, drawings, or other supporting imagery. The goals of memos are to help generate and clarify your thinking as well as to capture the development of your thinking, as a kind of phenomenological note taking that captures the meaning making of the researcher in real time and then provides data to refer back and consider the refinement of your thinking over time (Maxwell, 2013; Nakkula & Ravitch, 1998). While we find writing memos to be a useful and generative exercise, both when we write and share them in our indep.
PAGE 52What is Action ResearchViaA review of the Literat.docxgerardkortney
Â
PAGE
52What is Action Research?
Via
A review of the Literature
A Dissertation Extract
By
Dr. George SlentzIf you choose to use this document as part of your research, use the following reference notation:Slentz, G.M. (2003). A collaborative action research approach to developing
statewide information standards supporting the Delaware education
network.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Inclusion Criteria
After determining the focus of this dissertation, several Wilmington College faculty members including academic advisors offered suggestions of relevant literature references. In addition to those recommendations, two annotated AR bibliographies by Dick (2002a & 2002b) provided a wealth of relevant material to review.
The Internet served as both an independent resource as well as a method to access EBSCOhost an electronic search engine which accesses numerous academic databases, such as Academic Search Premier, Masterfile, and Business Source Elite. Only articles that offered text availability through EBSCOhost were reviewed. Most Internet searches were conducted using www.Google.com an excellent, in depth publicly available search engine. In utilizing either EBSCOhost or Google, various combinations of search words were used. For example, one search would consist of âresearch and actionâ and the second âaction research.â Since most search engines used, search, based on word sequence, interchanging the searching sequence of the words was essential. The searches centered in two specific topic areas: action research methodologies and information technology standards.
The Wilmington College Library provided some additional resources dealing with âresearchâ and âresearching techniques,â as well completed Wilmington College dissertations.
Overview of Action Research Literature
Action research literature was reviewed first, including definitions, methodologies, origins, and evolution. An in depth examination of AR literature revealed there was no universal AR methodology, but rather a confusing conglomeration of methodologies all alleged to be AR. In some instances, the differences were subtle, such as who identified the research setting, the researcher, or the client (Schein, 2001). In other more diverse examples, conflicting paradigms, epistemologies, and methodologies emerged (Heron & Reason, 1997). Swepson (1998) said, âI found some of the literature on the practice of action research to be contradictory and this left me confused about how to practice itâ (p.2). Comments such as this one helped this researcher appreciate that other researchers were equally confused. The context of an AR study may appear disparate to different researchers. This lack of clarity and definition was quite common in AR literature, and these discrepancies often hindered understanding and comprehension of AR processes.
A variety of reasons for the shortcomings in AR discipline were identified: a lack of integration in the literature, de.
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative ApproachesSome Argum.docxdrandy1
Â
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches:
Some Arguments for Mixed Methods Research
Thorleif Lund
University of Oslo
One purpose of the present paper is to elaborate 4 general advantages of the mixed methods
approach. Another purpose is to propose a 5-phase evaluation design, and to demonstrate
its usefulness for mixed methods research. The account is limited to research on groups in
need of treatment, i.e., vulnerable groups, and the advantages of mixed methods are
illustrated by the help of the 5-phase evaluation design. The basic idea is that the total
set of relevant attributes and changes for such a vulnerable group should be taken into
consideration in all phases, and that the mixed methods approach will provide an
optimal treatment, will give a more complete description and understanding of the
treatment effects, and will facilitate generalization to professional work.
Keywords: mixed methods, qualitative-quantitative combination, evaluation design
The research methodology in the social and behavioral sciences has undergone radical
changes over the past 50 years. One may speak of three methodological movements:
(1) the quantitative movement, (2) the qualitative movement, and (3) the mixed methods
movement (Polit & Beck, 2004; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). Research in the twentieth
century, especially in the first half of the century, was dominated by the quantitative move-
ment. Its philosophical basis of positivism can be said to have been substituted by critical
realism in the last half of the century (Cook & Campbell, 1979). The qualitative approach
developed partly as a protest against the dominance of the quantitative tradition, and it
attained its definitive breakthrough around 1970. Several philosophical assumptions have
been proposed for the qualitative approach, mainly some variants of constructivism
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The differences between the two approaches with respect to philo-
sophical basis, scientific fruitfulness, and empirical methods have been extensively debated.
The disagreement has been great, in particular with respect to philosophical positions, as
illustrated by the âparadigm warsâ (Gage, 1989), and the two approaches are still regarded
by many researchers as incompatible means for knowledge construction (Teddlie & Tashak-
kori, 2003). The mixed methods movement represents a blending of quantitative and quali-
tative methods in research, and it can be said to have been evolved historically from the
notion of âtriangulatingâ information from different data sources (Campbell & Fiske,
1959; Denzin, 1978; Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990). The mixed methods approach can be con-
sidered established as a formal discipline around 2000. This third movement is characterized
by a practical/pragmatic attitude in that the research questions in empirical studies are given
ISSN 0031-3831 print/ISSN 1470-1170 online
# 2012 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.568674.
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative ApproachesSome Argum.docxcargillfilberto
Â
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches:
Some Arguments for Mixed Methods Research
Thorleif Lund
University of Oslo
One purpose of the present paper is to elaborate 4 general advantages of the mixed methods
approach. Another purpose is to propose a 5-phase evaluation design, and to demonstrate
its usefulness for mixed methods research. The account is limited to research on groups in
need of treatment, i.e., vulnerable groups, and the advantages of mixed methods are
illustrated by the help of the 5-phase evaluation design. The basic idea is that the total
set of relevant attributes and changes for such a vulnerable group should be taken into
consideration in all phases, and that the mixed methods approach will provide an
optimal treatment, will give a more complete description and understanding of the
treatment effects, and will facilitate generalization to professional work.
Keywords: mixed methods, qualitative-quantitative combination, evaluation design
The research methodology in the social and behavioral sciences has undergone radical
changes over the past 50 years. One may speak of three methodological movements:
(1) the quantitative movement, (2) the qualitative movement, and (3) the mixed methods
movement (Polit & Beck, 2004; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). Research in the twentieth
century, especially in the first half of the century, was dominated by the quantitative move-
ment. Its philosophical basis of positivism can be said to have been substituted by critical
realism in the last half of the century (Cook & Campbell, 1979). The qualitative approach
developed partly as a protest against the dominance of the quantitative tradition, and it
attained its definitive breakthrough around 1970. Several philosophical assumptions have
been proposed for the qualitative approach, mainly some variants of constructivism
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The differences between the two approaches with respect to philo-
sophical basis, scientific fruitfulness, and empirical methods have been extensively debated.
The disagreement has been great, in particular with respect to philosophical positions, as
illustrated by the âparadigm warsâ (Gage, 1989), and the two approaches are still regarded
by many researchers as incompatible means for knowledge construction (Teddlie & Tashak-
kori, 2003). The mixed methods movement represents a blending of quantitative and quali-
tative methods in research, and it can be said to have been evolved historically from the
notion of âtriangulatingâ information from different data sources (Campbell & Fiske,
1959; Denzin, 1978; Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990). The mixed methods approach can be con-
sidered established as a formal discipline around 2000. This third movement is characterized
by a practical/pragmatic attitude in that the research questions in empirical studies are given
ISSN 0031-3831 print/ISSN 1470-1170 online
# 2012 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.568674.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and
epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on
and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Creativity Through Applying Ideas From Fields OtherThan Oneâ.docxvanesaburnand
Â
Creativity Through Applying Ideas From Fields Other
Than Oneâs Own: Transferring Knowledge From Social
Psychology to Industrial/Organizational Psychology *
Abstract
Subfields of psychology can be arguably characterized as
islands of unconnected knowledge. The underlying theme
of this paper is that these subfields have much to gain by
looking at and studying each otherâs respective literature.
This paper explains how the field of industrial/organiza-
tional (I/O) psychology has benefited from theory and
research in social psychology, and suggests ways it can ben-
efit even more so. Specifically, moral development, the
group-serving bias, as well as inducing feelings of hypocrisy
so as to foster subsequent behaviour change are discussed.
Their potential for leading to further insight into existing
problems, refining existing theories, and for raising new
questions in I/O psychology is described.
Psychology is a behavioural science whose literature
has grown rapidly. However, psychology has often
failed to transfer knowledge across its subfields.
Scientists and practitioners within the subfields fre-
quently appear ignorant of ways they can benefit from
cross-subfield research. These subfields, whether bio-
logical, clinical, educational, social, or industrial, con-
tain interdependent ideas that should be shared in
order to advance psychology for all.
Since the authors are researchers of organizational
behaviour, this paper provides insights as to how trans-
ferring knowledge from social psychology has already
enriched the science and practice of I/O psychology.
In addition, new ideas as to how I/O psychology can
benefit from social psychology are explored.
Benefits of Reading Literature Other than Oneâs Own
The benefits of researching literature other than oneâs
own are at least four-fold. First, sharing concepts
among psychologyâs subfields allows researchers to
extend their work to other areas (i.e., generalization).
Second, it enables them to theorize and contextualize
their research so as to connect their findings within
larger conversations. Research designs often yield rela-
tively sterile pieces of data that contribute little to
knowledge and understanding when they are confined
to narrow disciplines, or kept within the borders of a
specific field (e.g., Locker, 1994; Sternberg &
Grigorenko, 2001). Third, it helps researchers to be
constructively critical of both the fields from which
they draw information and of that in which they work.
It can lead to proposals for using alternative method-
ologies in a particular program of research. Fourth, it
enables researchers to raise questions not previously
considered. Sharing knowledge across subfields may
even lead researchers who investigate the same phe-
nomenon, but who are in different areas of psycholo-
gy, and hence have different perspectives and instru-
ments, to interact with one another in ways that facili-
tate both knowledge creation and knowledge applica-
tion.
History
I/O .
Critical Qualitative Research Designpages 70â76Related to un.docxwillcoxjanay
Â
Critical Qualitative Research Design
pages 70â76
Related to understanding your goals as a researcher is the development of the rationale of the study. A rationale is the reason or argument for why a study matters and why the approach is appropriate to the study. Rationales can range from improving your practice and the practice of colleagues (as in practitioner research), contributing to formal theory (e.g., where there may be a gap in or lack of research in an area), understanding existing research in a new context or with a new population, and/or contributing to the methodological literature and approach to an existing corpus of research in a specific area or field. Thinking about and answering the questions in Table 3.1 can aid in this process. Considering these kinds of questions is central to developing empirical studies, and it is important to understand that these rationales and goals will also lead you to conduct different types of research, guiding your many choicesâfrom the theories used to frame the study to the selection of various methods to the actual research questions as well as designs chosen and implemented.
There are many strategies for engaging in a structured inquiry process and through it an exploration of research goals and the overall rationale of a study. These strategies can include the writing of various kinds of memos, structured dialogic engagement processes, and reflective journaling. Across these strategies, creating the conditions and structures for regular dialogic engagement with a range of interlocutors is an absolutely vital and necessary part of refining your understanding of the goals and rationales for the research. We describe each of these strategies in the subsequent sections.
Memos on Study Goals and Rationale
Memos are important tools in qualitative research and tend to be written about a variety of different topics throughout the phases of a qualitative study. Memos are a way to capture and process, over time, your ongoing ideas and discoveries, challenges associated with fieldwork and design, and analytic sense-making. Depending on your research questions, memos can also become data sources for a study. There is no âwrongâ way of writing memos, as their goal is to foster meaning making and serve as a chronicle of emerging learning and thinking. Memos tend to be informal and can be written in a variety of styles, including prose, bullet points, and/or outline form; they can include poetry, drawings, or other supporting imagery. The goals of memos are to help generate and clarify your thinking as well as to capture the development of your thinking, as a kind of phenomenological note taking that captures the meaning making of the researcher in real time and then provides data to refer back and consider the refinement of your thinking over time (Maxwell, 2013; Nakkula & Ravitch, 1998). While we find writing memos to be a useful and generative exercise, both when we write and share them in our indep.
PAGE 52What is Action ResearchViaA review of the Literat.docxgerardkortney
Â
PAGE
52What is Action Research?
Via
A review of the Literature
A Dissertation Extract
By
Dr. George SlentzIf you choose to use this document as part of your research, use the following reference notation:Slentz, G.M. (2003). A collaborative action research approach to developing
statewide information standards supporting the Delaware education
network.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Inclusion Criteria
After determining the focus of this dissertation, several Wilmington College faculty members including academic advisors offered suggestions of relevant literature references. In addition to those recommendations, two annotated AR bibliographies by Dick (2002a & 2002b) provided a wealth of relevant material to review.
The Internet served as both an independent resource as well as a method to access EBSCOhost an electronic search engine which accesses numerous academic databases, such as Academic Search Premier, Masterfile, and Business Source Elite. Only articles that offered text availability through EBSCOhost were reviewed. Most Internet searches were conducted using www.Google.com an excellent, in depth publicly available search engine. In utilizing either EBSCOhost or Google, various combinations of search words were used. For example, one search would consist of âresearch and actionâ and the second âaction research.â Since most search engines used, search, based on word sequence, interchanging the searching sequence of the words was essential. The searches centered in two specific topic areas: action research methodologies and information technology standards.
The Wilmington College Library provided some additional resources dealing with âresearchâ and âresearching techniques,â as well completed Wilmington College dissertations.
Overview of Action Research Literature
Action research literature was reviewed first, including definitions, methodologies, origins, and evolution. An in depth examination of AR literature revealed there was no universal AR methodology, but rather a confusing conglomeration of methodologies all alleged to be AR. In some instances, the differences were subtle, such as who identified the research setting, the researcher, or the client (Schein, 2001). In other more diverse examples, conflicting paradigms, epistemologies, and methodologies emerged (Heron & Reason, 1997). Swepson (1998) said, âI found some of the literature on the practice of action research to be contradictory and this left me confused about how to practice itâ (p.2). Comments such as this one helped this researcher appreciate that other researchers were equally confused. The context of an AR study may appear disparate to different researchers. This lack of clarity and definition was quite common in AR literature, and these discrepancies often hindered understanding and comprehension of AR processes.
A variety of reasons for the shortcomings in AR discipline were identified: a lack of integration in the literature, de.
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative ApproachesSome Argum.docxdrandy1
Â
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches:
Some Arguments for Mixed Methods Research
Thorleif Lund
University of Oslo
One purpose of the present paper is to elaborate 4 general advantages of the mixed methods
approach. Another purpose is to propose a 5-phase evaluation design, and to demonstrate
its usefulness for mixed methods research. The account is limited to research on groups in
need of treatment, i.e., vulnerable groups, and the advantages of mixed methods are
illustrated by the help of the 5-phase evaluation design. The basic idea is that the total
set of relevant attributes and changes for such a vulnerable group should be taken into
consideration in all phases, and that the mixed methods approach will provide an
optimal treatment, will give a more complete description and understanding of the
treatment effects, and will facilitate generalization to professional work.
Keywords: mixed methods, qualitative-quantitative combination, evaluation design
The research methodology in the social and behavioral sciences has undergone radical
changes over the past 50 years. One may speak of three methodological movements:
(1) the quantitative movement, (2) the qualitative movement, and (3) the mixed methods
movement (Polit & Beck, 2004; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). Research in the twentieth
century, especially in the first half of the century, was dominated by the quantitative move-
ment. Its philosophical basis of positivism can be said to have been substituted by critical
realism in the last half of the century (Cook & Campbell, 1979). The qualitative approach
developed partly as a protest against the dominance of the quantitative tradition, and it
attained its definitive breakthrough around 1970. Several philosophical assumptions have
been proposed for the qualitative approach, mainly some variants of constructivism
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The differences between the two approaches with respect to philo-
sophical basis, scientific fruitfulness, and empirical methods have been extensively debated.
The disagreement has been great, in particular with respect to philosophical positions, as
illustrated by the âparadigm warsâ (Gage, 1989), and the two approaches are still regarded
by many researchers as incompatible means for knowledge construction (Teddlie & Tashak-
kori, 2003). The mixed methods movement represents a blending of quantitative and quali-
tative methods in research, and it can be said to have been evolved historically from the
notion of âtriangulatingâ information from different data sources (Campbell & Fiske,
1959; Denzin, 1978; Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990). The mixed methods approach can be con-
sidered established as a formal discipline around 2000. This third movement is characterized
by a practical/pragmatic attitude in that the research questions in empirical studies are given
ISSN 0031-3831 print/ISSN 1470-1170 online
# 2012 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.568674.
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative ApproachesSome Argum.docxcargillfilberto
Â
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches:
Some Arguments for Mixed Methods Research
Thorleif Lund
University of Oslo
One purpose of the present paper is to elaborate 4 general advantages of the mixed methods
approach. Another purpose is to propose a 5-phase evaluation design, and to demonstrate
its usefulness for mixed methods research. The account is limited to research on groups in
need of treatment, i.e., vulnerable groups, and the advantages of mixed methods are
illustrated by the help of the 5-phase evaluation design. The basic idea is that the total
set of relevant attributes and changes for such a vulnerable group should be taken into
consideration in all phases, and that the mixed methods approach will provide an
optimal treatment, will give a more complete description and understanding of the
treatment effects, and will facilitate generalization to professional work.
Keywords: mixed methods, qualitative-quantitative combination, evaluation design
The research methodology in the social and behavioral sciences has undergone radical
changes over the past 50 years. One may speak of three methodological movements:
(1) the quantitative movement, (2) the qualitative movement, and (3) the mixed methods
movement (Polit & Beck, 2004; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). Research in the twentieth
century, especially in the first half of the century, was dominated by the quantitative move-
ment. Its philosophical basis of positivism can be said to have been substituted by critical
realism in the last half of the century (Cook & Campbell, 1979). The qualitative approach
developed partly as a protest against the dominance of the quantitative tradition, and it
attained its definitive breakthrough around 1970. Several philosophical assumptions have
been proposed for the qualitative approach, mainly some variants of constructivism
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The differences between the two approaches with respect to philo-
sophical basis, scientific fruitfulness, and empirical methods have been extensively debated.
The disagreement has been great, in particular with respect to philosophical positions, as
illustrated by the âparadigm warsâ (Gage, 1989), and the two approaches are still regarded
by many researchers as incompatible means for knowledge construction (Teddlie & Tashak-
kori, 2003). The mixed methods movement represents a blending of quantitative and quali-
tative methods in research, and it can be said to have been evolved historically from the
notion of âtriangulatingâ information from different data sources (Campbell & Fiske,
1959; Denzin, 1978; Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990). The mixed methods approach can be con-
sidered established as a formal discipline around 2000. This third movement is characterized
by a practical/pragmatic attitude in that the research questions in empirical studies are given
ISSN 0031-3831 print/ISSN 1470-1170 online
# 2012 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.568674.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and
epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on
and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Â
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
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Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
âą The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
âą The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate âany matterâ at âany timeâ under House Rule X.
âą The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Associationâs Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
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In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
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Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
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Letâs explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
An Evaluation Of The Purposes Of Research In Social Work
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AN EVALUATION OF THE PURPOSES OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
WORK
Herman Strydom
INTRODUCTION
Different authors have varying opinions on what the purposes of research should be
called. The terminology used in scientific writing should be understood to have a similar
meaning by the various members of a particular profession or subject group. The main
aim of this article is to provide clarity on various viewpoints and to delineate what can
be considered the various purposes of research in social work. This article thus aims to
study the arious opinions and endea ours to describe and formulate the authorâs own
viewpoint on this issue.
Hopefully this article will serve the purpose of starting a discussion on research
methodology in social work in general. Although the purposes of research as indicated
in this article may be generalisable to other subject groups, the author is first and
foremost a social worker and can therefore have an opinion only on social work
research. The textbooks on social work research are rather limited and therefore
publications from the broader field of social science research will also be consulted in
this article.
Before the design of a study can be developed, the purpose or purposes of the study
should be formulated. Although some authors see purposes as part of the design, the
purposes will be described separately for the sake of clarity, bearing in mind that they
are part and parcel of the total research process. In this article a definition of âpurposesâ
will be given, followed by a description of the various purposes of research, namely
exploration, description, explanation, evaluation, intervention and participatory action
research.
DEFINITION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
A study normally starts with an initial idea or topic, which may be more or less clearly
defined. These initial vague ideas may then develop by way of systematic review into
more specific questions which assist the researcher in gaining clarity regarding the
intellectual puzzle (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003:48). Gilbert (2008:58) adds that the
formulation of a research question should lead to the research methods, including the
purposes and design of the study, and then followed by the total research project.
According to Babbie and Mouton (2010), Monette, Sullivan and DeJong (2011), Royse
(2011), Rubin and Babbie (2010) and Thyer (2010), the research process basically
consists of six steps, namely problem statement and research questions, research
method, data collection, data analysis, interpretation of data and report writing. The
purposes of research can be seen as part of step two, research method, in which the kind
of research, the approach to research, the design, participants/subjects, measuring
instruments, the procedure, ethical aspects and manner of data analysis can be
distinguished. To decide on the purpose/s of research will then guide the design, the
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evaluation can be distinguished as being two separate categories that can be closely
linked in one process. Participatory action research, also known as action research, in
which the involvement of all the participants in a community is crucial in order to
empower them and to lead to social and political action, will be distinguished as the
sixth purpose of research.
More than one purpose can be delineated for the same study, but one will normally
dominate a particular study (Neuman, 2006:33). Blaikie (2007:7-8) and Maree (2007:11)
add that it is possible to combine exploratory, descriptive and explanatory purposes
within a single research project, in the particular order given. Alston and Bowles
(2003:34) say that most studies contain elements of all three purposes and that it
depends on the nature of the research problem and the state of knowledge in the field
(Blaikie, 2007:8). They can be discussed separately, although they are three interrelated
aspects of the same sub-goal (McBurney, 2001:12). Exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory purposes can be linked to the other three and can become sub-sections of
evaluation, intervention or participatory action research. Within, for instance, an
intervention purpose to develop and evaluate new technology, exploratory, descriptive
and explanatory purposes can be delineated.
The first part of a study may begin with a concern to describe a particular phenomenon
such as juvenile delinquency, including a description of who juvenile offenders are most
likely to be, their backgrounds and their kinds of offences. If one further wishes to
include a goal of examining various causes of juvenile delinquency, it becomes
explanatory (Alston & Bowles, 2003:34). Blaikie (2007:28) adds that questions have a
sequence where âwhatâ questions normally precede âwhyâ questions, and answers to
both of these two (what and why) precede âhowâ questions. Research questions state a
research problem in a manner that can be investigated and that defines its nature and
scope. Questions can assist in making choices regarding the focus and direction of
research and in delimitating its boundaries clearly. Furthermore, manageability of the
study can be achieved and a successful outcome anticipated.
In this article the following purposes of social work research will be distinguished in
accordance with the viewpoints of various authors, namely exploration, description,
explanation, evaluation, intervention and participatory action research.
Exploratory research
Marlow (2005:334) defines exploratory research as follows: âA form of research that
generates initial insights into the nature of an issue and develops questions to be
in estigated by more extensi e studies â Exploratory research is often a prelude to a
more detailed study, but it can also be an important form of research in its own right
(Alston & Bowles, 2003:34). Engel and Schutt (2010:9-10) and Engel and Schutt
(2013:18-19) say that exploratory research enquires into the circumstances in a
community, how people get along in their setting, what meanings they give to their
actions and what concerns them. In exploratory research large amounts of unstructured
information are normally collected in order to explore a new topic, or to be responsive to
new concerns by breaking new ground through delving into new problem areas, to work
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on topics about which very little information is available and to gain a broad
understanding of a situation, community or person (Bless & Higson-Smith, 2000:41;
Glicken, 2003:267; Mitchell & Jolley, 2010:550-552; Royse, 2011:27).
Babbie (2013a:90-91), Ginsberg (2001:157) and Pierson and Thomas (2010:440) add
that an explorative purpose does not only apply to new concerns, in other words starting
to familiarising yourself with the topic and to gain an initial understanding of a topic.
Exploration is also appropriate for more persistent phenomena, for testing the feasibility
of undertaking a more extensive study, for developing the methods to be employed in
the study and for generating more focused research questions and hypotheses for
additional investigations (Babbie, 2013a:90; Babbie & Mouton, 2010:79; Royse,
2011:27; Struwig & Stead, 2001:7).
Dane (2011:7) and Rubin and Babbie (2010:41) say that for an exploratory purpose the
researcher can even attempt to determine whether or not a phenomenon exists or to
endeavour to gain a beginning familiarity with the topic and it can be used in qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods research. Grinnell (2001:241) and Rubin and Babbie
(2011:134) consider exploratory work to lie at the lowest level of the continuum of
knowledge, which seldom provides satisfactory and conclusive answers to research
questions. They might, however, hint towards an answer, and their concept formulation
and findings are not always conclusive or definite and are on a small scale, thus lacking
representati eness (Babbie, 2013a:91; Sarantakos, 2000:7) The researcherâs goal is to
formulate more precise questions for future research to answer.
Exploration is often the first stage in a sequence of phases for the same study in order for
the researcher to know enough to design and execute a more systematic and extensive
study, and to uncover generalisations and develop hypotheses that can be investigated
and tested later (Grinnell, 2001:241). Everything the researcher finds in exploratory
research might seem to be potentially important for the study â the steps at this stage are
not necessarily well defined and the direction of the enquiry might change frequently.
Researchers must be creative, open minded and flexible while adopting an investigative
view in exploring all sources of information. Creative questions should be posed and
advantage should be taken of serendipity factors that might influence or change the
situation, which might have wider implications.
Qualitative techniques, which are almost always inductive in nature, are frequently used
for gathering data for exploratory studies (Adler & Clark, 2008:12; Neuman, 2006:33-
34; Sarantakos, 2000:7). Babbie (2010:92) and Struwig and Stead (2001:7) mention the
study of secondary sources of information, focus groups, in-depth interviews and an
analysis of selected cases as data-collection methods. Quantitative data in the
exploratory paradigm are mostly gathered in a needs assessment fashion which focuses
on large-scale surveys. Lewis-Beck, Bryman and Liao (2004:966) add that âwhatâ
questions can also require a descriptive answer and are directed at discovering and
describing the characteristics of some social phenomenon such as age and sex âWhyâ
questions ask for either the causes of, or the reasons for, the existence of characteristics
or regularities, and are concerned with the understanding or explaining of the
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relationships between events or processes. âHowâ questions are concerned with bringing
about social change and with practical outcomes and interventions. âWhatâ questions
normally precede âwhyâ questions, and âwhyâ questions normally precede âhowâ
questions.
We need to know what is going on before we can explain it, and we need to know why
something behaves the way it does before we can be confident about introducing an
intervention to change it. Most research projects will include only one or two types of
research questions, most commonly âwhatâ and âwhyâ, and some research may deal with
only âwhatâ (Lewis-Beck et al., 2004:966). The formulation of research questions is the
most critical and even perhaps the most difficult part of any research design. The role of
the hypothesis is to provide tentative answers to âwhyâ and sometimes âhowâ questions.
Hypotheses are not appropriate for âwhatâ questions â the research will eventually
produce an answer to âwhatâ questions in due course and guessing is of no assistance in
this regard (Lewis-Beck et al., 2004:967).
Descriptive research
Grinnell (2001:248) considers descriptive research to lie at the midpoint of the
knowledge continuum. Much social research is descriptive in nature and uses a variety
of data-gathering techniques (Neuman, 2006:34-35). Marlow (2005:333) defines
descripti e research as follows: âA process of recording and reporting phenomena; not
primarily concerned with causes â Dane (2011:8), DePoy and Gilson (2008:71),
Ginsberg (2001:157), Pierson and Thomas (2010:440) and Royse (2011:27) see
descriptive studies as larger-scale numerical efforts that attempt to characterise, for
instance, age, income and family size, to understand, to illuminate and to gain a detailed
picture of patterns of a particular group, such as the homeless, to differentiate them from
other phenomena, or to accurately describe programme activities.
Engel and Schutt (2010:9), Engel and Schutt (2013:18) and Morris (2006:96) add that
descriptive questions are normally overarching and involve the gathering of facts, for
example: âWhat is your daily experience of being homelessâ; âHow many are homeless
and what are the needs of homeless people?â Adler and Clark (2008:14), Marlow
(2005:32) and Rubin and Babbie (2010:41-42) refer to large quantitative studies in
which survey research within the correct sampling framework is attempted. This kind of
data will normally be displayed in graphs, tables, frequency distributions, scatter grams
and circle diagrams (Gomm, 2009:92).
On the other hand, Barker (2003:116), Grinnell and Unrau (2008:493-494) and Wolcott
(2001:31) see descriptive data as being more of a qualitative nature and presented in the
form of narrative interviews, focus groups and participant observation in order to gain a
more dense description of phenomena and their deeper meanings by way of describing
the setting, what it is like to walk in the shoes of the homeless, and to obtain details
about their environment, interactions and the meanings they attach to their community
(Rubin & Babbie, 2005:125).
The viewpoints of Marlow (2005) and Rubin and Babbie (2010) are thus in contrast with
the viewpoints of Adler and Clark (2008), Gomm (2009) and many others who see
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descriptive research on the quantitative level only. From this discussion it is obvious that
it is not a matter of either/or but rather that both quantitative and qualitative data can be
gathered from a descriptive approach (Babbie, 2010:80-81; Babbie & Mouton, 2010:80-
81; Struwig & Stead, 2001:8). One can, however, say that descriptive studies would
focus more on quantitative data where large numbers of participants are involved
because one wants to know, for instance, how many of the homeless people are single
parents, what their age categories are and the number of children they have.
Cozby (2009:7) and Jackson (2011:16) state that careful observation is the first goal
when describing events. The researcher might have a more highly developed idea of a
social phenomenon and wants to describe it in terms of, for instance, the demographic
characteristics of the population (Struwig & Stead, 2001:9). In reporting qualitative data
there will be many occasions on which descriptive data will be needed to display the
evidence collected â one will have to decide how best to display the original material in
relation to the categories and classes of data found and how much explanation to give
regarding the categorisation and classification that has been developed (Ritchie &
Lewis, 2003:302-303).
In descriptive research a body of knowledge already exists for which we can produce
additional knowledge, perhaps at a higher level of importance (Glicken, 2003:15). In
descriptive studies one might find a relationship between two variables, but still not be
able to say why this relationship exists (Mitchell & Jolley, 2010:205-209), because no
explanation has yet been given. Babbie (2010:93) and Barker (2003:116) add that in
descriptive studies there is thus no indication of determining cause-and-effect
relationships, but the aim rather is to describe situations and events and to determine
accurately what the real situation is.
Barker (2003:116), Gravetter and Forzano (2003:131), Mertens (2009:145) and Monette
et al. (2011:4) see this kind of research as an attempt to discover facts or to describe
reality accurately as it exists naturally in order to gain an overview of the current status
of a situation. Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a
situation, social setting or relationship (Salkind, 2000:192). Descriptive and exploratory
studies have many similarities and often merge in practice. The researcher begins with a
well-defined subject and conducts research to describe the phenomenon accurately, and
the final outcome of a descriptive study should be a detailed picture of the subject.
Mertens (2009:146) states that descriptive data are typically derived from the collection
of needs assessment data before an intervention takes place, or when a potential revision
of a programme may be planned.
Explanatory research
Engel and Schutt (2010:10-11), Jackson (2011:16), Marlow (2005:334) and Pierson and
Thomas (2010:440) explain that explanatory research seeks to identify causes, to
ascertain causality between factors and to determine effects on behaviour of a social
phenomenon, and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in relation to
another variable, for example, to understand and explain the causes of a social condition
such as homelessness. This should lead to explaining why events occur and to building,
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elaborating, extending, testing or revising a theory (Babbie & Mouton, 2010:81;
Neuman, 2006:35-36; Sarantakos, 2000:7).
The following questions can be asked, for instance: Why do people become homeless
and does the unemployment rate influence the frequency of homelessness? (Engel &
Schutt, 2013:19). Thyer (2010:18) adds that explanatory research aims at developing and
testing theory in a particular field of study. Engel and Schutt (2013:19-20) consider
explanatory research to be the ultimate goal of science and at the highest level of the
knowledge continuum.
Explanatory studies are normally experimental in nature, where hypotheses can be tested
and comparison groups used. A hypothesis such as the following can be mentioned as an
example, namely that there is a link between people who misuse alcohol as adults and
their having been victims of childhood abuse (Royse, 2004:25). Unlike descriptive
research, which tends to focus on how things are, the goal of explanatory research is to
explain why things are the way they are (Adler & Clark, 2008:14; Babbie, 2013a:92).
Explanatory research normally builds on exploratory and descriptive purposes, and goes
beyond focusing on a description of a topic or providing a picture of it.
An explanatory purpose can be useful in programme evaluation in order to make
statements about the influence of the programme on participants and it focuses on causal
relationships between the independent variable (the intervention) and the dependent
variable (change in the behaviour of a group) (Ginsberg, 2001:158). To describe the
voting intentions of an electorate is descriptive, but when reporting on why some people
will vote for candidate A and others for B is an explanatory activity (Babbie & Mouton,
2010:81). Rubin and Babbie (2005:125) say that when one investigates how often and
what forms of abuse are experienced by women, the study will be descriptive, but when
one wants to know why battered women repeatedly return to live with their abusers, the
study becomes explanatory in nature. Rubin and Babbie (2010:42) say that this third
purpose of research is to explain things â explanatory studies can also follow a
quantitative, qualitative or mixed-methods approach.
Glicken (2003:267) explains explanatory research as: âThe type of research that attempts
to provide meaningful and accurate conclusions from the considerable amount of
information already a ailable â When a researcher already knows a great deal about an
issue and has a description of it, the âwhyâ question might arise and one might want to
explain why things are the way they are and to demonstrate the factors needed to
produce or eliminate a behaviour pattern (Jackson, 2003:13). A causal connection
between the independent and dependent variable can thus be established in explanatory
research (Grinnell, 2001:255). Grinnell (2001:255 considers explanation to lie at the
highest level of the knowledge continuum, to have the most rigid requirements and to be
the most able to produce results that can be generalised to other people and situations
and are therefore most valid and reliable.
Explanatory research tends to be deductive and thus quantitative in nature. Its intention
is to generate data about relatively large numbers of cases making use of statistical
analysis in the interpretation of the data (Adler & Clark, 2008:14-15). An explanatory
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Six phases with a number of steps in each can be distinguished in the intervention
research model, namely problem analysis and project planning, information gathering
and synthesis, design, early development and pilot testing, evaluation and advanced
development and dissemination (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:476-489). Problem analysis
and project planning as the first step of the model identify and involve clients, gaining
entry into and cooperation from settings, identifying concerns of the population,
analysing identified problems, and setting goals and objectives for the research project.
Information gathering and synthesis, as the second step, use existing information sources
by studying natural examples and identifying functional elements of successful
interventions/models.
In the third step the design is undertaken with the focus on designing an observational
system and specifying procedural elements of the intervention. Early development and
pilot testing as the fourth step focuses on developing a prototype of preliminary
intervention, conducting a pilot test and applying design criteria to the preliminary
intervention concept. Evaluation and advanced development can be distinguished as the
fifth step, where an experimental design is developed; the data are collected and
analysed. Replicating the intervention under field conditions and refining the
intervention is then undertaken. In the last instance, dissemination takes place, where the
product for dissemination is prepared, potential markets for the intervention are
identified, a demand for the intervention is created, appropriate adoption is advocated,
and technical support for possible adopters of the programme is provided.
Jansen van Rensburg (2011), in her study on an empowerment programme for personnel
and retired volunteers at a service centre for the aged, used intervention research to
develop, evaluate and disseminate programmes for both of these target groups.
Likewise, Olivier (2009) used intervention research to develop, evaluate and disseminate
an HIV and Aids programme to prepare adolescents for the possible death of their
caregivers.
As a further innovative development to the existing intervention models, Strydom, Steyn
and Strydom (2007) propose an adapted intervention research model to bridge the gaps
in the existing models (DR&U and IR) and to serve a more user-friendly purpose in
doing intervention research, especially when an initial needs assessment is done, after
which the programme is developed, evaluated and eventually disseminated. This new
model is a seven-phase model consisting of problem delimitation, methodology,
analysis, development, evaluation, adaptation and dissemination (Strydom et al.,
2007:337-341). Delimitation as the first phase focuses on problem identification,
problem formulation, aim/objectives and the pilot study. Methodology forms the second
phase during which the kind of research, the approach, the design, the model, the
procedures and data-gathering methods are established.
In the third phase analysis takes place with the emphasis on a needs assessment, data
gathering, data analysis and report writing. Development forms the fourth phase of the
model, when the development of the programme takes place. Evaluation as the fifth
phase focuses on programme presentation, data gathering, data analysis and report
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writing. The sixth phase is called adaptation during which adaptations to the preliminary
programme are made in order to make it a user-friendly programme. Dissemination as
the seventh phase focuses on the marketing of the new technology, writing the final
report, the dissemination into manuscripts and the distribution of the final product.
When undertaking intervention research the researcher must not only be an expert in the
field of study but must also understand the practice situation (Fraser et al., 2009:4).
Participatory action research
A distinction can be drawn between participatory action research and action research. In
participatory action research (PAR) the objective is to involve the total community in
collaborative efforts to diagnose a problem and to encourage collaboration between
researchers and participants in changing, improving or solving the specific identified
problem in that community (Bryman, 2008:382; DâCruz & Jones, 2010:88; Jupp,
2009:2; Shaw, Briar-Lawson, Orme & Ruckdeschel, 2010:68-69). Action research as
such focuses more on the process of critical reflection, enquiry and action carried out by
a professional in his/her field of practice (Costello, 2004:4) The authorâs personal
opinion is that there is basically very little difference between evaluation research and
action research â both indicating research to evaluate practice and to suggest
improvements to be made in future.
For this discussion the term âparticipatory action researchâ will be used, meaning to
involve all participants in a community or setting in the total research process. PAR is
thus research being done to propose action to be taken and the participation of the
community members in a manner that enhances empowerment and self-determination to
solve a problem or problems in a particular community with the eventual aim to improve
practice (Bryant & Charmaz, 2008:400-401; McNiff & Whitehead, 2012:14). PAR can
be seen as a complex process, in which a close relationship between scientific reflection,
theory development and practical action should be maintained (Bryant & Charmaz,
2008:400; Shaw et al., 2010:69). PAR is done by some researchers because of its focus
on involving the community in the diagnosis of, and finding solutions to, their own
problems as opposed to forcing or suggesting solutions for other peopleâs problems
(Bryman, 2008:382).
McNiff and Whitehead (2012:10-11) say that there is no consensus on taking action and
doing research in one process, and some supporters of PAR focus on one without much
emphasis on the other. The question can then be posed: Who does the action and who
does the research? The PAR researcher might become the community worker when the
research project is concluded, but it remains the authorâs iew that PAR calls for a team
effort among the researcher/s, the community leaders and the community worker/s, with
specific tasks assigned to each participant. If community members can become actively
involved and mobilised in an interactive manner in improving their own situation and
their own wellbeing, they become empowered and committed towards achieving
common goals for their community, which motivates them to take charge and become
self-reliant in future regarding their own and the communityâs mutual situation
(Strydom, 2011:493).
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A plan of critically informed action must be developed in order for the community
members to work towards a solution; the effects of the action must be monitored and
reflected upon in order to do further planning for various further cycles of action
following on each other (Bryant & Charmaz, 2008:399; DâCruz & Jones, 2010:88-89).
Normally one would do a comprehensive needs assessment of the total community
before one can delineate various projects, for instance, for young children, the aged or
the jobless. Both the quantitative and qualitative paradigm can be utilised in a mixed-
method approach. Even when using qualitative measures, the needs of the total
community must be taken into consideration â small individual research projects might
be initiated simultaneously within the ambits and objectives of the total project such as a
reading group for the illiterate, storytelling for children, focus groups with alcoholic
men, poverty, interviewing the aged, a survey among the youth, and general observation.
It is important to become acquainted with a particular community before any action can
be taken The PAR process can be applied in the workersâ own workplace by workers
from the particular organisation or in an external organisation or community. When done
in the workplace by its own workers, questions may be raised about objectivity, the
social order and the values of the persons and organisation involved, and what the
definition of the workplace is (McNiff & Whitehead, 2012:39). A community must
never be chosen for pragmatic reasons, and proper entry through the correct channels
must be sought. It is advisable that a research team get to know the community over time
before really getting into doing research and planning projects on what the researcher
sees as the problems in that community. In this way the real needs of a community can
be uncovered and properly addressed. Definite goals and objectives must be stated in
advance.
PAR requires proper planning, negotiation and regular evaluation throughout the project.
The action plan decided on should be explained within the various sub-sections of the
total project. Eventually, the action outcomes must be evaluated in order to determine
which outcomes were achieved and which not, and what can be done about those not
achieved (Strydom, 2011:499-502). The researcher/s in PAR should take all aspects into
consideration, such as gaining proper entry into the community, involving the total
community, negotiating and planning with the leaders of the community, while still
remaining an objective researcher. This calls for a special kind of senior researcher with
many organisational and administrative skills besides only research skills.
SUMMARY
Although there are different opinions on what the purposes of research entail, the author
has endeavoured to study the various viewpoints and to formulate a personal opinion on
this topic. Before the design of a study can be developed, its purpose or purposes should
be formulated. Although some authors see these purposes as part of the design, for the
sake of clarity the purposes were described separately here, bearing in mind that they are
part and parcel of the total research process. In this article a definition was given of the
notion of purposes, followed by a description of the various purposes of research,
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namely exploration, description, explanation, evaluation, intervention and participatory
action research.
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