When a perfectly harmless animal resembles in its colour and shape, with a well protected species, the phenomenon is called mimicry.
The concept of mimicry was first given by H. W. Bates in 1862.
Mimicry is an important feature of organism which protect the animals against enemies. Mimicry often used as self defense which increases the survival value of organisms.
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
Social organization and social behaviour in insectsPoojaVishnoi7
Introduction
Properties of a society
Advantages of a society
Disadvantages of a society
Social organisation and social behaviour in insects:-
1. Termites
2.Honeybees
3.Ants
4.Yellow wasp
When a perfectly harmless animal resembles in its colour and shape, with a well protected species, the phenomenon is called mimicry.
The concept of mimicry was first given by H. W. Bates in 1862.
Mimicry is an important feature of organism which protect the animals against enemies. Mimicry often used as self defense which increases the survival value of organisms.
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
Social organization and social behaviour in insectsPoojaVishnoi7
Introduction
Properties of a society
Advantages of a society
Disadvantages of a society
Social organisation and social behaviour in insects:-
1. Termites
2.Honeybees
3.Ants
4.Yellow wasp
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside and surrounding cells are composed of water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.
Mechanics and Classification of birds migration along with the needs to migrate. it is helpful to learn the mechanics involved in migration specifically elaborating the roles of environmental factors to force the birds to migrate.
Iczn(The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature )Al Nahian Avro
The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) acts as adviser and arbiter for the zoological community by generating and disseminating information on the correct use of the scientific names of animals. The ICZN is responsible for producing the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature - a set of rules for the naming of animals and the resolution of nomenclatural problems.
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) is a series or sequence of acts that occur behaviorally in animals. it is also known as instinctive behaviour as it is determined by gene of an organism and exhibited automatically without having any prior experience.
This presentation includes detailed explanation of Animal communication via different examples present in nature. It includes all the different methods animals use to convey information to their species or the other animals in nature.
Ecological interactions chapter 3 class 11thUrfan Ali
INTRODUCTION
Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within their environment. These interactions may have positive, negative, or neutral effects on either species' ability to survive and reproduce, or "fitness." By classifying these effects, ecologists have derived five major types of species interactions:
Predation, competition, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism and amensalism.
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside and surrounding cells are composed of water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.
Mechanics and Classification of birds migration along with the needs to migrate. it is helpful to learn the mechanics involved in migration specifically elaborating the roles of environmental factors to force the birds to migrate.
Iczn(The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature )Al Nahian Avro
The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) acts as adviser and arbiter for the zoological community by generating and disseminating information on the correct use of the scientific names of animals. The ICZN is responsible for producing the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature - a set of rules for the naming of animals and the resolution of nomenclatural problems.
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) is a series or sequence of acts that occur behaviorally in animals. it is also known as instinctive behaviour as it is determined by gene of an organism and exhibited automatically without having any prior experience.
This presentation includes detailed explanation of Animal communication via different examples present in nature. It includes all the different methods animals use to convey information to their species or the other animals in nature.
Ecological interactions chapter 3 class 11thUrfan Ali
INTRODUCTION
Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within their environment. These interactions may have positive, negative, or neutral effects on either species' ability to survive and reproduce, or "fitness." By classifying these effects, ecologists have derived five major types of species interactions:
Predation, competition, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism and amensalism.
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns:
Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions
Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners
These relationships have three purposes:
Defensive mutualism
Trophic mutualism
Dispersive mutualism
A presentation in college Ecology about population functions of organisms. Includes hierarchical framework of population, interspecific and intraspecific relationships.
Altruism is an oddity in the animal world. How does altruism from co.pdfakashborakhede
Altruism is an oddity in the animal world. How does altruism from colony insects make the
colony more apt to survive and thrive? Do you see any applications of altruism to human
society?
Solution
1- Reciprocity is another evolutionary factor that can favor altruism. The basic theory was
introduced by Trivers (1971) and refined by Axelrod and Hamilton (1980). One organism has a
net gain by helping another if the other reciprocates with benefits (simultaneous or delayed) that
balance the donor\'s cost. Cleaning symbiosis between a large fish and a small one of a different
species may provide simultaneous reciprocal benefits: the large fish gets rid of parasites; the
small one gets food. This reciprocation implies that the small fish is more valuable as a cleaner to
the large fish than it would be as food. Reciprocity is a pervasive factor in the socioeconomic
lives of many species, especially our own. It requires safeguards, often in the form of evolved
adaptations for the detection of cheating Manipulation is another source of altruism. The
donation results from actual or implied threat or deception by the recipient. In any social
hierarchy, individuals of lower rank will often yield to the higher by abandoning a food item or
possible mate, thereby donating the coveted resource to the dominant individual. Deception often
works between species: a snapper may donate its body to an anglerfish that tempts it with its
lure; some orchids have flowers that resemble females of an insect species, so that deceived
males donate time and energy transporting pollen with no payoff to themselves. The nest
parasitism discussed above is another example. Our own donations of money or labor or blood to
public appeals can be considered manipulation of donors by those who make the appeals.
2-
More recently attention has been given to selection among temporary social groupings or trait
groups (Wilson 1980), such as fish schools or flocks of birds. Trait groups with more benign and
cooperative members may feed more efficiently and avoid predators more effectively. The more
selfish individuals still thrive best within each group, and the evolutionary result reflects the
relative strengths of selection within and between groups. In human history, groups with more
cooperative relations among members must often have prevailed in conflicts with groups of more
consistently self-seeking individuals (Wilson and Sober 1994). The resulting greater prevalence
of human altruism would be more likely to result from culturally transmitted than genetic
differences. It should be noted that any form of group selection can only produce modifications
that benefit the sorts of groups among which selection takes place. It need not produce benefits
for whole species or more inclusive groups.
A given instance of altruistic behavior may, of course, result from more than one of these four
evolutionary causes. Genealogical relatives are especially likely to indulge in both reciprocation
and m.
Community
all the organisms that live together in a place
Community Ecology
study of interactions among all -populations in a common environment
In what ways do populations interact?
Community – all the organisms that live together in one place
Community ecology – study of interactions among all populations in a common environment.
Interspecific interactions – among individuals of the different species.
Intraspecific interactions – among individuals of the same species.
Species Interaction…
-A traditional approach to population interactions has been to consider the direct pair-wise interactions.
Community Ecology is the study of interactions among all populations in a common environment.
Species Interaction is a traditional approach to population interactions has been to consider the direct pair wise interactions.
Two populations may or may not affect each other; if they do, the influence may be beneficial or adverse
Types of Population Relationships:
Interspecific interactions:
Competition and Coexistence
Predation
Mutualism
Commensalism
Intraspecific Interactions
Grasshoppers provide an animal example. Individual grasshoppers deprive their fellow conspecifics of food (exploitation competition).
It is probably a major factor involved in the evolution of plumage patterns in birds.
during intraspecific competition, animals will use whatever weapons are available to them and this makes it likely that the nature of the weapons determines the nature and location of patterns.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
1. Anusandhan Vatika ISSN:
Impact Factor: 5.373
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Kuldeep Gauliya1
and Arjun Shukla2
*
1
Dept. of zoology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, INDIA, 484887
2
Dept. of Zoology, Govt. Science College, Jabalpur (M.P.) 482001
Abstract: The integration of altruism, about which the article mainly pursues information, has a key dependency on the
‗how the receiver receives the benefits‘ either that is directly or indirectly. As the altruist and receiver are the two main
components of the altruism, the whole set of action depends upon them. Here the terms interspecies and interspecies are
for understanding the role of the altruist i.e. both are of the same species or from two different species. If there is returning
of the benefit by the receiver to altruist in future, then it is known to be reciprocal altruism. The classes or type of the
mechanism like Guarding, Alarming, feeding Protection has a basis that receiver get benefit instantly and individually or
not.
Keywords : Inter-specific, Intra-specific, Distal, Alarming, Animal.
INTRODUCTION
Altruism can be described precisely as an interaction between the animals in which an individual benefits other at a cost to
itself. It can also be define as sacrifices of owns wellbeing for benefit of others. For an altruistic act to be performed there
should be at least two individuals, one who performs the altruistic act and another who receives the benefit
[P.J.Darlington, Jr. Altruism: Its characteristics and evolution, Nov. 3 1997]. There are some ethologists who describe
mutual relationship as the altruistic behavior, but these two are clear apart from each other in principles. The mutualism is
intended for self-profit itself whereas the altruism is highly intensified for benefit of other at a cost to self. Altruism is rarely
seen in nature. There is no such altruism exist which doesn‘t acquire a bit of selfishness‘. The pure altruism is rarer than
that of altruism itself.
TYPES OF ALTRUISM
As altruism involves interaction of two or more than two animals so it can be inter species or Intra species. When we talk
about Inter species altruism there a concept of social organization of both species because social behavior itself involves the
altruistic behavior of an individual and when we elaborate the Intra species altruism we must tell that where they live and
how they have relationship with each other.
The altruistic behavior in animals can be of three types –
Intra species altruism
Inter species altruism
Reciprocal altruism
INTRA SPECIES ALTRUISM
This type of altruistic behavior of animals involves only a single species. The altruist who performs the altruistic
behavior and the receiver, who receives the benefits, should be of same species. It can be seen in the animals that live in
group like wild water buffalo who live together for searching food and water. While these buffalos are grazing together
and then if a tiger or a lion attack on any one of them, then the some of them who are powerful an already have an
encounter like this in there group, moves to help that one.
Sometimes they won and sometimes they are unable to save there groupie.as this process reduces the chance of survival
of that one who had make an move to help that one hence disproves the Theory of Natural selection given by Darwin
[WD HAMILTON, The Evolution Of the Altruistic Behavior, Sept. 1963 ].
INTER SPECIES ALTRUISM
As the name reveals it is the interaction between the animals of two completely different species in which an
individual of a species is benefited by an individual of another species.
2. Anusandhan Vatika ISSN:
Impact Factor: 5.373
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The earlier encounters of both species are not necessary. They may or may not know each other but at the time when
anyone of them needs help the other did. Psychologically, the one who helps the member of the other species so it should
must be powerful than the predator so that it can save the other individual and itself also.
Like in case of baboons that helps the other wild animals like Impala, wild dogs, and so many other animals also, always
moves in group when they save someone to reduce the chances of being harmed by the predator.
RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM
It is the special type of the altruism in which the receiver who had received the benefit, in future returns the benefit to
the altruist [R L TRIVERS, The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism, 1971]. It may also be defined as the exchange of the
benefits between the animals.
It mostly occurs in the related species of the animals as it is necessary that the recipient and altruist must encounter
more than one, only than the returning or exchange of the benefit would become possible . For the better exchange of
the benefit between receiver and altruist they must have an excellent recognizing ability for each other. Being social is
necessary for multiple encounters, and multiple encounters between them increase the probability of reciprocity hence
altruistic act. The reciprocity is similar to mutual type of biological interaction in which two individuals are benefitted
by each other.
MECHANISM OF ALTRUISM IN ANIMALS -
1. Direct mechanism
2. Indirect mechanism
The mechanism deals for the causation that how and by which means altruism can occurs among
animals. The direct and indirect mechanism account that the altruistic behavior can directly provide benefit to receiver
and indirectly also There are abundant examples like service of worker bees, providing protection, help in collecting
food and so many the examples which shows that altruistic act can be perform so diversity.
DIRECT ALTRUISM
The direct altruism comprises all the altruistic acts which are directly linked to receiver and the receiver directly gets
benefit from the altruist. More likely it occurs when the no. of receivers are less so that it can directly reach to intended
receiver.
The intended type of altruism can be seen as following –
FEEDING
Here the feeding stands for the help or benefit received by a member of a group by other member. In this case the
receiver is generally unable to get meals.
As in case of vampire bats they suck the blood from there pray and then donate to their groupie who is unable to access
the meal because of sickness or other reasons [de Waal, Franz(1996).Good Natured.Harvard University Press. pp.20–
21] [ Perry, Julie (April 19, 2002)."Reciprocal Altruism in Vampire Bats". RetrievedOctober 10,2009]. The wilddogs and
wolves bring meat for the one who is absent at the time of killing the pray.It is important to note that it is not necessary
that the one who receives the benefit should be of closely relative of altruist. Any member of the group can receive the
help or benefit whenever they need. By this the altruist itself increases the chances of the survival of that sick and
weaker individual.
PROTECTION ( PROXIMATE)
It can be categorize as a higher class of altruism. The weaker individual get rescue and help from other individual which
may or may not be of their group and species. Mostly it is seen in higher vertebrates and in smaller ones also. As it had
been said it is proximate means the weaker one needs to be saving immediately or instantly. The one who rescue the
weaker individual reduces its chances of survival bye attracting all the attention of the predator towards himself and
reducing the risk for other one. Further it cannot be predicted that the rescuer will able to save the weaker one or will
lose.
For example, African buffalowill rescue a member of the herd captured by predators, [Budzinski, David; Schlosberg,
Jason."Battle at Kruger".YouTube]. As the baboons and African buffalo take a risk of being killed to save the one from
predator.
3. Anusandhan Vatika ISSN:
Impact Factor: 5.373
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GAURDING (DISTAL)
Guarding in animals is seen in higher vertebrates as they are capable of saving an individual. Here the remark distal
stands for action which is performed means the weaker one do not needs the helped immediately.
For exampleHarpagiferbispinis, is a species of fish, lives in AntarticPaninsula. When the parents who guards the nest
where the egg is present if removed, then the replacement of the unrelated to the parent guard the brood from predator
[Daniels, R.A. "Nest Guard Replacement in the Antarctic FishHarpagiferbispinis: Possible Altruistic Behavior." Science,
New Series. Vol. 205 No. 4408: (1979): p. 831–833.]. sometimes it is seen that Walruseshave been seen adopting orphans
who lost their parents to predators ["Walrus: Odobenidae – Behavior and Reproduction". RetrievedAugust 12,2008].
INDIRECT ALTRUISM
The indirect altruism is consist of set of all the altruistic acts which benefits other but the action is not directly related
with altruist and receiver. Usually in this set of mechanism the no of receivers are more, that‘s why the altruistic act is
not related to receiver individually. The Indirect altruism can be seen in following ways –
ALARMING
Alarming is the process by which an individual or a member of a group warns the other member of their respective group
from being harmed by predator. By acting such altruistically the members who give alarm calls attract the predator
towards itself and saving others. The animals in the periphery of alarming zone are also get benefit, but it have less
chances to be occur, because most of the time they are unable to decode the alarm calls. By attracting predator towards
itself reduces its own fitness while increasing that of others.
So here again the altruistic act do not supports the Survival of the Fittest given by Darwin. A new theory comes in
knowledge which was given by W D Hamilton which states that though the animal who give alarm calls reduces
its own fitness, increases the chance of passing of its relatives genes to the next generation, and hence increases the
probability of continuity of its own species [W D HAMILTON, The Evolution Of the Altruistic Behavior, Sept. 1963].
CONCLUSION :
Some wildlife researchers believe that altruism—defined as an act in which an animal sacrifices its own well-being for
the benefit of another animal—is a well-documented behavior. Those who say animal altruism exists cite examples such
as dolphins helping others in need or a leopard caring for a baby baboon.
Altruism is the belief that the well-being of others is equally, if not more, important than the well-being or survival of the
self. Further, altruism involves selfless acts or undertakings that put the welfare of others before one's own.
REFERENCES :
1. P.J.DARLINGTON, Jr. Altruism: Its characteristics and evolution, Nov. 3 1997
2. W.D HAMILTON, The Evolution Of the Altruistic Behavior, Sept. 1963
3. R.L TRIVERS, The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism, 1971
4. DE WAAL, FRANZ (1996).Good Natured.Harvard University Press. pp.20–21][Perry, Julie (April 19,
2002)."Reciprocal Altruism in Vampire Bats". RetrievedOctober 10,2009]
5. BUDZINSKY, DAVID; SCHLOSBERG, JASAN."Battle at Kruger".YouTube
6. DANIELS, R.A."Nest Guard Replacement in the Antarctic FishHarpagiferbispinis: Possible Altruistic Behavior."
Science, New Series. Vol. 205 No. 4408: (1979): p. 831–833.
7. "Walrus: Odobenidae – Behavior and Reproduction". RetrievedAugust 12,2008
![Anusandhan Vatika ISSN:
Impact Factor: 5.373
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Kuldeep Gauliya1
and Arjun Shukla2
*
1
Dept. of zoology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, INDIA, 484887
2
Dept. of Zoology, Govt. Science College, Jabalpur (M.P.) 482001
Abstract: The integration of altruism, about which the article mainly pursues information, has a key dependency on the
‗how the receiver receives the benefits‘ either that is directly or indirectly. As the altruist and receiver are the two main
components of the altruism, the whole set of action depends upon them. Here the terms interspecies and interspecies are
for understanding the role of the altruist i.e. both are of the same species or from two different species. If there is returning
of the benefit by the receiver to altruist in future, then it is known to be reciprocal altruism. The classes or type of the
mechanism like Guarding, Alarming, feeding Protection has a basis that receiver get benefit instantly and individually or
not.
Keywords : Inter-specific, Intra-specific, Distal, Alarming, Animal.
INTRODUCTION
Altruism can be described precisely as an interaction between the animals in which an individual benefits other at a cost to
itself. It can also be define as sacrifices of owns wellbeing for benefit of others. For an altruistic act to be performed there
should be at least two individuals, one who performs the altruistic act and another who receives the benefit
[P.J.Darlington, Jr. Altruism: Its characteristics and evolution, Nov. 3 1997]. There are some ethologists who describe
mutual relationship as the altruistic behavior, but these two are clear apart from each other in principles. The mutualism is
intended for self-profit itself whereas the altruism is highly intensified for benefit of other at a cost to self. Altruism is rarely
seen in nature. There is no such altruism exist which doesn‘t acquire a bit of selfishness‘. The pure altruism is rarer than
that of altruism itself.
TYPES OF ALTRUISM
As altruism involves interaction of two or more than two animals so it can be inter species or Intra species. When we talk
about Inter species altruism there a concept of social organization of both species because social behavior itself involves the
altruistic behavior of an individual and when we elaborate the Intra species altruism we must tell that where they live and
how they have relationship with each other.
The altruistic behavior in animals can be of three types –
Intra species altruism
Inter species altruism
Reciprocal altruism
INTRA SPECIES ALTRUISM
This type of altruistic behavior of animals involves only a single species. The altruist who performs the altruistic
behavior and the receiver, who receives the benefits, should be of same species. It can be seen in the animals that live in
group like wild water buffalo who live together for searching food and water. While these buffalos are grazing together
and then if a tiger or a lion attack on any one of them, then the some of them who are powerful an already have an
encounter like this in there group, moves to help that one.
Sometimes they won and sometimes they are unable to save there groupie.as this process reduces the chance of survival
of that one who had make an move to help that one hence disproves the Theory of Natural selection given by Darwin
[WD HAMILTON, The Evolution Of the Altruistic Behavior, Sept. 1963 ].
INTER SPECIES ALTRUISM
As the name reveals it is the interaction between the animals of two completely different species in which an
individual of a species is benefited by an individual of another species.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/altruisminanimalsandclassification-aview-190123111256/85/Altruism-in-animals-and-classification-A-view-1-320.jpg)
![Anusandhan Vatika ISSN:
Impact Factor: 5.373
6
The earlier encounters of both species are not necessary. They may or may not know each other but at the time when
anyone of them needs help the other did. Psychologically, the one who helps the member of the other species so it should
must be powerful than the predator so that it can save the other individual and itself also.
Like in case of baboons that helps the other wild animals like Impala, wild dogs, and so many other animals also, always
moves in group when they save someone to reduce the chances of being harmed by the predator.
RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM
It is the special type of the altruism in which the receiver who had received the benefit, in future returns the benefit to
the altruist [R L TRIVERS, The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism, 1971]. It may also be defined as the exchange of the
benefits between the animals.
It mostly occurs in the related species of the animals as it is necessary that the recipient and altruist must encounter
more than one, only than the returning or exchange of the benefit would become possible . For the better exchange of
the benefit between receiver and altruist they must have an excellent recognizing ability for each other. Being social is
necessary for multiple encounters, and multiple encounters between them increase the probability of reciprocity hence
altruistic act. The reciprocity is similar to mutual type of biological interaction in which two individuals are benefitted
by each other.
MECHANISM OF ALTRUISM IN ANIMALS -
1. Direct mechanism
2. Indirect mechanism
The mechanism deals for the causation that how and by which means altruism can occurs among
animals. The direct and indirect mechanism account that the altruistic behavior can directly provide benefit to receiver
and indirectly also There are abundant examples like service of worker bees, providing protection, help in collecting
food and so many the examples which shows that altruistic act can be perform so diversity.
DIRECT ALTRUISM
The direct altruism comprises all the altruistic acts which are directly linked to receiver and the receiver directly gets
benefit from the altruist. More likely it occurs when the no. of receivers are less so that it can directly reach to intended
receiver.
The intended type of altruism can be seen as following –
FEEDING
Here the feeding stands for the help or benefit received by a member of a group by other member. In this case the
receiver is generally unable to get meals.
As in case of vampire bats they suck the blood from there pray and then donate to their groupie who is unable to access
the meal because of sickness or other reasons [de Waal, Franz(1996).Good Natured.Harvard University Press. pp.20–
21] [ Perry, Julie (April 19, 2002)."Reciprocal Altruism in Vampire Bats". RetrievedOctober 10,2009]. The wilddogs and
wolves bring meat for the one who is absent at the time of killing the pray.It is important to note that it is not necessary
that the one who receives the benefit should be of closely relative of altruist. Any member of the group can receive the
help or benefit whenever they need. By this the altruist itself increases the chances of the survival of that sick and
weaker individual.
PROTECTION ( PROXIMATE)
It can be categorize as a higher class of altruism. The weaker individual get rescue and help from other individual which
may or may not be of their group and species. Mostly it is seen in higher vertebrates and in smaller ones also. As it had
been said it is proximate means the weaker one needs to be saving immediately or instantly. The one who rescue the
weaker individual reduces its chances of survival bye attracting all the attention of the predator towards himself and
reducing the risk for other one. Further it cannot be predicted that the rescuer will able to save the weaker one or will
lose.
For example, African buffalowill rescue a member of the herd captured by predators, [Budzinski, David; Schlosberg,
Jason."Battle at Kruger".YouTube]. As the baboons and African buffalo take a risk of being killed to save the one from
predator.](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)