Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make better business decisions using scarce resources. It bridges the gap between purely analytical economic problems and real-world business decision problems. Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to understand market forces that shape a firm's environment and to develop optimization models that prescribe optimal decision-making rules. It provides analytical tools and techniques to help managers analyze key elements of the business and solve managerial problems in a scientific way.
Dear students get fully solved SMU MBA WINTER 2014 assignments
Send your semester & Specialization name to our mail id :
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Managerial economics uses economic theories and analysis to help managers make business decisions. It involves theories such as demand, production, costs, prices, profits, and capital. Demand refers to how much of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at different price points. Production combines various inputs to make goods and services for consumption. Cost theory examines the expenses incurred in production. Price theory aims to achieve equilibrium between supply and demand. Profits are the net income remaining after all costs are deducted from total revenue. Capital budgeting determines whether long-term investments like new equipment are worth funding to increase the value of the firm.
This document provides an overview of key economic concepts for business analysis including:
1. It defines business economics as the integration of economic theory and business practice to facilitate decision making.
2. It outlines several economic concepts and their application to common business decisions regarding areas like production, costs, pricing, investment, and profit determination.
3. It explains foundational concepts in economic analysis like opportunity cost, marginalism, and marginal analysis which are important for understanding how businesses and individuals make choices.
Managerial economics applies economic theory and decision-making principles to help managers make sound business decisions in the face of scarcity. It aims to equip managers with skills for overcoming constraints through marginal analysis and other tools. Key economic concepts covered include demand and supply analysis, consumer surplus, market forces, and factors that shift demand and supply curves. Understanding these concepts can guide pricing, production quantity, hiring, and relationship decisions. The document provides examples and illustrations of demand and supply curves and how taxes, regulations, and other factors influence market equilibrium.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in economics including:
1) Microeconomics examines individual decision-making units like businesses and households, while macroeconomics examines economic aggregates on a national scale.
2) Positive economics objectively studies and describes economic behavior and outcomes, while normative economics makes judgments and may recommend policies.
3) Economic theories involve models to simplify reality, with variables and assumptions used to study relationships between factors.
Managerial economics applies economic theory and techniques to managerial decision-making. It helps managers evaluate resource allocation, determine optimal product mix and output levels, set prices, and respond to economic conditions. The scope of managerial economics is narrower than traditional economics as it focuses on microeconomic problems faced by individual firms, including demand and cost analysis, pricing, profit maximization, and adapting plans to the business environment.
This document provides an overview of managerial economics. It defines managerial economics as the application of microeconomics, particularly demand analysis and production functions, to managerial decision making. It discusses the differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics, and how each applies to either single firms or the overall economy. Key tools of managerial economics are also summarized, including demand forecasting, cost analysis, and capital budgeting.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make better business decisions using scarce resources. It bridges the gap between purely analytical economic problems and real-world business decision problems. Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to understand market forces that shape a firm's environment and to develop optimization models that prescribe optimal decision-making rules. It provides analytical tools and techniques to help managers analyze key elements of the business and solve managerial problems in a scientific way.
Dear students get fully solved SMU MBA WINTER 2014 assignments
Send your semester & Specialization name to our mail id :
“ help.mbaassignments@gmail.com ”
or
Call us at : 08263069601
(Prefer mailing. Call in emergency )
Managerial economics uses economic theories and analysis to help managers make business decisions. It involves theories such as demand, production, costs, prices, profits, and capital. Demand refers to how much of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at different price points. Production combines various inputs to make goods and services for consumption. Cost theory examines the expenses incurred in production. Price theory aims to achieve equilibrium between supply and demand. Profits are the net income remaining after all costs are deducted from total revenue. Capital budgeting determines whether long-term investments like new equipment are worth funding to increase the value of the firm.
This document provides an overview of key economic concepts for business analysis including:
1. It defines business economics as the integration of economic theory and business practice to facilitate decision making.
2. It outlines several economic concepts and their application to common business decisions regarding areas like production, costs, pricing, investment, and profit determination.
3. It explains foundational concepts in economic analysis like opportunity cost, marginalism, and marginal analysis which are important for understanding how businesses and individuals make choices.
Managerial economics applies economic theory and decision-making principles to help managers make sound business decisions in the face of scarcity. It aims to equip managers with skills for overcoming constraints through marginal analysis and other tools. Key economic concepts covered include demand and supply analysis, consumer surplus, market forces, and factors that shift demand and supply curves. Understanding these concepts can guide pricing, production quantity, hiring, and relationship decisions. The document provides examples and illustrations of demand and supply curves and how taxes, regulations, and other factors influence market equilibrium.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in economics including:
1) Microeconomics examines individual decision-making units like businesses and households, while macroeconomics examines economic aggregates on a national scale.
2) Positive economics objectively studies and describes economic behavior and outcomes, while normative economics makes judgments and may recommend policies.
3) Economic theories involve models to simplify reality, with variables and assumptions used to study relationships between factors.
Managerial economics applies economic theory and techniques to managerial decision-making. It helps managers evaluate resource allocation, determine optimal product mix and output levels, set prices, and respond to economic conditions. The scope of managerial economics is narrower than traditional economics as it focuses on microeconomic problems faced by individual firms, including demand and cost analysis, pricing, profit maximization, and adapting plans to the business environment.
This document provides an overview of managerial economics. It defines managerial economics as the application of microeconomics, particularly demand analysis and production functions, to managerial decision making. It discusses the differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics, and how each applies to either single firms or the overall economy. Key tools of managerial economics are also summarized, including demand forecasting, cost analysis, and capital budgeting.
This document provides an introduction to economics for social entrepreneurs, covering topics such as the law of demand, forecasting methods, costs, and monetary theories. It discusses concepts like production possibility curves, decision trees, and the objectives of firms. The document presents economics as both an art and a normative science, and explores quantitative and qualitative forecasting approaches.
This document contains information about various topics in economics. It defines economics, econometrics, microeconomics, and macroeconomics. It also discusses analytical approaches like Keynesian economics and supply-side economics. Key topics covered include demand and supply analysis, market failures, analytical tools like regression analysis, and areas of applied microeconomics like labor economics and financial economics.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make business decisions involving allocating scarce resources. It applies microeconomic theory to analyze individual markets and guide decisions around issues like pricing, production, costs, inventory, and capital budgeting. Managerial economics differs from regular economics in that it focuses on applying economic theory to specific business problems and decision making rather than analyzing the overall economy.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make optimal business decisions by allocating scarce resources efficiently. It draws on microeconomic concepts and decision science tools. The goal is to find solutions that maximize profit or other objectives given the firm's constraints. Managerial economics helps managers address questions like pricing, production levels, costs, markets, and regulations to best achieve the firm's goals.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make optimal business decisions by allocating scarce resources efficiently. It draws on microeconomic concepts and decision science tools. The goal is to find solutions that maximize profits or other objectives given the firm's constraints. Managerial economics informs decisions regarding pricing, production levels, costs, investments, and other important issues. It considers factors like demand elasticity, costs, market structure, and the firm's overall goals to determine the best course of action.
This document provides information about getting fully solved assignments from an assistant. It includes contact details to email or call for assistance and provides sample questions on topics like production functions, cost curves, inflation, price and income elasticity, and revenue. Students are instructed to include their semester and specialization when contacting the assistant for help with assignments. Sample questions cover definitions and explanations of economic concepts.
Introduction to Managerial Economics-Yuvaraja SEYuva Raja S E
The document discusses key concepts in managerial economics. It defines managerial economics as the application of economic theories, principles, and analytical tools to solve managerial problems. Some quantitative techniques used include mathematical and statistical tools to analyze variables, functions, schedules, and graphs to aid decision-making. The principles of opportunity cost, marginalism, equimarginalism, incremental analysis, time perspective, and discounting are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of the Business Economics course taught by Ms. Vimla Sharma. The course covers key topics in microeconomics and macroeconomics over 60 lectures. Specific topics discussed include the meaning and differences between economics, business economics, microeconomics, and macroeconomics. Concepts like opportunity cost, marginalism, incrementalism, and time value of money are also defined and explained. The document outlines the syllabus content and provides definitions and examples to illustrate important economic principles relevant to business.
This chapter introduces key concepts in managerial economics. It defines economics as the study of how societies address scarce resources and unlimited wants. It also defines managerial economics as applying economic theory and analysis to organizational decision-making. Finally, it discusses how managerial economics relates to other disciplines and can help evaluate trade-offs across management functions like finance, marketing, and operations.
The document defines demand and discusses its key determinants and functions. It explains that demand refers to how much of a product consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices over time. The main determinants of demand are price of the product, prices of substitutes and complements, consumer income and wealth, tastes and habits, advertising, expectations, number of customers, and other factors. Demand can be expressed through demand schedules, curves, and functions that show the relationship between price and quantity demanded. The law of demand and concepts of elasticity are also introduced.
This document defines and compares key concepts in microeconomics and macroeconomics. It also defines positive and normative economics. Microeconomics focuses on individual economic units and factors like supply, demand and pricing. Macroeconomics analyzes aggregate variables and issues affecting the whole economy like GDP, unemployment and monetary policy. Positive economics objectively analyzes relationships between variables, while normative economics makes value judgments about how the economy should operate. The document then defines concepts related to production theory, costs, market structures, labor economics and welfare economics.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key economic concepts. It begins by defining microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines individual economic decisions and interactions, while macroeconomics looks at aggregate economic performance and structure at a national or international level. The document then discusses various market structures like perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and their characteristics. It also covers concepts like demand, supply, equilibrium, elasticity, costs of production, and opportunity cost. The final sections define additional economic terms and concepts related to welfare economics, labor economics, and measures like unemployment rate.
The document provides an overview of managerial economics, including its definition, scope, and significance. It discusses how managerial economics integrates economic theory with business practices to help managers make informed decisions. Some key principles that guide managerial decision-making are also introduced, such as opportunity cost, marginal analysis, and discounting future cash flows.
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics and its development. It discusses the classical, Keynesian, post-Keynesian, monetarist, and new Keynesian schools of macroeconomic thought. The classical school holds that markets always clear and unemployment is voluntary. Keynesians focus on managing aggregate demand and believe governments can stabilize business cycles through fiscal and monetary policy. Monetarists believe the role of government is controlling inflation through money supply and that markets typically clear. New Keynesians add microeconomic foundations to traditional Keynesian theories while recognizing some market rigidities. The document also outlines the divisions of microeconomics and macroeconomics and provides examples of areas studied in each field.
Economics as a tool for decision makingvivek Thota
The document discusses several key principles of economics as they relate to decision making:
1) The opportunity cost principle states that every decision requires sacrificing alternative options and that opportunity costs, not just monetary costs, should be considered.
2) The incremental principle involves estimating the impact of decision alternatives on costs and revenues, focusing on changes in total costs and revenues.
3) The time perspective principle notes that decisions should consider both short-run and long-run effects on costs and revenues to maintain the right balance.
It then discusses how various fields like mathematics, statistics, operations research, management theory, accounting, and microeconomics contribute important concepts and tools to managerial economics decision making.
1. Econometrics uses statistical methods to estimate economic relationships, test economic theories, and evaluate policies. It builds mathematical and statistical models to represent economic behavior using data.
2. A consumption function model relates consumption (C) to income (Y) as C = a + bY, where a and b are parameters estimated using data. The model includes an error term to account for other influences not included.
3. Estimating the consumption function parameters using data allows testing hypotheses about marginal propensity to consume and forecasting future consumption based on the model. Government can also use such models for policymaking.
The document provides an introduction to microeconomics and concepts related to consumer behavior and utility. It defines:
1) Microeconomics as the study of individual decision-making units and markets, in contrast to macroeconomics which studies aggregate outputs and prices.
2) The law of diminishing marginal utility, which states that the marginal utility of additional units of a good consumed decreases with each additional unit.
3) Total, marginal, and average utility, and the relationship between them. Total utility is the utility from consuming all units, marginal utility is the change in total utility from an additional unit, and average utility is total utility divided by units consumed.
4) The cardinal and ordinal approaches
This document provides an introduction to microeconomics. It defines microeconomics as studying individual economic decision-making units and markets, while macroeconomics studies aggregate output, employment, prices, and other measures for the whole economy. The core of microeconomics focuses on households and business firms interacting in goods/services and resource markets, represented by the circular flow of income and spending. Positive analysis studies what is, examining how prices, production, and other economic variables are determined in actual markets. Normative analysis makes judgments about what should be.
This document provides an overview of various topics in economics including microeconomics, macroeconomics, finance, supply and demand, government interventions, elasticity, costs, market structures, pricing theory, consumer behavior, regulation, fiscal policy, monetary policy, and income distribution. It defines key terms and concepts within each topic at a high level.
This document provides an overview of key economic concepts. It defines economics as the study of trade-offs between scarce resources and human wants. All societies face the basic economic problem of deciding what to produce, how to produce it, and who receives goods and services. Economic systems include traditional, free market, planned, and mixed economies. Microeconomics studies individual units like consumers and firms, while macroeconomics looks at aggregates like national output and inflation. The document also discusses concepts like utility, costs of production, profits, markets, and equilibrium.
This document provides an introduction to economics for social entrepreneurs, covering topics such as the law of demand, forecasting methods, costs, and monetary theories. It discusses concepts like production possibility curves, decision trees, and the objectives of firms. The document presents economics as both an art and a normative science, and explores quantitative and qualitative forecasting approaches.
This document contains information about various topics in economics. It defines economics, econometrics, microeconomics, and macroeconomics. It also discusses analytical approaches like Keynesian economics and supply-side economics. Key topics covered include demand and supply analysis, market failures, analytical tools like regression analysis, and areas of applied microeconomics like labor economics and financial economics.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make business decisions involving allocating scarce resources. It applies microeconomic theory to analyze individual markets and guide decisions around issues like pricing, production, costs, inventory, and capital budgeting. Managerial economics differs from regular economics in that it focuses on applying economic theory to specific business problems and decision making rather than analyzing the overall economy.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make optimal business decisions by allocating scarce resources efficiently. It draws on microeconomic concepts and decision science tools. The goal is to find solutions that maximize profit or other objectives given the firm's constraints. Managerial economics helps managers address questions like pricing, production levels, costs, markets, and regulations to best achieve the firm's goals.
Managerial economics uses economic analysis to help managers make optimal business decisions by allocating scarce resources efficiently. It draws on microeconomic concepts and decision science tools. The goal is to find solutions that maximize profits or other objectives given the firm's constraints. Managerial economics informs decisions regarding pricing, production levels, costs, investments, and other important issues. It considers factors like demand elasticity, costs, market structure, and the firm's overall goals to determine the best course of action.
This document provides information about getting fully solved assignments from an assistant. It includes contact details to email or call for assistance and provides sample questions on topics like production functions, cost curves, inflation, price and income elasticity, and revenue. Students are instructed to include their semester and specialization when contacting the assistant for help with assignments. Sample questions cover definitions and explanations of economic concepts.
Introduction to Managerial Economics-Yuvaraja SEYuva Raja S E
The document discusses key concepts in managerial economics. It defines managerial economics as the application of economic theories, principles, and analytical tools to solve managerial problems. Some quantitative techniques used include mathematical and statistical tools to analyze variables, functions, schedules, and graphs to aid decision-making. The principles of opportunity cost, marginalism, equimarginalism, incremental analysis, time perspective, and discounting are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of the Business Economics course taught by Ms. Vimla Sharma. The course covers key topics in microeconomics and macroeconomics over 60 lectures. Specific topics discussed include the meaning and differences between economics, business economics, microeconomics, and macroeconomics. Concepts like opportunity cost, marginalism, incrementalism, and time value of money are also defined and explained. The document outlines the syllabus content and provides definitions and examples to illustrate important economic principles relevant to business.
This chapter introduces key concepts in managerial economics. It defines economics as the study of how societies address scarce resources and unlimited wants. It also defines managerial economics as applying economic theory and analysis to organizational decision-making. Finally, it discusses how managerial economics relates to other disciplines and can help evaluate trade-offs across management functions like finance, marketing, and operations.
The document defines demand and discusses its key determinants and functions. It explains that demand refers to how much of a product consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices over time. The main determinants of demand are price of the product, prices of substitutes and complements, consumer income and wealth, tastes and habits, advertising, expectations, number of customers, and other factors. Demand can be expressed through demand schedules, curves, and functions that show the relationship between price and quantity demanded. The law of demand and concepts of elasticity are also introduced.
This document defines and compares key concepts in microeconomics and macroeconomics. It also defines positive and normative economics. Microeconomics focuses on individual economic units and factors like supply, demand and pricing. Macroeconomics analyzes aggregate variables and issues affecting the whole economy like GDP, unemployment and monetary policy. Positive economics objectively analyzes relationships between variables, while normative economics makes value judgments about how the economy should operate. The document then defines concepts related to production theory, costs, market structures, labor economics and welfare economics.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key economic concepts. It begins by defining microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines individual economic decisions and interactions, while macroeconomics looks at aggregate economic performance and structure at a national or international level. The document then discusses various market structures like perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and their characteristics. It also covers concepts like demand, supply, equilibrium, elasticity, costs of production, and opportunity cost. The final sections define additional economic terms and concepts related to welfare economics, labor economics, and measures like unemployment rate.
The document provides an overview of managerial economics, including its definition, scope, and significance. It discusses how managerial economics integrates economic theory with business practices to help managers make informed decisions. Some key principles that guide managerial decision-making are also introduced, such as opportunity cost, marginal analysis, and discounting future cash flows.
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics and its development. It discusses the classical, Keynesian, post-Keynesian, monetarist, and new Keynesian schools of macroeconomic thought. The classical school holds that markets always clear and unemployment is voluntary. Keynesians focus on managing aggregate demand and believe governments can stabilize business cycles through fiscal and monetary policy. Monetarists believe the role of government is controlling inflation through money supply and that markets typically clear. New Keynesians add microeconomic foundations to traditional Keynesian theories while recognizing some market rigidities. The document also outlines the divisions of microeconomics and macroeconomics and provides examples of areas studied in each field.
Economics as a tool for decision makingvivek Thota
The document discusses several key principles of economics as they relate to decision making:
1) The opportunity cost principle states that every decision requires sacrificing alternative options and that opportunity costs, not just monetary costs, should be considered.
2) The incremental principle involves estimating the impact of decision alternatives on costs and revenues, focusing on changes in total costs and revenues.
3) The time perspective principle notes that decisions should consider both short-run and long-run effects on costs and revenues to maintain the right balance.
It then discusses how various fields like mathematics, statistics, operations research, management theory, accounting, and microeconomics contribute important concepts and tools to managerial economics decision making.
1. Econometrics uses statistical methods to estimate economic relationships, test economic theories, and evaluate policies. It builds mathematical and statistical models to represent economic behavior using data.
2. A consumption function model relates consumption (C) to income (Y) as C = a + bY, where a and b are parameters estimated using data. The model includes an error term to account for other influences not included.
3. Estimating the consumption function parameters using data allows testing hypotheses about marginal propensity to consume and forecasting future consumption based on the model. Government can also use such models for policymaking.
The document provides an introduction to microeconomics and concepts related to consumer behavior and utility. It defines:
1) Microeconomics as the study of individual decision-making units and markets, in contrast to macroeconomics which studies aggregate outputs and prices.
2) The law of diminishing marginal utility, which states that the marginal utility of additional units of a good consumed decreases with each additional unit.
3) Total, marginal, and average utility, and the relationship between them. Total utility is the utility from consuming all units, marginal utility is the change in total utility from an additional unit, and average utility is total utility divided by units consumed.
4) The cardinal and ordinal approaches
This document provides an introduction to microeconomics. It defines microeconomics as studying individual economic decision-making units and markets, while macroeconomics studies aggregate output, employment, prices, and other measures for the whole economy. The core of microeconomics focuses on households and business firms interacting in goods/services and resource markets, represented by the circular flow of income and spending. Positive analysis studies what is, examining how prices, production, and other economic variables are determined in actual markets. Normative analysis makes judgments about what should be.
This document provides an overview of various topics in economics including microeconomics, macroeconomics, finance, supply and demand, government interventions, elasticity, costs, market structures, pricing theory, consumer behavior, regulation, fiscal policy, monetary policy, and income distribution. It defines key terms and concepts within each topic at a high level.
This document provides an overview of key economic concepts. It defines economics as the study of trade-offs between scarce resources and human wants. All societies face the basic economic problem of deciding what to produce, how to produce it, and who receives goods and services. Economic systems include traditional, free market, planned, and mixed economies. Microeconomics studies individual units like consumers and firms, while macroeconomics looks at aggregates like national output and inflation. The document also discusses concepts like utility, costs of production, profits, markets, and equilibrium.
Similar to Managerial Economics Unit -I ppt For MBA (20)
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2. M E Syllabus
Nature & scope of managerial economics,
Basic Economic Tools, (Function,
Opportunity Cost Principle, Incremental Principles,
Principle of Time Perspective, Discounting Principle.
Role & Responsibilities of Managerial Economist,
Demand Analysis and forecasting.
Price and Demand. Income and Demand.
Price of related goods and demand Advertising and
Demand.
Demand forecasting: Methods, purpose and factors
involved.
3. Introduction
Upcoming of Managerial Economic is
due to three factors;
Complexity in business decision-making
Use of economic concept, theories &
tools of economic analysis
Increase in demand for trained
managerial manpower.
4. What Economic is?
It is a social science. It studies how people,
individual, households, firms etc. maximizes its
gains from limited resources. In Economics this
maximizing factor is termed as “optimizing
behavior”. Ex. Firm produces goods & services.
Economics is a study of the choice-making behavior
of the people. In reality choice-making is not simple
as it looks because world is very complex &
decision is taken under risk and uncertainty.
Analytical tools & techniques, economic laws and
theories combined to form the body of economics.
5. Managerial Economics
ME can be defined as the study of economic
theories, logic and tools of economic
analysis that are used in the process of
business decision-making.
Economic theories and techniques of
economic analysis are applied to analyze
business problems, evaluate business
options and opportunities to arrive at an
appropriate business decision.
6. Managerial Decision Areas
• Evaluation of investible funds
• Selection of Business Area
• Choice of product
• Determining Optimum Output
• Determining price of a product
• Determining Input-combination & Technology
Application of Economic
Concepts and theories
In Decision-Making
Use of Quantitative Methods
• Mathematical Tools
• Statistical Tools
• Econometrics
Managerial Economics
Application of Economic Concepts, Theories and
Analytical Tools to find Optimum Solution to Business
Problems
7. Definitions :
ME is concerned with the application of
economic concepts and economics to the
problems of formulating rational decision
making. “Mansfield”
It is the integration of economic theory with
business practice for the purpose of facilitating
decision making and forward planning by
management. “Spencer and Seigelman”
8. Nature of ME
Economics has two major branches:
Microeconomics: It is defined as that branch where the unit
of study is an individual, firm or household.
It studies how individual make their choices about what to
produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce, and what
price to charge.
It is also known as the price theory and is the main source of
concepts and analytical tools for managerial decision making.
Various micro-economic concepts such as demand, supply,
elasticity of demand and supply, marginal cost, various market
forms, etc. are of great significance to managerial economics.
9. The internal issues are;
What to produce
How much to produce
Choice of technology
Choice of price
How to promote sale
How to face price competition
How to decide on new investment
How to manage profit and capital
How to manage inventory
Microeconomic theories deal with most of these
Ques
Microeconomics Applied to Operational
or Internal Issues
10. Nature of ME (Cont’d)
Macroeconomics: It’s not only individuals and firms that are
faced with having to make choices.
Governments face many such problems.
For e.g. How much to spend on health?
How much to spend on services?
How much should go in to providing social security benefits?
This is the same type of problem faced by all of us in our daily
lives but in different scales. It studies the economics as a
whole.
It is aggregative in character and takes the entire economy as
a unit of study. Macro economics helps in the area of
forecasting. It includes National Income, aggregate
consumption, investments, employment etc.
11. Scope of ME
Demand Analysis and Forecasting
Production Function
Cost analysis
Inventory Management
Advertising
Pricing system
Resource allocation
12. Basic Economic Tools
The basic mathematical tools used in
economic analysis are;
Functional Relationship
Concept of Slope & its application
Elementary differential Calculus
Optimization Techniques
Regression Analysis
13. Functional Relationship bet’n Economic
Variables:
Economic Variable: Any economic quantity, value or
rate that varies on its own or due to change in its
determinants is an economic variable. Eg. Demand
for product, supply, cost, product price, sales per
unit of time, revenue, profit, labor, money demand
and supply, interest rate, wage rate, advertisement
and all economic variable. Many of these economic
variable are interrelated and interdependent. The
interrelated and interdependent of economic variable
implies that a change in one variable causes a
change in the value of the other related variable. Eg.
a) Advertisement- Expenditure and sales
b) Income and consumer expenditure
14. Dependent & Independent Variable:
A variable whose value depend on the value of
other variable is called Dependent or Endogenous
Variable. These are also called ‘controlled’ variable.
An independent variable is one whose value
changes on its own or is assumed to change due to
certain exogenous or external factors. Eg. Price of
petrol depends on increase in import oil price.
Domestic oil price is dependent & international oil
price is independent variable. These are also
known as ‘uncontrolled’ variable.
15. Concept of Functions:
As we know that most of the economic
var. are interrelated and interdependent.
In most cases, economic var. have cause
and effect relationship. The relationship
between any two or more variable can be
expressed in a tabular, a graphical and in
a functional form.
16. Eg. Relation between price and no. of Pizza
sold:
Pizza Price & its Demand
Price of
Pizza
No. of
Pizza sold
10 00
8 10
6 20
4 30
2 40
00 50 Demand for Pizza
Pizza
Price/
Unit
17. Table shows that there is a relationship
between the price of pizza and its quantity
demanded per week. It shows as price of
pizza decreases demand increases. Figure
shows the demand curve. This gives the
law of demand. We can conclude that;
There is inverse relationship between the pizza
price and demand for it &
For each fall in price of pizza by Rs. 2, quantity
demanded increases by Rs.10.
18. i- The Function
A mathematical technique of stating the relationship
between two or more variable having cause and
effect relationship.
DP =f (PP) where DP=Demand for Pizza
PP = Price of Pizza
Suppose there are 2 variable X & Y and these variable are so
related that value of Y depends systematically on the value of
X. i.e. var Y & X are related in cause and effect manner. Then
Y= f (X)
19. The above relationship shows that the
variable are related to each other. But
fails to reveal that:
i- Nature of relationship.
ii- Quantitative measure of relationship or
the degree of relationship.
20. ii- Concept of Slope and its uses
Def.: The rate of change in the dependent
variable as a result of a change in the
independent variable.
The slope of a line or the curve shows
how strongly or weekly are the two variable
related. The steeper the curve or line, the
weaker the relationship and the flatter the
curve or line it shows stronger relationship.
21. Concept of Slope and its uses (Contd)
With respect to demand curve, slope is the
ratio of change in the dependent variable
(D) to the change in the independent
variable (P). The movement down the
demand curve or the demand curve gives
the decrease in price (-ΔP) & the
consequent increase in demand (ΔD). The
ratio (-ΔP/ ΔD) gives the slope of the
demand curve.
22. iii- Differential Calculus
It is applied to analyze and to
find the solution to the wide range of
economic problems and to business
decision-making, especially where
an analyst or business decision-
maker has to find an optimum
solution to a problem.
It provides a technique of
measuring the marginal change in
the dependent variable (Y) due to a
change in the independent variable
(X) when the change in X
approaches zero. The measure of
such a change is called derivatives.
Mathematically
X
Y
X
Y
Y
0
lim
23. iv- Optimization Techniques
It is the technique of finding the value
of the independent variable that
maximizes or minimizes the value of
the dependent variable. Eg. Simplex
method, transportation problem,
assignment problem, replacement
problem etc.
24. v- Regression Technique
It is used to quantify the relationship
between two or more economic
variable. Regression is used to
estimate the nature & extent of the
relationship between two or more
related variables. It is used to study
the cause & effect relationship
between the variables.
25. Some Basic Principles:
Opportunity cost Principles,
Incremental Principles,
Principle of Time Perspective,
Discounting Principle
26. Opportunity Cost Principle
Opportunity cost of a decision is the sacrifice of alternatives required
by that decision. If there are no sacrifices, there is no cost.
According to Opportunity cost principle, a firm can hire a factor of
production if and only if that factor earns a reward in that
occupation/job equal or greater than it’s opportunity cost. Opportunity
cost is the minimum price that would be necessary to retain a factor-
service in it’s given use. It is also defined as the cost of sacrificed
alternatives.
Decisions involving opportunity cost includes; Make or buy;
Breakdown or preventive maintenance of machines; replacement or
new investment decision; direct recruitment from outside or
Departmental promotion.
For instance, a person chooses to forgo (give-up) his present
profitable job which offers him Rs.50000 per month, and organizes his
own business. The opportunity lost (earning Rs. 50,000) will be the
opportunity cost of running his own business.
27. Marginal and Incremental Principle
This principle states that a decision is said to be balanced and
sound if the firm’s objective is of profit maximization, it leads to
increase in profit, which is in either of two scenarios-
If total revenue increases more than total cost.
If total revenue declines less than total cost.
Marginal generally refers to small changes. Marginal analysis implies
judging the impact of a unit change in one variable on the other.
Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue per unit change
in output sold. Marginal cost refers to change in total costs per
unit change in output produced (While incremental cost refers to
change in total costs due to change in total output). The decision
of a firm to change the price would depend upon the resulting
impact/change in marginal revenue and marginal cost. If the
marginal revenue is greater than the marginal cost, then the firm
should bring about the change in price.
28. Principle of Time Perspective
According to this principle, a manger/decision maker should
give due emphasis, both to short-term and long-term impact of
his decisions, giving apt significance to the different time
periods before reaching any decision. Short-run refers to a
time period in which some factors are fixed while others are
variable. The production can be increased by increasing the
quantity of variable factors. While long-run is a time period in
which all factors of production can become variable. Entry and
exit of seller firms can take place easily. From consumers
point of view, short-run refers to a period in which they
respond to the changes in price, given the taste and
preferences of the consumers, while long-run is a time period
in which the consumers have enough time to respond to price
changes by varying their tastes and preferences.
29. Discounting Principle
Discounting is both a concept as well as technique from
accountancy.
According to this principle, if a decision affects costs and
revenues in long-run, all those costs and revenues must be
discounted to present values. This is essential because a
rupee worth of money at a future date is not worth a rupee
today. Money actually has time value. Discounting can be
defined as a process used to transform future Rupee into an
equivalent number of present Rupee. For instance, Rs1000
invested today at 10% interest is equivalent to Rs1100 next
year.
FV = PV*(1+r)t ; where,
FV is the future value (time at some future time),
PV is the present value (r is the discount (interest) rate, and
t is the time between the future value and present value.
30. Role of managerial Economists:
A managerial economist can play a very important role by
assisting the Management in using the increasingly specialized
skills and sophisticated techniques which are required to solve
the difficult problems of successful decision-making and forward
planning. That is why, in business concerns, his importance is
being growingly recognized.
1- Pricing: Managerial economists assists businesses in determining
pricing strategies and appropriate pricing levels for their products
and services. Some common analysis methods are price
discrimination, value-based pricing and cost-plus pricing.
2- Elastic vs. Inelastic Goods: Economists can determine price
sensitivity of products through a price elasticity analysis. Some
products, such as milk, are consider a necessity rather than a
luxury and will purchase at most price points. This type of product
is considered inelastic. When a business knows they are selling
an inelastic good, they can make marketing and pricing decisions
easier.
31. Role of managerial Economists (Cont’d)
3- Operations and Production: Managerial economists uses
quantitative methods to analyze production and operational
efficiency through schedule optimization, economies of scale
and resource analyses. Additional analysis methods include
marginal cost, marginal revenue and operating leverage.
Through tweaking the operations and production of a
company, profits rise as costs decline.
4- Risk: Uncertainty exits in every business and managerial
economists can help reduce risk through uncertainty model
analysis and decision-theory analysis. Heavy use of statistical
probability theory helps provide potential scenarios for
businesses to use when making decisions.
32. Responsibilities:
1- To maximize profit: Since the most important objective of a
firm is to maximize profits on investment, the managerial
economist must also help in achieving this goal.
2- Accurate Forecast: The most important responsibility of a
managerial economist is to make as accurate forecasts as
possible.
3- To maintain Contacts: He should be capable enough to
establish and maintain contacts with individual & data Sources
4- To Inform Mgt: He helps management in informing about
economic trends.
5- Ability: A managerial economist caliber is generally judged by
his ability to obtain necessary information quickly by personal
contacts.
33. Demand Analysis & Forecasting
Demand reflects the size and the pattern of market.
Business activity is always market-determined. The
manufacturers encouragement to invest in a given
line of production is limited by the size of market.
Demand for output and input; the demand for the firm
and the industry; the demand by the consumer and
stockiest; and similar other demand concepts
become therefore, relevant for managerial decision
analysis. Even if the firm pursues objectives
alternative to profit-maximization, demand concepts
still remain relevant
34. Concept of Demand
‘Demand’ is a technical concept from Economics. Demand for
product is:
• Desires to acquire it,
• Willingness to pay for it, and
• Ability to pay for it.
For example : A poor man’s desires to stay in a five-star hotel
room and his willingness to pay rent for that room is not
‘demand’, because he lacks the necessary purchasing power;
so it is his wishful thinking. Similarly, a miser’s desire for and
his ability to pay for a car is not ‘demand’, because he does
not have the necessary willingness to pay for a car.
One may also come across a well-established person who
processes both the willingness and the ability to pay for higher
education.
35. Demand Function and Demand Curve
Demand function is a comprehensive formulation which
specifies the factors that influence the demand for the product.
What can be those factors which affect the demand? For
example,
Dx = D (Px, Py, Pz, B, W, A, E, T, U)
Dx is demand for item x (say, a car)
PX, its own price (of the car)
Py, the price of its substitutes (other brands/models)
Pz, the price of its complements (like petrol)
B, the income (budget) of the purchaser (user/consumer)
W, the wealth of the purchaser
A, the advertisement for the product (car)
E, the price expectation of the user
T, taste or preferences of user
U, all other factors.
36. Factors Influencing Demand Curve
1- Price of close substitute & complements: If the
price of a substitute falls, then consumer will shift
towards its substitute, creating a fall in the demand
for the concerned good. Ex. Tea & Coffee
In case of complementary items such as butter &
Bread. If the price of butter increases the demand
of butter as well as demand of bread decreases.
2- Change in taste & preferences: In this case
demand curve shift leftwards.
37. Factors…. (cont’d)
3- Income of the consumer: As the income of the
consumer rises, the buying potential tends to rise &
the consumer will buy more of the same good.
Demand curve shift upward.
4- Existing wealth of the consumer: If the existing
wealth of the consumer such as bonds, stocks, real
estate, gold etc. permits him to make a purchase
the demand curve may shift rightward.
5- Population: If pop’l of a town increases its demand
for housing will also increases.
38. 6- Expectations regarding future price change:
If the consumer expects a price fall in the
near future he may curtail his present
purchase. Ex Gold Edible oil etc.
7- Special Influences: Ex Woolen garments,
Helmets.
39. Elasticity:
Elasticity: The tendency to return to its original
shape after it is stretched or compressed.
Elasticity of Demand: From the law of demand we
know that when the price of a good increases, the
quantity demanded falls, oter things remaining
same. It gives the direction of change in demand for
a given change in price. If we know the magnitude
of the change it will be helpful in our decision
making. It also helps us in forecasting market
trends for the future.
40. Price Elasticity of Demand:
To know the response of the quantity demanded to
change in price, we measure the Price Elasticity
of Demand.
Def: It is defined as the percentage change in quantity
demanded resulting from one % change in the price
of the good, other things remaining constant.
ep= %age change in quantity demanded / %age change in price
If the quantity demanded decreases when the price
increases then the ratio is negative. Usually price
elasticity of demand is +ive.
41. Price Elasticity of Demand (cont’d)…
Denoting elasticity by e, we have
e= ΔQ /ΔP÷ Q/P
Where ΔQ is small change in quantity
ΔP is small change in price
Pis the Original Price &
Q is Original quantity of good
Ex: If the rail fare are increases by 6% & the
demand for rail travel decreases by 2%.
Price elasticity of demand for rail fare is -
2%/ 6%= 0.33
42. Elasticity
Price (Rs)
Quantity Demanded
D
10
5 20
Producer decides to reduce price to increase sales
7
% Δ in Price = - 30%
% Δ in Demand = + 300%
Ped = - 10 (Elastic)
Total Revenue rises
Good Move!
50. Income Elasticity of
Demand:
The responsiveness of demand
to changes in incomes
Normal Good – demand rises
as income rises and vice versa.
Inferior Good – demand falls
as income rises and vice versa
52. For example:
Yed = - 0.6: Good is an inferior good but inelastic – a rise in
income of 3% would lead to demand falling by 1.8%
Yed = + 0.4: Good is a normal good but inelastic –
a rise in incomes of 3% would lead to demand rising by 1.2%
Yed = + 1.6: Good is a normal good and elastic –
a rise in incomes of 3% would lead to demand rising by 4.8%
Yed = - 2.1: Good is an inferior good and elastic –
a rise in incomes of 3% would lead to a fall in demand of 6.3%