Agriculture is an ancient industry that remains a major employer worldwide. It involves cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. While agriculture feeds many, it also poses several health hazards to workers. Workers face physical hazards like dust, noise, vibration and injuries from machinery. They are also exposed to chemical hazards from pesticides and biological hazards from animals like zoonotic diseases. Prevention involves education on safe practices, use of protective gear and vaccination programs. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of occupational illnesses is also important to protect the health of agricultural workers.

1. Agriculture and Natural Resource Based
Industries
Twelve millennia ago, humankind moved into
the Neolithic era and discovered that food, feed
and fibre could be produced from the cultivation
of plants. This discovery has led to the food and
fibre supply that feeds and clothes more than 5
billion people today.
Agriculture started in about 9750 BC at
Thailand near the Burmese border, where seeds
of peas, beans, cucumbers and water chestnuts
have been found.

2. This was 2,000 years before true agriculture
was discovered in the regions of the Caspian
Sea and Central America.
Agriculture is as old as Man, and it
remains the largest employer of
human labor.
Now the agricultural system produces
food, feed and fibre as well as
consequences for occupational health and,
more generally, public health and the
environment.

3. This general profile of the agricultural
industry includes its evolution and structure,
economic importance of different crop
commodities and characteristics of the industry
and workforce.
Agricultural workforce systems involve
three types of major activities:
1. manual operations
2. mechanization
3. draught power, provided specifically
power
by those engaged in livestock rearing,

4. Agriculture brought with it several
problems:
- Weeds and pests (insects in the fields and mice
and rats in the granaries) became a problem.
- Early agriculture concerned itself with taking
all that it could from the soil, and it would take
50 years to naturally replenish the soil.
- In some places, the stripping of growth from
the soil would turn the land to desert. To provide
water to crops, farmers discovered irrigation
about 7,000 years ago.

5. Solutions to these problems have led to
new industries.
industries
Ways to control weeds, insects and
rodents evolved into the pesticide
industry, and the need to replenish the
industry
soil has resulted in the fertilizer
industry.
industry
The need to provide water for irrigation
has spawned systems of reservoirs and
networks of pipes, canals and ditches.
ditches

6. FAMILY FARMS
The family farm is an enterprise and a
homestead on which both children and the
elderly are likely to be present and produce
food and other raw materials.
Family farms range from small, subsistence
or part-time operations worked with draught
animals and hand tools to very large, family-
held corporations with numerous full-time
employees.

7. A typical farm operation may combine
the tasks of
- livestock handling,
- manure disposal,
- grain storage,
- heavy equipment operation,
- pesticide application,
- machinery maintenance,
- construction
and many other jobs.

8. Hazards
The family farm is a hazardous work
environment. It is one of few hazardous
workplaces where multiple generations of
family members may live, work and play.
A farm can be the source of many and
differing life-threatening hazards. The most
important indicator for safety and health is
workload per worker—both physical labor
and decision-making or mental workload.
workload

9. Many serious injuries happen to
experienced farmers, while doing tasks
that they have been performing for
years and even decades.
Hazardous agricultural materials
including pesticides, fertilizers,
flammable liquids, solvents and
other cleaners are responsible for
acute and chronic illnesses in farm
workers and family members.

10. Tractors and other mechanized equipment
have permitted a dramatic
increase in the land and livestock that can
be worked by a single farmer, but
mechanization has contributed to severe
injuries in agriculture.
Climate and topography (e.g., weather,
water, slopes) also contribute to the
hazards.

11. Machinery entanglement or tractor
rollover, livestock, operating equipment
on public roads, falling or being struck
by falling objects, material handling,
confined spaces and exposures to toxins,
dust, moulds, gases, chemicals, vibration
and noise are among the principal risks
for illness and injury on farms.

12. Prevention
Classic agricultural safety and health
programs emphasize improved
engineering design, education and good
practices.
Special attention on these farms needs to be
placed on age-appropriate tasks for children
and older adults.

13. Young children should neither be allowed near
operating farm equipment nor ever ride on
tractors and other farm equipment.
They should also be excluded from farmstead
buildings that present hazards including
electricity, confined spaces, chemical storage
areas and operating equipment.
equipment
Warning labels should be maintained on
equipment and chemicals so adults are informed
of hazards and can thus better protect their
families.

14. PLANTATIONS
The term plantation is widely used to
describe large-scale units where industrial
methods are applied to certain agricultural
enterprises.
enterprises
The main activity on a plantation is the
cultivation of crops.
This involves the following kinds of work:
- soil preparation, - planting, - cultivation,
weeding, - crop treatment, - harvesting,
transportation and - storage of produce.

15. These operations entail the use of a
variety of tools, machines and
agricultural chemicals.
Child labor could be employed on plantations.
Children work with their parents as part of a
team for task-based compensation, or they are
employed directly for special plantation jobs.
They typically experience long working
hours, little safety and health protection and
inadequate diet, rest and education.

16. AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY
Agricultural machinery is designed to
render the soil more suitable for crop
growth, to sow seeds, to apply
agricultural chemicals for improved
plant growth and control of pests and
diseases, and to harvest and store the
mature crops.

17. There is an extremely wide variety of
agricultural machines, but all are
essentially a combination of gears, shafts,
chains, belts, knives, shakers and so on,
assembled to perform a certain task.
These parts are usually suspended in a
frame which may be either stationary or,
as is more often the case, mobile and
designed to perform the desired operation
while moving across a field.

18. The major groups of agricultural machines:
- soil tillage machines;
- planting machines;
- cultivating machines;
- forage harvesting machines;
- grain, fibre, vegetable, and fruit and nut
harvesting machines;
- agricultural chemical applicators;
- transport and elevating machines; and
- sorting and packaging machines.

19. • Agricultural workers constitute some three-
quarters of the world’s working population
• The National Safety Council of the United
States estimates that agriculture was the
most dangerous occupation, followed by
mining and construction
• Exact data on level of exposure and
associated disease prevalence (or health
effect) for agricultural workers in the
developing world are limited.

20. According to the International
Labour Organization (ILO)
• The Agricultural sector is one of the
most hazardous to health worldwide
• However this aspect has been
neglected for a long time due to more
focus on industries.

21. TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL
HEALTH CHALLENGES.
General Health Problems –
Causes ranges from poor hygiene,
inadequate water supply,
malnutrition, bacterial and parasitic
infections, others include malaria,
tuberculosis, hypertention and
diabetes.

22. Occupational Health Problems
These are harzards arising due to the
exposure of workers to the agents of
disease asssociated with the environmental
components of agriculture i.e the
physical, chemical, biological and
mechanical.

23. PHYSICAL HARZARDS
1) Dust: vegetable dusts, pollens and other
organic dust can result into the following
conditions:
a) Farmers lungs due to excessive inhalation
of dust containing fungi (mouldy hay).
b) Allergic conjuctivitis from latex rubber.
c) Dermatitis from wood dust.
d) Upper Respiratory Tract Disease due to
allergy from wood dust.

24. e) Byssinosis: This is a respiratory disease
Byssinosis
caused by prolonged inhalation of dust
from textile fibers eg cotton, marked by
coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath,
and permanent lung damage. (Monday
disease)
f) Bagassosis: Seen in sugar cane farmers
Bagassosis
which occurs as a result of exposure to
dust of fungi that grow on decaying sugar
cane flax, after the sugar water has been
pressed out.

25. 2) Hot termal envorinment: excessive heat
envorinment
from the mashines and sun, resulting into
heat fatigue, heat stroke and heat cramps.
Skin cancer due to UV rays.
3) Cold thermal environment in winter
4) Noise and vibration (hand-arm and whole
body): this is from the machinery used eg
tractors especially in the mechanized form of
farming.
5) Static posture
– backache

26. MECHANICAL HARZARDS
1) Cuts with machinery parts and
instruments.
2) Punctures and their complications
(tetanus).
3) Amputation
4) All forms of accident ranging from
-Falling off tractors
-Falling from farm building
-Overturning of tractors

29. CHEMICAL HARZARDS
Agricultural workers are exposed to
chemical hazards because chemicals are
used extensively for control of insects,
fungi, rodents e.t.c and these pesticides,
herbicides and insecticides could be
harmful to man especially when used
carelessly. Sources include fertilizers,
insecticides or pesticides.

30. INSECTICIDES
• i) Organophosphates e.g Parathion,
Malathion:- these are acetylcholinesterase
inhibitor insecticides.
• They cause acute poisoning which is due to
the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase
function, causing excessive salivation,
function
lacrimation, nervousness, tremors and
spasms which can even lead to death.
Chronic poisoning leads to peripheral
neuropathy.

31. ii)Halogenated Hydrocarbons –Dichloro
diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT),Dieldrin,
Aldrine, Benzylhexachloride.
The side effects mostly are chronic
poisoining with peripheral neuropathy,
however there could acute poisoning which
is not common but produces anxiety,
nervousness and respiratory
embarrassment.
iii)Carbamates are also acetylcholinesterase
inhibitors but different from the
organophostates.

32. HERBICIDES
i) Paraquat and Diquat (Garamoxone
weedol): this is a free oxygen radical
releasing and oxidizing agent used as
herbicides.
It is absorbed by inhalation, ingestion
and skin absorption.
Side effect is acute inflammatory lung
parenchymal destruction.

33. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
These can be broadly classified into:-
i)Zoonoses: These are diseases of animals
i)Zoonoses
transmitted to man in handling animals and
animal products.
1.BACTERIAL
–Bovine TB
–Brucellosis
–Anthrax
–Salmonellosis
- Listeriosis- listeria monocytogenes
- Erysipeloid

34. 2. CHLAMYDIAL
- Psittacosis - Chlamydia psittaci.-
birds
3. VIRAL
- Rabies
- New castle disease myxovirus
(chicken)
- Orf - affects sheep
4) Protozoal
– Trypanosomiasis –
• Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
• Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
• Trypanosoma cruzi
–Tse-tse fly - Glossina morsitans.

35. • Bovine Tuberculosis - spread not only by
drinking milk of infected cattle but also by
direct contact with diseased cattle. It’s caused
by Mycobacterium bovis.
• Brucellosis - spread by direct contact with infected
animals or by drinking the raw milk of infected
cattle and pigs. Aetiology: Brucella melitensis.
- Acute form - weakness, chills, and high night
fevers and often results in central nervous system
disorders & painful joints.
- Chronic form is characterised by chronic
undulant fever, remittent fevers and disorders of the
central nervous system.

36. • Anthrax - Spread by subcutaneous
inoculation, inhalation and ingestion.
– Symptoms - Papule first appears then
vesicle surrounded by edema (malignant
pustule); lymph node enlargement.
• Psittacosis - Human infection is due to
exposure to infected birds. Aetiology:
Chlamydia psittaci. A contagious disease
related to birds such as parrots, turkeys,
ducks and chickens. Causes pneumonia.

37. Parasitic Infections:
• Ankylostomiasis - caused by infestation of the
small intestine by hookworms. Symptoms are
anemia and tirednesss. Also hookworm disease in
barefooted workers.
• Leptospirosis – transmitted to the organism
through skin. Ingestion of contaminated water and
food. Human may become infected because of a
wet occupation e.g working in rice fields, wet
sugarcane fields. Affects the kidneys and
liver.Causes kidney disease and destruction of red
blood cells with potential anaemia.

38. Other biological hazards
– Snake bites
– Scorpion bites
– Insect bites e.g simulium fly causing
onchocerciasis
– Skin disease due to poison oak, poison
ivy etc.

39. HEALTH PREVENTION OF
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
Primary level involves:
• Health education about occupational hazards,
raising awareness on safety in the work space and
specific prevention including:
- Safe work practices :
1. Use of personal protective devices - e.g ear
plugs for noise, boots. Face mask and gloves
especially for chemicals, apron and mask to reduce
skin or respiratory absorption.

40. 2. Adequate labeling of bottles & avoid the use of
domestic bottles.
3. Education on appropriate use of farm
machinery.
4. Immunization e.g tetanus toxoid against tetanus.
5. Complete elimination of hazardous substances
or substitution for less harzardous ones.
6. Vaccination of farm animals
7. The use of protective apparels such as face
masks, hand gloves, while working with the
insecticides, pesticides and herbicides.

41. - Secondary level
– Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
– Routine medical check up such as: lung
function test & chest X-ray for those
working with dust.
– Audiometry.
– Sputum test for tuberculosis.
– Various forms of blood tests e.g blood
agglutination test in brucellosis.

42. Treatment of specific illnesses
- Atropine is given as an antidote for
organophosphates and Carbamate poisoning.
-Benzodiazepines for Halogenated
Hydrocarbons
• Farmer’s lung - Prednisolone
• Anthrax – Ciprofloxacin
• Brucellosis - Doxycycline 200 mg daily with
Rifampicine 600-900 mg daily for 6 weeks.
• Psittacosis – Clarithromycin.

43. • Bagassosis - Predisolone 30-60mg
• Tetanus - management is supportive
medical and nursing care. Benzodiazepines
given to control spasm and sedate patients.
IV Metronidazole, Antibiotics and Human
Tetanus Immunoglobulin 10000IU given
IM to neutralize the circulating toxins.
• Leptospirosis - Oral doxycycline in mild
case is given, IV Penicillin or
Clarithromycin given in severe cases.

44. Tertiary level
This involves limiting physical and
social damage from disease by providing
skilled clinical care and social support.
• Rehabilitation for the people affected that
can no longer work, so as to restore fuction
and capability.
• Provision of another job for the affected
people.

45. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Commercial farms owned by Government,
individuals or organizations should provide a
well organised occupational health service for
workers.
2. Adequate training of agricultural workers on the
appropriate use of farm machinery.
3. Subsistent farmers should receive primary health
care services from the nearest health centre.
4. Explaining to workers the hazards of every
operation they perform.

46. CONCLUSION
A healthy worker is a productive worker.
Bearing this in mind and the
importance of agriculture in the
development of a nation, the provision of
excellent occupational health services for
the agricultural workers is a promising
investment.

47. Health Hazards of Power plant workers
1) Hot thermal environment: Workers
environment
are exposed to high degree of temperature
(and humidity) at boiler rooms, turbine
rooms and other work stations closer to
boilers.
Health effects:
effects
• Heat exhaustion due to loss of body fluids
due to excessive sweating. Signs and
symptoms:- Person feels weakness , high
body temperature, rapid pulse , fainting.

48. • Heat cramps: Due to loss of electrolytes
cramps
from the body. Signs and symptoms: painful
cramps of calf muscles and abdominal
muscles.
• Heat stroke: Due to exposure to excessive
stroke
temperature. Signs and symptoms: high
body temperature i.e. 38°C – 40°C,
increased frequency of urination, giddiness
and loss of consciousness.

49. Prevention and control:
- Proper ventilation and air conditioning of
work place,
- use of loose fitting clothes,
- provision of effervescent salt drinks to
affected workers,
- physical fitness of workers.

50. 2) Exposure to Noise
Exposure at boiler rooms, turbine rooms and
other work stations.
Type of noise: a) steady wide band noise
from continuously operating motors and
machines. b) Impact noise from steam let
outs.
Effects: - social deafness: person is
deafness
habituated for loud talking could not
appreciate whisper, hearing impairment.
Occupational hearing loss.
Lack of concentration, annoyance, mental
stress, hypertension and peptic ulcer.

51. Prevention and control:
- Pre-placement and periodic medical
examination of exposed workers.
- Use of protective devices such as ear muffs
and ear plugs.
- Enclosing noise producing machines,
reduction of noise by fitting mufflers and
silencers to noisy machines.
- Sound proofing of work stations.

52. 3) Coal and other Dusts
• Exposure at coal handling plant, tippling
stations, boiler rooms.
• Respirable dust: dust particles 0.3 to 5 µm
in size.
• Effects of dust inhalation: respiratory
disorders like pneumoconiosis and
progressive massive fibrosis of lungs.

53. Prevention and control
• Pre-placement and periodic medical
examination of exposed workers.
• Proper ventilation of working place.
• Good house keeping.
keeping
• Use of personal protective devices such as
masks and respirators by exposed workers.
• Dust suppression measures like wet
mopping of the floor, use of aerosol
sprays.
sprays

54. Health effects of Radiation
• Exposure at atomic power plants, near
Nuclear Reactor, monitoring panels and
other work stations.
• Effects of radiation: high degree of
radiation
exposure due to accidental leakage of
Nuclear Reactor causing radiation burns,
acute radiation syndrome, skin cancer,
blood and bones cancer, still births,
intrauterine foetal death, abortions,
shortening of life span.

55. Prevention and Control
• Pre-placement and periodic medical
checkup of workers.
• Shielding the source of radiation: the
source of X-rays, gamma rays and
particulate radiation should be enclosed in
radio protective material such as lead and
concrete of suitable thickness.
• Distance from the source of radiation : the
controls should be located as far as possible
or remotely operated.

56. Electromagnetic Field in the Power Plant
• E.M.F. generates magnetic flux density at
work place and near over head high tension
power transmission lines, electrical sub
stations and power generation plants.
• Safety limits: maximum field strength
should not exceed 10 Kv /M.
• Recommended continuous exposure limit: 5
gauss with a maximum of 50 gauss for 2
hours.

57. Effects on Human Health
• Sleep disturbances.
• Headache.
• Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infections.
• Increased risk of blood and brain
cancer.

58. Prevention and Control
• Insulation and shielding of machines.
• Barrier operation of machines.
• Continuous monitoring of E.M.F.
level at work place.
• Periodic medical checkup of exposed
workers.

59. Hazards due to social factors
• Workers are affected by industrial psychoses and
neuroses.
• Tensions and worries arising out of social
environments in the industry i.e. poor intra- and
inter-personal relations, poor housing conditions,
separation from family, job satisfaction and sickness
absenteeism.
• Sickness absenteeism is related to low productivity
and low workers morale.
• Level of absenteeism in the country: to the tune of 8
– 10 days / head /year.

60. Prevention & Control
• Periodic Medical Examination of Workers.
• Provision of good housing facility &
Recreational activities.
• Good intra- & inter-personal relations
in the factory.
• Health Education & Addiction control
programs in the Factory.

61. THANK YOU