3. Example of a religious building : the Great Mosque of
Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba), founded in
670, dates in its present state principally from the 9th
century. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is located in the
city of Kairouan, Tunisia.
5. Any human-made structure used
or intended for supporting or
sheltering any use or continuous
occupancy, or
An act of construction (i.e. the
activity of building, see also
builder)
6. Buildings come in a wide amount of
shapes and functions, and have been
adapted throughout history for a wide
number of factors, from building
materials available, to weather
conditions, to land prices, ground
conditions, specific uses and aesthetic
reasons.
7. Buildings serve several needs of society
– primarily as shelter from weather and
as general living space, to provide
privacy, to store belongings and to
comfortably live and work. A building as
a shelter represents a physical division of
the human habitat (a place of comfort
and safety) and the outside (a place that
at times may be harsh and harmful).
8. Ever since the first cave paintings,
buildings have also become objects or
canvasess of artistic expression. In recent
years, interest in sustainable planning
and building practices has also become
part of the design process of many new
buildings.
9. As a Civil Engineering structures such as a
house,worship centre,Factories etc. that has a
foundation,wall,roof etc. that protect human
being and their properties from direct harsh
effect of weather like rain,wind,sun etc.
The act of constructing, erecting, or establishing.
The art of constructing edifices, or the practice of
civil architecture.
That which is built; a fabric or edifice
constructed, as a house, a church, castle, arena/
stadium, etc
10. The act of constructing or building something;
"during the construction we had to take a
detour"; "his hobby was the building of boats"
The commercial activity involved in constructing
buildings; "their main business is home
construction"; "workers in the building trades"
A structure that has a roof and walls and stands
more or less permanently in one place; "there
was a three-storey building on the corner"; "it
was an imposing edifice"
The occupants of a building; "the entire building
complained about the noise"
11. To differentiate buildings in the usage of this article
from other buildings and other structures that are
not intended for continuous human occupancy, the
latter are called non-building structures or simply
structures.
Structural height in technical usage is the height to
the highest architectural detail on building from
street-level. Depending on how they are classified,
spires and masts may or may not be included in this
height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not
generally included.
The definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is
a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less
is considered low-rise.
12. The first shelter on Earth
constructed by a relatively close
ancestor to humans is believed to
be built 500,000 years ago by an
early ancestor of humans, Homo
erectus.
14. Residential buildings are called
houses/homes, though buildings
containing large numbers of
separate dwelling units are often
called apartment buildings or
apartment blocks to differentiate
them from the more 'individual'
house.
15. Building types may range from one-room
wood-framed, masonry, or adobe
dwellings to multi-million dollar high-
rise buildings able to house thousands of
people. Increasing settlement density in
buildings (and closer distances between
buildings) is usually a response to high
ground prices resulting from many
people wanting to live close to work or
similar attractors.
17. A multi-storey building is a building that
has multiple floors above ground in the
building.
Multi-storey buildings aim to increase
the area of the building without
increasing the area of the land the
building is built on, hence saving land
and, in most cases, money (depending on
material used and land prices in the
area).
18. The practice of designing,
constructing, and operating
buildings is most usually a collective
effort of different groups of
professionals and trades. Depending
on the size, complexity, and purpose
of a particular building project, the
project team may include:
19. A real estate developer who secures funding for
the project;
One or more financial institutions or other
investors that provide the funding
Local planning and code authorities
A Surveyor who performs an ALTA/ACSM and
construction surveys throughout the project;
Construction managers who coordinate the effort
of different groups of project participants;
Licensed architects and engineers who provide
building design and prepare construction
documents;
20. Landscape architects;
Interior designers;
Other consultants;
Contractors who provide construction
services and install building systems such as
climate control, electrical, plumbing,
Decoration, fire protection, security and
telecommunications;
Marketing or leasing agents;
Facility managers who are responsible for
operating the building.
21. Regardless of their size or intended use,
all buildings in the US must comply with
zoning ordinances, building codes and
other regulations such as fire codes, life
safety codes and related standards.
Vehicles—such as trailers, caravans,
ships and passenger aircraft—are treated
as "buildings" for life safety purposes.
22. Any building requires a certain amount of
internal infrastructure to function, which
includes such elements like heating /
cooling, power and telecommunications,
water and wastewater etc. Especially in
commercial buildings (such as offices or
factories), these can be extremely intricate
systems taking up large amounts of space
(sometimes located in separate areas or
double floors / false ceilings) and constitute
a big part of the regular maintenance
required.
23. Systems for transport of people within
buildings:
Elevator
Escalator
Moving sidewalk (horizontal and
inclined)
Systems for transport of people between
interconnected buildings:
Skyway
Underground city
24. A building in Massueville, Quebec,
Canada engulfed by fire.
25. Buildings may be damaged during
the construction of the building or
during maintenance. There are
several other reasons behind
building damage like accident.
Buildings also may suffer from fire
damage and flooding in special
circumstances.
26. International guidance on "healthy
housing" should be developed to help
prevent a wide range of diseases and
unintentional injuries that can be
effectively addressed through better
housing. This was a key message
emerging from an international
consultation of 40 experts from 18
countries hosted by WHO in Geneva 13-
15 October, 2010.
27. "Housing improvements are accelerating
for many reasons – to conserve energy in
the face of climate change, address needs
of a rapidly urbanizing global population,
prevention of homelessness and slum
growth, and other factors," the
participants said in a closing statement.
28. "There is a clear need and opportunity for
governments and others to promote health
in the course of making investments in
housing. International guidance on healthy
housing – targeting construction experts,
architects and engineers as well as housing
agencies and local authorities – would
enable action that is scientifically-based,
and protects and advances public health.
29. Examples of key housing-related health
risks include: respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases from indoor air
pollution; illness and deaths from
temperature extremes; communicable
diseases spread because of poor living
conditions, and risks of home injuries. WHO
estimates that nearly 2 million people in
developing countries die from indoor air
pollution caused by the burning of biomass
and coal in leaky and inefficient household
stoves.
30. Inadequate ventilation is also associated
with a higher risk of airborne infectious
disease transmission, including
tuberculosis, as well as the accumulation of
indoor pollutants and dampness, which are
factors in the development of allergies and
asthma. Poor housing quality and design
also can exacerbate the health impacts from
exposure to temperature extremes, which
are occurring more frequently due to
climate change.
31. "Most of the world's population growth
over the next 20 years will occur in low
and middle income cities; nearly 40
percent of urban growth today is in
unhealthy slum housing. Additionally,
many countries have initiated
programmes to modify their existing
housing stock to make homes more
energy efficient and more resilient in the
face of climate change."
33. An air handling unit is used for the
heating and cooling of air in a central
location
34. Ventilating (the V in HVAC) is the process of
"changing" or replacing air in any space to
provide high indoor air quality (i.e. to
control temperature, replenish oxygen, or
remove moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust,
airborne bacteria, and carbon dioxide).
Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant
smells and excessive moisture, introduce
outside air, to keep interior building air
circulating, and to prevent stagnation of the
interior air.
35. Ventilation includes both the exchange
of air to the outside as well as
circulation of air within the building. It
is one of the most important factors for
maintaining acceptable indoor air
quality in buildings. Methods for
ventilating a building may be divided
into mechanical/forced and natural
types.
36. is used to control indoor air quality.
Excess humidity, odors, and
contaminants can often be controlled
via dilution or replacement with
outside air. However, in humid climates
much energy is required to remove
excess moisture from ventilation air.
37. Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical
exhaust to control odors and sometimes humidity.
Kitchens have additional problems to deal with
such as smoke and grease (see kitchen ventilation).
Factors in the design of such systems include the
flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and
exhaust vent size) and noise level. If ducting for the
fans traverse unheated space (e.g., an attic), the
ducting should be insulated as well to prevent
condensation on the ducting. Direct drive fans are
available for many applications, and can reduce
maintenance needs.
38. Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate
air within a room for the purpose of
reducing the perceived temperature
because of evaporation of perspiration on
the skin of the occupants. Because hot air
rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a
room warmer in the winter by circulating
the warm stratified air from the ceiling to
the floor. Ceiling fans do not provide
ventilation as defined as the introduction of
outside air.
39. is the ventilation of a building with outside
air without the use of a fan or other
mechanical system. It can be achieved with
openable windows or trickle vents when the
spaces to ventilate are small and the
architecture permits. In more complex
systems warm air in the building can be
allowed to rise and flow out upper openings
to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing
cool outside air to be drawn into the
building naturally through openings in the
lower areas.
40. These systems use very little energy but care
must be taken to ensure the occupants'
comfort. In warm or humid months, in many
climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely
via natural ventilation may not be possible so
conventional air conditioning systems are
used as backups. Air-side economizers
perform the same function as natural
ventilation, but use mechanical systems' fans,
ducts, dampers, and control systems to
introduce and distribute cool outdoor air
when appropriate.
41. Ventilation is the intentional movement of air from
outside a building to the inside. Ventilation air, as
defined in ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and the ASHRAE
Handbook, is that air used for providing acceptable
indoor air quality. It mustn't be confused with vents
or flues; which mean the exhausts of clothes dryers
and combustion equipment such as water heaters,
boilers, fireplaces, and wood stoves. The vents or
flues carry the products of combustion which have to
be expelled from the building in a way which does
not cause harm to the occupants of the building.
Movement of air between indoor spaces, and not the
outside, is called transfer air.
42. In commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII)
buildings, and modern jet aircraft, return air is
often recirculated to the air handling unit. A
portion of the supply air is normally exfiltrated
through the building envelope or exhausted from
the building (e.g., bathroom or kitchen exhaust)
and is replaced by outside air introduced into the
return air stream. The rate of ventilation air
required, most often provided by this
mechanically-induced outside air, is often
determined from ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for CII
buildings, or 62.2 for low-rise residential buildings,
or similar standards.
43. When people or animals are present in buildings,
ventilation air is necessary to dilute odors and limit the
concentration of carbon dioxide and airborne
pollutants such as dust, smoke and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Ventilation air is often delivered to
spaces by mechanical systems which may also heat,
cool, humidify and dehumidify the space. Air
movement into buildings can occur due to uncontrolled
infiltration of outside air through the building fabric
(see stack effect) or the use of deliberate natural
ventilation strategies. Advanced air filtration and
treatment processes such as scrubbing, can provide
ventilation air by cleaning and recirculating a
proportion of the air inside a building.
44. Mechanical or forced ventilation:
through an air handling unit or
direct injection to a space by a
fan. A local exhaust fan can
enhance infiltration or natural
ventilation, thus increasing the
ventilation air flow rate.
45. Natural ventilation occurs when the air in a
space is changed with outdoor air without
the use of mechanical systems, such as a fan.
Most often natural ventilation is assured
through operable windows but it can also be
achieved through temperature and pressure
differences between spaces. Open windows
or vents are not a good choice for
ventilating a basement or other below
ground structure. Allowing outside air into a
cooler below ground space will cause
problems with humidity and condensation.
46. Mixed Mode Ventilation or Hybrid ventilation: utilises
both mechanical and natural ventilation processes. The
mechanical and natural components may be used in
conjunction with each other or separately at different
times of day. The natural component, sometimes
subject to unpredictable external weather conditions
may not always be adequate to ventilate the desired
space. The mechanical component is then used to
increase the overall ventilation rate so that the desired
internal conditions are met. Alternatively the
mechanical component may be used as a control
measure to regulate the natural ventilation process, for
example, to restrict the air change rate during periods
of high wind speeds.
48. The ventilation rate, for CII buildings, is
normally expressed by the volumetric
flowrate of outside air being introduced
to the building. The typical units used
are cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters
per second (L/s). The ventilation rate
can also be expressed on a per person
or per unit floor area basis, such as
CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per
hour.
49. For residential buildings, which mostly rely
on infiltration for meeting their ventilation
needs, the common ventilation rate
measure is the number of times the whole
interior volume of air is replaced per hour,
and is called air changes per hour (I or ACH;
units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may
range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly insulated
house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely insulated
house.
50. In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and
conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73
and 62-81) reduced required ventilation from 10
CFM (4.76 L/S) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/S)
per person. This was found to be a primary cause
of sick building syndrome.
Current ASHRAE standards (Standard 62-89)
states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are
20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building,
and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools. In
commercial environments with tobacco smoke,
the ventilation rate may range from 25 CFM to
125 CFM.
51. Fume hood
Biological safety cabinet
Dilution ventilation
Room air distribution
Heat recovery ventilation
52. Natural ventilation involves
harnessing naturally available forces
to supply and removing air through
an enclosed space. There are three
types of natural ventilation
occurring in buildings: wind driven
ventilation, pressure-driven flows,
and stack ventilation.
53. DCV makes it possible to maintain
proper ventilation and improve air
quality while saving energy. ASHRAE has
determined that: "It is consistent with
the Ventilation rate procedure that
Demand Control be permitted for use to
reduce the total outdoor air supply
during periods of less occupancy." CO2
sensors will control the amount of
ventilation for the actual number of
occupants.
54. Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of
avoiding the contamination of indoor air by
specific high-emission sources by capturing
airborne contaminants before they are spread
into the environment. This can include water
vapor control, lavatory bioeffluent control,
solvent vapors from industrial processes, and
dust from wood- and metal-working machinery.
Air can be exhausted through pressurized
hoods or through the use of fans and
pressurizing a specific area.
55. A local exhaust system is composed of 5
basic parts
A hood that captures the contaminant at its
source
Ducts for transporting the air
An air-cleaning device that
removes/minimizes the contaminant
A fan that moves the air through the system
An exhaust stack through which the
contaminated air is discharged
56. Combustion (e.g., fireplace, gas heater,
candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen
while producing carbon dioxide and other
unhealthy gases and smoke, requiring
ventilation air. An open chimney promotes
infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because
of the negative pressure change induced by
the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the
chimney. The warm air is typically replaced
by heavier, cold air.
57. ASHRAE standard 62 states that air
removed from an area with
environmental tobacco smoke shall
not be recirculated into ETS-free air.
A space with ETS requires more
ventilation to achieve similar
perceived air quality to that of a non-
smoking environment.
58. In hot, humid climates,
unconditioned ventilation air will
deliver approximately one pound of
water each day for each cfm of
outdoor air per day, annual average.
This is a great deal of moisture, and
it can create serious indoor moisture
and mold problems.
59. Ventilation efficiency is determined by design
and layout, and is dependent upon placement
and proximity of diffusers and return air
outlets. If they are located closely together,
supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing
efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air
quality problems.
System imbalances occur when components of
the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or
installed, and can create pressure differences
(too much circulating air creating a draft or too
little circulating air creating stagnancy).
60. Cross-contamination occurs when pressure
differences arise, forcing potentially
contaminated air from one zone to an
uncontaminated zone. This often involves
undesired odors or VOCs.
Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust
outlets and fresh air intakes are either too
close, or prevailing winds change exhaust
patterns, or by infiltration between intake
and exhaust air flows.
61. Entrainment of contaminated outside air
through intake flows will result in indoor
air contamination. There are a variety of
contaminated air sources, ranging from
industrial effluent to VOCs put off by
nearby construction work.
62. Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based
on standard, and “prescribes the rate at
which ventilation air must be delivered
to a space and various means to
condition that air.” Air quality is
assessed (through CO2 measurement)
and ventilation rates are
mathematically derived using constants.
63. Indoor Air Quality Procedure “uses one or
more guidelines for the specification of
acceptable concentrations of certain
contaminants in indoor air but does not
prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment
methods.” This addresses both quantitative
and subjective evaluation, and is based on
the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also
accounts for potential contaminants that
may have no measured limits, or limits are
not set (such as formaldehyde offgassing
from carpet and furniture).
64. HVAC systems use ventilation air ducts
installed throughout a building that
supply conditioned air to a room through
rectangular or round outlet vents, called
diffusers; and ducts that remove air
through return-air grilles
65. HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) refers to technology of indoor
and automotive environmental comfort.
HVAC system design is a major subdiscipline
of mechanical engineering, based on the
principles of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration
is sometimes added to the field's
abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or
ventilating is dropped as in HACR (such as
the designation of HACR-rated circuit
breakers).
66. HVAC is important in the design of
medium to large industrial and office
buildings such as skyscrapers and in
marine environments such as
aquariums, where safe and healthy
building conditions are regulated with
respect to temperature and humidity,
using fresh air from outdoors.
68. Central heating is often used in cold climates to heat
private houses and public buildings. Such a system
contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat
water, steam, or air in a central location such as a
furnace room in a home or a mechanical room in a
large building. The use of water as the heat transfer
medium is known as hydronics. These systems also
contain either ductwork for forced air systems or
piping to distribute a heated fluid and radiators to
transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this
context is misleading since most heat transfer from
the heat exchanger is by convection, not radiation.
The radiators may be mounted on walls or buried in
the floor to give under-floor heat.
69. All but the simplest boiler-fed or radiant
heating systems have a pump to circulate
the water and ensure an equal supply of
heat to all the radiators. The heated
water can also be fed through another
(secondary) heat exchanger inside a
storage cylinder to provide hot running
water.
70. Forced air systems send heated air through
ductwork. During warm weather the same
ductwork can be used for air conditioning.
The forced air can also be filtered or passed
through air cleaners.
Heat can also be provided electrically by
resistive heating, in which conductive
filaments are heated by the passage of
electricity. This is used in baseboard
heaters, portable heaters, and as backup or
supplemental heating for heat pump (or
reverse heating) systems.
71. The heat pump is a form of heating that
gained popularity in the 1950’s. Heat
pumps can extract heat from the air or
suck heat from the ground. Heat pumps
work well in moderate climates, where
summers are long and winters are mild.
However, they tend to be more expensive
than conventional heating systems and
although more energy efficient, a ground
extraction system is more costly.
72. The heating elements (radiators or vents) should be
located in the coldest part of the room, typically next
to the windows, to minimize condensation and offset
the convective air current formed in the room due to
the air next to the window becoming negatively
buoyant due to the cold glass. Devices that direct
vents away from windows to prevent "wasted" heat
defeat this design intent. Cold air drafts can
contribute significantly to subjectively feeling colder
than the average room temperature, and for this
reason it is important to control air leaks from
outside in addition to properly designing the heating
system
73. The invention of central heating is often credited to
the ancient Romans, who installed systems of air
ducts called hypocausts in the walls and floors of
public baths and private villas.
The use of furnaces, space heaters and boilers as
means of indoor heating may result in incomplete
combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide,
NOx, formaldehyde, VOC’s and other combustion by-
products. Incomplete combustion occurs when there
is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing
various contaminants and the outputs are the
harmful by-products, most dangerously carbon
monoxide which is a tasteless and odorless gas that
has serious adverse health effects when inhaled.
74. Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be
extremely dangerous and can vary from a small, limited
amount to a lethal amount. Carbon monoxide can be lethal at
high concentration, usually less than 1000 ppmv. However, at
several hundred ppmv, carbon monoxide exposure can induce
headaches, fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Carbon monoxide
binds with hemoglobin in the blood, forming
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the blood’s ability to transport
oxygen. The primary health concerns associated with carbon
monoxide exposure are its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral
effects. Carbon monoxide can cause atherosclerosis; the
hardening of arteries, and can also trigger heart attacks.
Neurologically, carbon monoxide exposure reduces hand to eye
coordination, vigilance and continuous performance. It can
also affect your time discrimination.
79. Indoor lighting is usually
accomplished using light
fixtures, and is a key part of
interior design. Lighting can also
be an intrinsic component of
landscape projects.
80. Forms of lighting include alcove lighting,
which like most other uplighting is indirect.
This is often done with fluorescent lighting
(first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or
rope light, or occasionally with neon
lighting. It is a form of backlighting.
Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general
or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used
to bring out texture (like stucco or plaster)
on a wall, though this may also show its
defects as well. The effect depends heavily
on the exact type of lighting source used.
81. Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in
Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is
popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling
structure so as to appear flush with it. These
downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or
wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs
having their own reflectors. There are also
downlights with internal reflectors designed to
accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are
generally less costly than reflector lamps.
Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID
(high intensity discharge) or LED.
82. Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one
point because it was much easier to install than recessed
lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be
easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity
recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like
their predecessors because they do not have the safety
issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less
bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master
transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with
12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own
line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots
and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A
modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are
hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension.
83. The portable or table lamp is probably the
most common fixture, found in many homes
and offices. The standard lamp and shade
that sits on a table is general lighting, while
the desk lamp is considered task lighting.
Magnifier lampA sconce is a wall-mounted
fixture, particularly one that shines up and
sometimes down as well. A torchiere is an
uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is
typically a floor lamp but may be wall-
mounted like a sconce.
s are also task lighting.
85. The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and
1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser
panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent
lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms
include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate
anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This
would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark
nightclub it could be considered general lighting.
In a movie theater each step in the aisles is usually marked
with a row of small lights, for convenience and safety when
the film has started, hence the other lights are off.
Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage
lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being
replaced with LED based versions.
87. Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the
removable and replaceable part of a light fixture,
which converts electrical energy into
electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have
traditionally been rated and marketed primarily
in terms of their power consumption, expressed
in watts, proliferation of lighting technology
beyond the incandescent light bulb has
eliminated the correspondence of wattage to the
amount of light produced. For example, a 60 W
incandescent light bulb produces about the same
amount of light as a 13 W compact fluorescent
lamp.
88. Ballast: A ballast is an auxiliary piece of
equipment designed to start and properly
control the flow of power to discharge light
sources such as fluorescent and high intensity
discharge (HID) lamps. Some lamps require the
ballast to have thermal protection.
fluorescent light: A tube coated with phosphor
containing low pressure mercury vapor that
produces white light.
Halogen: High pressure incandescent lamps
containing halogen gases such as iodine or
bromine, increasing the efficacy of the lamp
versus a plain incandescent lamp.
89. Neon: A low pressure gas contained within a
glass tube; the color emitted depends on the
gas.
Light emitting diodes: Light emitting diodes
(LED) are solid state devices that emit light
by dint of the movement of electrons in a
semiconductor material.
Compact fluorescent lamps: CFLs are
designed to replace incandescent lamps in
existing and new installations.
