Actinomycetes are a diverse group of filamentous, gram-positive bacteria. They are classified within the domain bacteria and phylum Actinobacteria. Actinomycetes live predominantly in soil where they help break down recalcitrant compounds. While most species are harmless, some can cause infections in humans called actinomycosis. Important genera include Actinomyces, Nocardia, and Streptomyces. Actinomycetes are distinguished from fungi by being prokaryotic, containing peptidoglycan in their cell walls rather than chitin, and having smaller filaments. Diagnosis of actinomycosis involves identifying the pathogen's sulfur granules in biopsy samples
Classifications of Fungi
Characteristics of all Fungi
Structure of Fungi
Reproduction
Classification of Fungi
Basidiomycota
sexual reproduction occur by basidium , will be present spore is called basidiospore .
Asexual by budding ,fragementation, conidiospores.
Ascomycota
microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores.
Mostly the ascomycota is sexual but some asexual it lacks the ascospore.
Zygomycota
Two spore
mitospores ( or) sporangiospore
chlamitospore (or) zygospore
Deuteromycota
Imperfect Fungi referring to our "imperfect" knowledge of their complete life cycles.
sexual life cycle that is either unknown or absent.
Asexual reproduction is by means of conidia or may be lacking.
culture media
SDA medium – sabouraud dextrose agar
Classifications of Fungi
Characteristics of all Fungi
Structure of Fungi
Reproduction
Classification of Fungi
Basidiomycota
sexual reproduction occur by basidium , will be present spore is called basidiospore .
Asexual by budding ,fragementation, conidiospores.
Ascomycota
microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores.
Mostly the ascomycota is sexual but some asexual it lacks the ascospore.
Zygomycota
Two spore
mitospores ( or) sporangiospore
chlamitospore (or) zygospore
Deuteromycota
Imperfect Fungi referring to our "imperfect" knowledge of their complete life cycles.
sexual life cycle that is either unknown or absent.
Asexual reproduction is by means of conidia or may be lacking.
culture media
SDA medium – sabouraud dextrose agar
This presentation contains information about Bacterial Taxonomy, techniques of bacterial classification (Classical and Molecular characteristics) and Bergey's Manual
Entamoeba histolytica was first discovered by Losch in 1875.
It is worldwide distribution.
It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical countries where sanitary conditions are poor.
In india, it is prevalent in Chandigarh, Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra.
It is found in the colon of man.
It is monogenetic because the whole life cycle completed within a single host, i.e. man.
This presentation contains information about Bacterial Taxonomy, techniques of bacterial classification (Classical and Molecular characteristics) and Bergey's Manual
Entamoeba histolytica was first discovered by Losch in 1875.
It is worldwide distribution.
It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical countries where sanitary conditions are poor.
In india, it is prevalent in Chandigarh, Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra.
It is found in the colon of man.
It is monogenetic because the whole life cycle completed within a single host, i.e. man.
Types of Normal flora
Association between human and normal flora .
Characteristics of normal flora
Tissue specificity
Specific aadherence
Biofilm formation
Normal flora of skin
Normal flora of oral cavity
Normal flora of conjunctiva
Normal flora of respiratory tract
Normal flora of gastro intestinal tract
Normal flora of urogenital tract
Beneficial effect of normal flora
Harmful effect of normal flora
Disease caused by normal flora
Introduction to Microbiology , Microbes are every where , understand them so you can live with them . I hope you like this presentation my colleagues . it is useful to students and Infection control practitioners . ! Enjoy
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
3. Introduction
• The actinomycetes are very diverse and contain a variety
of subdivisions, as well as yet-unclassified isolates,
mainly because some genera are very difficult to classify
because of a highly niche-dependent phenotype.
• For example, Nocardia contains several phenotypes first
believed to be distinct species before their differences
were shown to be entirely dependent on their growth
conditions.
• Actinomycetales are generally gram-positive and
anaerobic and have mycelium in a filamentous and
branching growth pattern. Some actinobacteria can form
rod- or coccoid-shaped forms, while others can form
spores on aerial hyphae.
4. Introduction…..
• Actinomycetales bacteria can be infected
by bacteriophages, which are called actinophages.
• Actinomycetales can range from harmless bacteria to
pathogens with resistance to antibiotics.
• Important genera:
Actinomyces
Nocardia
Actinomadura
Streptomyces
thermophilic
5. Habitat
• Predominantly soil bacteria Good at degrading
recalcitrant compounds such as chitin &
cellulose. Often active at higher pH (contrast
to fungi who may dominate at lower pH)
• Give soil the “earthy” smell
• Almost all species are commensals of the oral
covity and tonsils.
• Some of the form the normal flora of mouth
and female genital tract.
6. Morphology
• Diverse group
• Gram positive
• Non-motile
• Non-sporing
• Non-capsulated
• Straight, curved or pleomorphic
• Arranged in chains or branching filaments
• Related to Mycobacteria and Corynebacteria
• Mycelium -- tangled mass of hyphae, found in
nature
7. • Unicellular like bacteria but produce mycelium
which is non septate and more slender
• Like bacteria they don’t like distinct cell wall
• Don’t contain chitin and cellulose
• They produce hyphae and conidia / sporangia
like fungi.
• Certain actinomycetes whose hyphae undergo
segmentation resemble bacteria, both
morphologically and physiologically.
• Note: Morphology resembles to fungi, cellular
organization typical of bacteria
10. Difference between fungi and
Actinomycetes
Actinomycetes are non-motile filamentous
gram positive bacteria belonging to the
genus of the Actinobacteria class of
bacteria.
Fungi are a group of microorganism which
includes single cell and complex
multicellular organisms such as yeast,
mushrooms, moulds, etc.
Actinomycetes are prokaryotic
organisms.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.
Actinomycetes contain peptidoglycan in
their cell walls.
Fungi contain chitin in their cell wall
Actinomycetes filaments are smaller. Fungi filaments are bigger
GC content in actinomycetes DNA is less
than fungi.
Fungi have more GC bases in DNA.
11. Slimarlities between Actinomycetes and fungi
1. Actinomycetes and fungi are filamentous.
2. Both produce spores.
3. Both types are good decomposers.
4. Both groups include antibiotic producing species.
12.
13. Similarities Between Actinomycetes and Bacteria
Actinomycetes and bacteria are prokaryotes.
They do not have a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles.
Both have a cell wall made up of murine.
They are microorganisms that form colonies on the solid media.
Both form endospores.
They occur in the environment and as a part of the normal microbiota.
Both can be pathogens.
14. Culture characteristic
• Anaerobic or microaerophilic bacteria and
grows well in presence of 5-10% co2.
• Optimum temperature 35-37 degree Celsius
• Grow on brain heart infusion agar/broth and
thioglycollate agar containing o.12%-0.2%
rabbit blood.
• Incudation time: 3-4 days mostely but for few
speciesit extended from 1 to 2 week
• Colony can be rough, pigmented with chalky
appearance.
18. Pathogenic
• Actinomycetes normally reside in human mouth, throat, gastrointestinal
tract, and urogenital tract without producing disease.
• Since the organisms cannot invade a human or animal body, they must
be introduced by a deep puncture wound or trauma such as dental
extraction or jaw trauma, aspiration of dental debris, surgery (removal of
the appendix), or prolonged use of intrauterine devices.
• Actinomycetes require dead or devitalized tissue to facilitate their
invasion and proliferation into deeper tissues. Establishment of human
infection by Actinomycetes always requires the presence of
companion bacteria.
• These companion bacteria help in initiation of infection by producing a
toxin or an enzyme or by inhibiting host immunity.
19. • Once the infection by Actinomycetes is established, the immune
system of the infected human host stimulates an intense
inflammation. Bacteria from the infected site may disseminate to
distant organs of the body.
• The Actinomycetes are particularly common type of bacteria found on
moldy hay. Farmers may be routinely exposed to very high
concentrations of Actinomyces and may inhale as many as 750,000
spores per minute. Frequent exposure to Actinomyces is the cause of
Farmers Lung respiratory problems.
21. • Cervicofacial infection, which accounts for
more than half of reported cases; the jaw is
often involved. The disease is endogenous in
origin; dental caries is a predisposing factor,
and infection may follow tooth extractions or
other dental procedures.
22. Who Get Infected
• Men are affected more frequently than
women, and in some regions the disease is
more common in rural agricultural workers
than in town dwellers, probably owing to
lower standards of dental care in the former.
23. Thoracic actinomycosis
• Thoracic actinomycosis commences in the
lung, probably as a result of aspiration of
actinomyces from the mouth.
• Sinuses often appear on the chest wall, and
the ribs and spine may be eroded.
• Primary endobronchial actinomycosis is an
uncommon complication of an inhaled foreign
body.
24. Abdominal Actinomyctes
• Abdominal cases commence in the appendix
or, less frequently, in colonic diverticulae.
• Pelvic actinomycosis occurs occasionally in
women fitted with plastic intra-uterine
contraceptive devices.
25. Clinical significance
• Are part of the NF found in the cavities of humans and
other animals.
• All may cause actinomycosis or “lumpy jaw” which is a
cervicofacial infection that used to occur following
tooth extractions or dental surgery which provided
traumatized tissue for growth of the microorganism
which may also invade the bone. This is rare today
because of prophylactic antibiotic therapy.
• May cause thoracic or abdominal infections
• May cause meningitis, endocarditis, or genital
infections
26. • Every kind of infection is characterized by
draining sinuses, usually containing
characteristic granules which are colonies of
bacteria that look like dense rosettes of club-
shaped filaments in radial arrangement
27. Diagnosis
• Specimens should be obtained directly from
lesions by open biopsy, needle aspiration or,
sputum, sinus discharge, bronchial secretion
by fibreoptic bronchoscopy.
• Examination of sputum is of no value as it
frequently contains oral actinomycetes.
• Material from suspected cases is shaken with
sterile water in a tube.
• Sulphur granules settle to the bottom and may
be removed with a Pasteur pipette.
28. • Granules crushed between two glass slides are
stained by the Gram and Ziehl-Neelsen (modified
by using 1% sulphuric acid for decolorization)
methods, which reveal the Gram positive mycelia
and the zone of radiating acid-fast clubs.
• Sulphur granules and mycelia in tissue sections
are identifiable by use of fluoresce inconjugated
specific antisera.
• In-situ PCR has been used to detect A. israelii in
tissue biopsies.
29. Culture
• For culture, suitable media, such as blood agar or
brain-heart infusion agar, glucose broth and enriched
thioglycollate broth, are inoculated with washed and
crushed granules.
• Cultures are incubated aerobically and anaerobically
for up to 14 days.
• After several days on agar medium, A. israelii may
form so called spider colonies that resemble molar
teeth.
30. culturing
• Cultures are incubated aerobically and
anaerobically for up to 14 days.
• After several days on agar medium, A. israelii
may form socalled spider colonies that resemble
molar teeth.
• The identity may be confirmed by biochemical
tests, by staining with specific fluorescent
antisera or by gas chromatography of metabolic
products of carbohydrate fermentation.
31. Procedure: Various steps for the Isolation and characterization of actinomycetes were
performed which are mentioned below:
samples collection
Enrichment of samples using
thioglycollate broth
Sample were culture on BA,
BHIA, glucose broth
Isolate was characterized by Morphological,
Physiological, Biochemical and Molecular
method
32. Strains of actinomycetes isolated
Morphological
methods:
(a)Macroscopic
methods
•Cover slip
culture
(b)Microscopic
methods
•Slide culture
method
Physiological
methods:
• Range of
pH for
growth
• Optimum
temperature
for growth
•Salinity
Biochemical methods:
•Catalase production
•Urease production
•Hydrogen sulfide
production •Nitrate
reduction •Starch
hydrolysis •Gelatin
liquefaction •Methyl red
test •Vogues-proskauer
test •Indole production
•Citrate utilization
•Casein hydrolysis
Molecular
methods:
•RFLP using any
one of genomic
DNA
•RAPD
•PFGE
•ARDRA
•Use of genus
specific primers