A Study On Type 2 Diabetes Essay

A Study On Type 2 Diabetes Essay
Type 2 diabetes is a polygenic, complex disease that has become a worldwide health crisis.
According to the World Health Organization over 422 million people in the world had this disease in
2014 (1), the Center for Disease Control and Prevention stated that in the United States alone 29
million people had diabetes in 2014 (2). While the genetic predisposition contributing to the diabetes
phenotype is not fully understood to date it still remains an area of active research. There are also
various environmental factors that contribute stress to the glucose homeostasis system that provide a
different approach in understanding this disease. Comprehending the pathogenesis of the disease has
been an area of constant research for decades. There is hope that pharmaceutical developments can
follow along and find medical treatments that can target the key pathogenic elements of this disease.
An overview of the proposed sequences of the key pathological features of type 2 diabetes is
provided by Dr. Jack Leahy from the University of Vermont College Of Medicine. In his article he
addresses the need for continued genetic research since little discovery has been made in this area.
He also explains the known environmental causes such as sedentary lifestyles and high fat diets that
contribute to type 2 diabetes, changes in lifestyle practices would reduce the incidence of this
disease but this is not a practical solution. The best solution according to Dr. Leahy lays in
understanding the
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Persuasive Essay On Diet And Fat
When people hear these three words, many people would probably become disgusted or full of
judgements. Shame whoever these words are describing, because they are seen as people who can't
appreciate the inner beauty. Simple three–lettered word, F–A–T, can make people's smile turn
upside down. Or the sound of tattoos with the two Ts forms empty fears of realistic tiger on people's
arms? And those two words, plastic surgery automatically display to the mind– round silicons and
black marks outlining the ideal face. Recalling one time, I mention to other people I need to go on a
diet. And due to my unhealthy health record, many people discouraged me and told me not to go on
a diet. It became quite annoying to explain the definition. People ... Show more content on
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The last cool fact about fat is the ones on the buttock. Imagine it without the fat! People will be
sitting on bones! Appreciate those fats! I have always concerned about my weight because I thought
that fat was the reason I have so many health issues. Unfortunately, I was born with those. One
event that gave me trauma related to fat was because of my grandmother, who had cervical cancers.
I was the caretaker for her. The changing diapers and trying to feed her are not easy. The
medications make my grandmother sleepy most of the time and it don't really help when most of her
teeth became bad. Her intake was small, but her body uses a lot of energy to battle the tumors. As
her caretaker, I watched how she got skinnier and skinnier. One time when I was changing her
diapers, I was shocked by the blood far away from her cervical area. Taking a deeper look, the bone,
on her last spinal cord, pierced her thin skin due to the lack of fat. With extreme pains, even though
she was on morphine and didn't feel the pain, every drop of those blood were real. The evolution
about how people view fat is interested. In the old days and some places in the modern world, fat
was considered as an expression of wealth. You have to have money to be fat right? However,
modern society of standard body mass index varies for different countries. I was in China for the
summer and 118 lbs was viewed as fat for a 5'2 person like me. In America, that weight is
considered healthy and yet I was

Essay on The Need to Treat Obsesity in the United States
The prevalence of obesity–related comorbidities such as type–2 diabetes and heart diseases in the
US emphasizes the need for concerted efforts to prevent and treat obesity1–3. A decrease in 5% of
body weight significantly reduces cardiovascular risk in humans4 which proves the urgency of
weight management. A combination of drug and lifestyle intervention is ideal for obesity
management5–8. Unfortunately, the current anti–obesity medications that inhibit food intake or
absorption are partly effective9,10. Thus, an alternate approach is to target energy metabolism11–19
due to the fact that obesity results when energy storage in the adipose tissue exceeds its
expenditure20. However, due to the complexity of adipose tissue21, the fundamental ... Show more
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Accordingly, AMPK, PGC1and their thermogenic target, the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) are
dramatically upregulated in K1–KO adipose tissues. Moreover, IP6K1 generated IP7 inhibits AMPK
activity in vitro. Based on these preliminary results, our working hypothesis is that IP6K1 regulates
energy metabolism by inhibiting the AMPK–PGC1 pathway. To test this, we will measure core
body temperature; –oxidation and browning in adipose depots of K1–KO mice fed a high fat diet
or exposed to cold stress. We will measure –oxidation and mitochondrial respiration in K1–KO
adipocytes and in inducible IP6K1 knock–down adipocyte cell lines. Utilizing enzyme assays and
hydrogen deuterium exchange (HDX) studies, we will determine the molecular mechanism by
which IP6K1/IP7 inhibits AMPK. Furthermore, we will monitor the AMPK stimulator; 5–
Aminoimidazole–4–carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) mediated –oxidation and insulin
sensitivity in K1–KO mice. Successful completion of this aim will establish IP6K1 as a novel
regulator of energy expenditure.
Aim 2: Identify functions of IP6K1 in lipolysis. K1–KO mice exhibit enhanced fasting induced
weight loss. They also display enhanced basal lipolysis and downregulation of the lipolytic
modulator perilipin1 (PLIN1) in the adipose tissues. IP6K1 possesses a lipase motif by which it
binds and stabilizes PLIN1. PKA (Protein kinase A) phosphorylates IP6K1 especially during –
adrenergic receptor (–AR)

Essay on Ambient Air Pollution and Diabetes Mellitus
I. Introduction and Purpose
Diabetes mellitus, or simply diabetes, is a disorder in which the body is incapable of fully utilizing
converted energy taken from food. There are three types of diabetes: type 1 or insulin–dependent,
type 2 or adult on–set, and gestational diabetes (Webmd.com, 2014).
According to the American Diabetes Association, in 2011 there were approximately 25.8 million
cases of diabetes in the United States, 7 million of which were undiagnosed, and an estimated 79
million cases of prediabetes (American Diabetes Association, 2014). They also report that diagnosed
cases of diabetes cost the United States nearly $250 billion in 2012 (American Diabetes Association,
2014). With such a high prevalence of cases as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Search criteria were limited to "air pollution" and "diabetes mellitus." All original study reports as
well as study reviews were garnered in this manner. Basic factual and statistical information about
diabetes was found on the WebMD and American Diabetes Association websites.
III. Studies Three studies found evidence supporting a link between diabetes risk and elevated levels
of air pollution (Chen & Burnett et al., 2013; Pearson & Bachireddy et al., 2010; Xu & Liu et al.,
2011). Xu & Liu et al. utilized an experimental design in which they studied the effect of elevated
particulate matter (PM2.5) in mice and their corresponding blood glucose and insulin measures.
Pearson & Bachireddy et al. and Chen & Burnett et al. both conducted epidemiological studies in
which they looked at diabetes prevalence in the United States and Canada, respectively, and
compared the data against air particulate matter levels.
In the study conducted by Xu & Liu et al., four–week–old, male mice were randomly assigned into
one of two groups: a control group and an experimental group. Both groups were fed identical diets
and treated in identical manners. The control group, referred to as FA, was exposed to filtered air for
six hours a day, five days a week for a total of 30 hours. The experimental group, referred to as
PM2.5, was exposed to air containing elevated PM2.5 in the same manner for a total of 30 hours a
week. For PM2.5,

Cardiometabolic Syndrome Essay
Introduction
The cardiometabolic syndrome (metabolic syndrome) is a combination of metabolic abnormalities
associated with increased incidence of type II diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular events (David et
al 2006). In view of this, the syndrome should be considered by the physicians to asses high risk
population, usually underestimated and undermanaged (Lopez–Jaramillo et al., 2013).
The cardiometabolic syndrome manifestations include abdominal obesity, insulin resistance,
dyslipidemia and increased blood pressure (Erik and Klein, 2009). the pathogensis of insulin
resistance greatly linked to adipose tissue. intra–abdominal fat cells release free fatty acids and other
adipocytokines which produce an inflammatory response and could have ... Show more content on
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Regarding to systolic blood pressure, this correlation did not reach the level of significance
statistically (p = 0.07). However, the correlation of adiponectin levels with diastolic blood
pressurewas significant negative correlation. So far, the data about the relation between adiponectin
and blood pressure have been highly confusing. A negative association was reported between the
systolic blood pressure and adiponectin levels in healthy female adolescents (Huang et al., 2003).
Adamczak et al (2003) described low adiponectin levels and a significantly negative correlation
between adiponectin and blood pressure in hypertensive patients (Adamczak et al., 2003). On the
contrary, Mallamaci et al (2002) reported elevated plasma levels in hypertensive men while they did
not establish any association in women. However, in that study, 60% of patients were under anti–
hypertensive drug treatment which possibly caused divergent results (Mallamaci et al. 2002).
The pathophysiological process linking the hypoadiponectinemia with elevated blood pressure are
not known at present. Nevertheless, it has been documented that adiponectin affected the functions
of endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, two main cell types relevant to blood pressure
regulation. For examples, the recombinant adiponectin attenuated TNF– induced adhesion molecule
expression in cultured human

Obesity : Preventing And Managing The Global Epidemic
Obesity is a chronic complex diseased modified by environmental, genetic, behavioural, metabolic,
and psychological component(52). Obesity is a major health concern, affecting both developed and
developing countries worldwide. In it is a major cause of death. The WHO has estimated that more
than 300 million people around the world are affected by obesity(53). BMI considered as a standard
method to classify obesity and overweight. Based on the WHO, individual were categorized into
four groups as follow
Risk of comorbidity BMI (kg/m2) Classification
Average 18.5–24.9 Normal range
Mildly increased 25.0–29.9 Overweight
Moderate 30.0–34.9 Obesity class I
Sever ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
White adipose tissue is considered as the main source of inflammatory cytokines such as IL–6 and
TNF–α which has local and systemic effect(58).
Obesity and periodontal disease Obesity is considered as one of the risk factors of periodontal
disease. The association between obesity and periodontal disease was first reported in 1977 in
Zucker rats(59). In 1998 reported in human for the first time(60). The association between obesity
and periodontitis has been reported in previous studies(32). But, the physiological basis of the causal
relationship is not yet understood. However periodontitis and obesity share the same pathogenesis
through release of inflammatory cytokines. These cytokines and hormones released from adipose
tissues could modulate the response of periodontal tissues to the oral environment(54). Some
evidence linking periodontitis with abdominal fats, metabolic disorders and abnormal fat
metabolism(54,61) Evidence reported high prevalence of periodontal disease in both obese and
overweight people. Five years follow up on 3590 Japanese individual showed significant association
between periodontitis and BMI(62). Tow longitudinal studies one in US over 25 years showing a
significant progression of the diseases in obese males(63), the second one, is a study of 36,910 over
a period of 20 years

Women Fat Research Paper
Fats in the human body are stored in cells known as adipocytes. Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes
and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.
Fat can also be stored as "droplets" in skeletal muscle cells that hold about 2,000–3,000 kilocalories.
Some fat even flows freely through the blood in a human body. Fat is one of the three
macronutrients. Macronutrients are substance required in large quantities in a living organism. Other
than fat, proteins and carbohydrates are macronutrients. Women can carry more fat than women.
The fat in a woman represents around 18%–20% of her body weight. The fat in a man only
represents about 10%–15% of his body weight. There is one main reason for this. That reason being
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Women also often metabolize fat faster than men. Women are also better at burning fat in exercise
than men, making it easier for them to lose the fat that they gain. During exercise, women exhibit
less respiratory exchange ratios than men. This means that women have more fat burning and less
carb burning. Although women can mostly lose fat quicker than men, they can gain it quicker to.
Women make more triglycerides, which is an ester derived from glycerol and fatty acids, than men
do. This means that the fat is being taken up into the adipose tissue at a higher rate in women than
men. Also, even if women generally burn fat simpler, they are more have a higher overall obesity
rate compared to men. 25 percent of adult women in the United States are obese and 20 percent of
adult men are obese in the United States. Men generally carry their weight and fat in their abdominal
area, or they have an android body type. Most women carry their fat and weight in their hips and
thighs, which is a pear body type. The difference in the shape of the bod has reasons that are
unknown, but theorists believe that it is based on differences in

Clinical And Metabolic Features Of Non Hiv Related In...
We conducted a systematic review to summarize existing data on clinical and metabolic features of
non–HIV related lipodystrophy in patients with age at onset of lipodystrophy < 18 years. This in–
depth review of 1,141 patients with lipodystrophy is the largest pooled pediatric database, so far
reported in literature. We have suggested core and supportive clinical features of four major
lipodystrophies (CGL, AGL, FPL and APL) to help clinicians in diagnosis and management
decisions (Figure 3).
Congenital generalized lipodystrophy is a rare autosomal recessive disorder (38). Several CGL loci
have been previously identified, AGPAT2 (CGL type 1), BSCL2 (CGL type 2), CAV1, and PTRF
(CGL type 4), with the first two accounting for about 95% of ... Show more content on
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These patients can present with menstrual irregularities, hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovaries.
However, reproductive data were available on a limited number of CGL patients.
In our review, the core clinical feature of CGL was generalized fat loss noted during first 3 years of
life and rarely during early adolescence (47). Supportive features included acromegaloid
appearance, hepatomegaly (because of hepatic steatosis) (48), protuberant abdomen (due to
organomegaly), and advanced bone age. Onset of DM was during early childhood through
adolescence, except in a group of 10 Brazilian CGL patients homozygous for a 1036 bp deletion in
the AGPAT2 gene (BSCL1 locus), as described by Gomes et al. (49) and a single patient in the NIH
lipodystrophy database (age at onset of DM 34 years). Gomes et al. reported mean age at onset of
DM as 25.67 ± 11.25 years in AGPAT2 group compared to 11.93 ± 8.29 years in BSCL2 (669insA
Seipin) group (p=0.007) (49). Diabetes mellitus in CGL was ketosis–resistant, with higher insulin
levels and higher insulin resistance reported in BSCL2 than in AGPAT2 patients (49).
Acquired generalized lipodystrophy was characterized by female predominance. Patients with AGL
had normal fat distribution at birth, however developed generalized loss of subcutaneous adipose
tissue during childhood or puberty. Preceding infectious illnesses including Neisseria meningitidis,
measles, varicella and mumps (3,50,51) were associated

Type I Interferon Signaling
Type I Interferon has emerged as a potential therapeutic option to combat obesity and its many
negative health effects. Type I Interferon (IFN) signaling is canonical in the innate immune
response, but less established is the role of type I IFNs in metabolism. At 2 weeks of high fat diet,
mice experience an increase in interferon signaling in many metabolic tissues. Type I interferon
activation attenuates mitochondrial function in certain tissues. Given the essential role of the
mitochondria in cell metabolism and energy expenditure, the impairment of this organelle could be
implicated in the development of obesity and weight gain. However targeting IFNAR receptors by
thermogenic tissue have less clear reductions in weight gain and do not ... Show more content on
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Type I interferon signaling is essential for fighting infection. Interferons are potent cytokines that
create an antiviral state by inhibiting viral transcription, translation, and assembly of nucleophages.
Interferons are then secreted from host cells to alert neighboring cells to the infectious threat, and
the neighboring cell then enter an antiviral state. The result is a rapid response to pathogen infection.
However, overproduction of interferon may prove harmful to cells. Under regulated interferon
signaling, hematopoietic stem cells are able to reach maturity. When interferon signaling is
increased, the stem cells are compromised (Essers et. al 2009). Thus, the regulation of interferon
signaling appears important for homeostasis as aberrant interferon signaling is harmful for health
and has been implicated in inflammatory diseases, such as autoimmunity and diabetes. (Gough et al,
2012) Our study found that high fat diet promoted upregulation of ISGs in various tissue types after
2 weeks, pointing to what is potentially a disruption in homeostasis. Accordingly, TBK1 and IKK–
ε–upstream kinases involved in activation of certain IRFs –are found at elevated level in adipose
tissue of obese mice. (Fitzgerald et al, 2003, Chiang et al, 2009). Inhibiting these kinases in obese
mice improves insulin sensitivity as well as metabolic capacity (Reilly et. al,

Lab Report
Abstract:
Tissue regeneration through cell differentiation from one cell type to another is a phenomenon
occurs in some species of fish and amphibians, however, mammals are incapable of reprogramming
one cell lineage to achieve a similar result. Specifically, in human and mouse wound healing
procedure normally generate scar with high collagen deposition, regenerated skin which lacks some
features such as hair follicle and cutaneous fat. A recent study shows that a large skin wound in a
mouse model is capable of regenerating hair follicles under the control of the Wnt and fibroblast
growth factor (FGF) pathways. (1) In this article, Plikus et. al. discovered in the same mouse model;
during wound healing process, cutaneous fat can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some lineage analysis also showed that the growing follicles arise from epithelial cells outside of
the hair follicle stem cell line, which supports the idea that epidermal cells in the wound assume a
hair follicle stem cell phenotype. Ito et. al. also demonstrated that inhibition of Wnt signaling after
re–epithelialization overturn this follicle generation process during wound healing, however, by
overexpressing Wnt ligand in the epidermis, they increased the number of regenerated follicles.
Another aspect of wound healing is the adipocyte regeneration, in this project focus was to
understand the molecular mechanism behind adipocyte regeneration, these mechanisms can
ultimately trigger bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and then activate of adipocyte
transcription factors expressed during development. Also, where these adipocytes will be formed
during regeneration, and how phenotypically they are different from normal adipocyte tissue.
Materials and methods: Animal care protocol: all in–vivo experiments executed according to animal
care protocol at University of California and University of Pennsylvania.
Phenotype quantification methodology. Wounds were stained with Oil Red O and the number of
regenerated hair follicles

Adipose Tissue : Overview Of Physiological Functions
Adipose Tissue: Overview of Physiological Functions
Hong Lan Huang, 1296959
Abstract With increasing number of obese people in the world, people tend to have more interests in
body fat other than its basic structure. Many people often struggle to lose weight in order to have
perfect body shape, or to prevent obesity induced chronic diseases. Failure to prevent excess of body
weight in one's body might result to life threat diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart
diseases. Before, body fat is simply known as a lipid droplet cell. Today, more studies and
experiments are conducted in favor of examine the importance of adipose tissue's function in the
human body. Adipose tissue (body fat) has a significant physiological role to maintain body's
homeostasis. The following review will provide prominent knowledge of the adipose tissue's
development, structure, functions, and its relation to obesity. Adipose tissue is extremely essential
for one's health by performing as a heat generating organ, an immunological organ, and an
endocrine organ.
Introduction It is interesting to know that many people might perceive higher proportion of body fat
in human is both advantageous and disadvantageous. On the one hand, fat protects human's bodies.
For example, some people believe that fat people feel less cold than thin people in extreme cold
weather. In other cases, some people believe that fat people get less injured than thin people in an
accident. On the other hand,

Primary Factors Of Visceral Fat Deposition And...
It has also previously been proposed that other primary factors may affect both visceral fat
deposition and cardiometabolic outcomes. For instance, excess visceral adiposity could be the
consequence of an activated hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis leading to an increased control of
carbohydrate and lipid metabolism by glucocorticoids.74
Because visceral adipocytes have more glucocorticoid receptors than subcutaneous adipose cells,
such an activated hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis may promote preferential fat deposition in
the visceral adipose depot while at the same time inducing insulin resistance in the liver and in the
skeletal muscle.74
Other possibly important key players are gonadal steroids. Indeed, very informative ... Show more
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There is less controversy concerning the effects of fructose on components of metabolic syndrome;
consumption of fructose has been shown to increase visceral adipose deposition and de novo
lipogenesis (DNL), produce dyslipidemia, and decrease insulin sensitivity in older,
overweight/obese subjects. 83,84 Bray and his colleagues study the relation between the intake of
high–fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and the development of obesity. They analyzed food consumption
patterns by using US Department of Agriculture food consumption tables from 1967 to 2000. The
consumption of HFCS increased > 1000% between 1970 and 1990, far exceeding the changes in
intake of any other food or food group. HFCS now represents > 40% of caloric sweeteners added to
foods and beverages and is the sole caloric sweetener in soft drinks in the United States. Their
estimation of the consumption of HFCS indicates a daily average of 132 kcal for all Americans aged
≥ 2 y, and the top 20% of consumers of caloric sweeteners ingest 316 kcal from HFCS/d. The
increased use of HFCS in the United States mirrors the rapid increase in obesity. The digestion,
absorption, and metabolism of fructose differ from those of glucose. Hepatic metabolism of fructose
favors de novo lipogenesis. In addition, unlike glucose, fructose does not stimulate insulin secretion
or enhance leptin production. Because insulin and leptin act as key afferent

Proinflammation Research Paper
Inflammation is significant as the causative path via which obesity predisposes women to pre–
eclampsia. Abnormal adipokine production and infiltration of inflammatory cells portray adipose
tissue de–function. Visceral fat produces more C–reactive protein and inflammatory cytokines
compared to subcutaneous fat, furthermore it donates more to oxidative stress(114).Obesity and
insulin resistance are inflammatory conditions, portrayed by greater than before production of
proinflammatory cytokines besides of inflammatory signaling pathways activation (181).
Obesity is revealed to be a vital jeopardy factor for changes of metabolic and inflammatory
parameters during the course of pregnancy that influence adaptation. A great body of evidence taken
throughout gestation enlightening an elevated levels of leptin,TG, CRP and IL–6, and on the other
hand, low down levels of HDL–C in obese mothers in comparison to women of normal body mass
index(BMI)(151). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Concerning the pathogenesis of chronic metabolic diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus and
atherosclerosis, lipids and lipid signals are considered as critical in the amalgamation of metabolic
and inflammatory response systems. This besides cytokines and extracellular mediators i.e. lipids
and intracellular stress. Hypertensive pregnancy endoplasmic reticulum stress and excess production
of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species(ROS) can start metaflammatory pathways in metabolically
active cells for example adipocytes and tissue macrophages. The adipocytokine fatty acid binding
protein–4(FABP4) mixes inflammatory and metabolic responses

Diabetes Case Study
In Diabetes blood glucose levels raise after a meal and remain above normal levels because insulin
is either inadequate or ineffective. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes, it accounts
for 90 to 95% of cases.(1) The primary defect is insulin resistance or a lack of sensitivity to insulin
in eight main areas which includes muscle, adipose cells, liver, beta cell in the pancreas, alpha cells
in the pancreas, intestine, kidney and brain. Muscle is affected by becoming resistant to insulin and
then cannot take up glucose for energy needs. Adipose cells or fat cells start to breakdown
contributing to insulin resistance and deposit fat throughout the body. The liver recognises the
difficulty of dealing with glucose and increases ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(3) So, in effect the glucose curve rises after eating but then doesn't fall back into normal range.
Carbohydrates influence the release of insulin and in type 2 diabetes there is a defect in the process
and production of insulin. It creates the question how may a very low carbohydrate affect endocrine,
glycaemic and energy metabolism pathways. First how do we define a very low carbohydrate diet,
there is a lack of consistency but table 1 is based off the American diabetes association based on less
than 70g of carbs a day or based on your calorie intake. (4)
Table 1 (4)
Dietary Classification Based on the Amount of Carbohydrate*
Description of Amount Definition 2,000 Calorie 1,500 Calories 1,200 Calories very–low–
carbohydrate 21–70 g/day 4–14% 6–19% 7–23% moderately low– carbohydrate 30–39.9% of
energy 150–200g/day 113–149g/day 90–120g/day moderate–carbohydrate 40–65% of energy 200–
325g/day 150–245g/day 120–195g/day high–carbohydrate >65% of energy >325 g/day > 245g/day
>195g/day
A low carbohydrate diet has been shown to alternate energy metabolism by causing weight loss.
This occurs by there being lower levels of insulin and glucose in the fasting state which increases
insulin sensitivity of tissues. When insulin sensitivity is increased fatty acids can be burnt more so
leading to body fat loss. (5) In Comparision a high carbohydrate diet has an excess of insulin and
therefore insulin sensitivity is lost and high

Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT)
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is derived from the mesenchymal precursor cell which also seems to
give rise to muscle . BATis located mainly around the neck, paravertebral sites, kidneys and large
blood vessels of the thorax. As previously mentioned above, Marcus (1988), demonstrated that TSH
induced lipolysis in BAT from newborns and infants but this declined with age. Recent studies have
profiled different layers of BAT in adults, particularly in the neck and between the shoulder blades
(Nedergaard, 2013). BAT contains multilocular lipid droplets and a high mitochondrial content. Its
primary function is to liberate energy as heat via the consumption of stored energy. This is mediated
by the uncoupling protein–1 (Ucp–1), which embeds in the inner mitochondrial membrane and
produces heat by dissipating the proton electrochemical gradient over the inner mitochondrial
membrane space without generating ATP. The energy in BAT? is stored as perilipin coated lipid
droplets and glycogen granules. Upon temperature stimulation glucose and fatty acid uptake is
rapidly increased to replenish its supplies (reviewed in Sanchez–Gurmaches, 2013).
BRITE adipose tissue occurs within WAT tissue depots, in response to chronic cold exposure. Beige
adipose tissue has the characteristics of both white and brown adipocytes. They appear to be like
WAT in basal states but upon cold stimulation, they behave like BAT by becoming multilocular and
expressing the brown fat marker UCP1. However, they are

Relationship between Genetic Suceptibility, Obesity, and...
TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS (T2DM) This type of diabetes commonly occurs in the later stage
of life but due to increase in obesity; it also occurs in young adult. Type 2 diabetes can be defined as
insulin resistant and insulin deficiency in the blood stream. OBESITY Obesity can be defined as
been overweight with excess accumulated body fat by subcutaneously and viscerally; resulting in a
high body mass index (BMI) which has negative effects on health (Taylor et al, 2010). BMI is
defined by dividing an individual's weight in kilogram by the square of the individual's height in
meters (kg/m2) which indicates if the individual is underweight, overweight or obese; having a BMI
equal to or more than 25kg/m2 is classed as overweight while having a ... Show more content on
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This shows that an increasing number of the British public are suffering from obesity. GENETIC
PREDISPOSITION Ji and Friedman (2007) state that obesity or overweight can be due to rich fat
food consumption and is influenced by a genetic predisposition in humans. As explained above, type
2 diabetes is a multifactorial disease that is influenced by various genetic and ecological factors.
Genetic or inherited factors help determine human's susceptibility to Type 2 diabetes and obesity is
an ecological risk factor in developing diabetes type 2 (Park, 2011). The combination of inherited
susceptibility with ecological factors can generate a positive energy balance, which produces an
excessive amount of adipose tissues; containing accumulated fats that influence the development of
type 2 diabetes (Ji and Friedman, 2007). Genetically, research shows that Type 2 diabetes mostly
occur in family with genealogy of the disease and often connotes children have 40% probability of
developing Type 2 diabetes if their parent is a carrier (Park, 2011). Multifactorial disease such as
Type 2 diabetes; Candidate gene association study (CGAS) and Genome wide association study
(GWAS) are methods used to identify genes associated with specified disease and the studies found
evidence that certain genes

Meta Title Tag
Meta Title Tag: Learn the Science behind CoolSculpting in Calgary and How It Works
Meta Description Tag: Learning the science of the exciting technology of CoolSculpting can give
you a better idea for how it works to decide if this procedure is for you.
Based on some of the earliest experiments from the scientists Dieter Manstein, MD, PhD, and R
Rox Anderson, MD, the creators behind this interesting technology, the concept of CoolSculpting
was invented. A nonsurgical alternative to Liposuction Calgary company can also help to explain
this after a person has scheduled a consultation. What CoolSculpting, does is it lowers the amount of
excess adipose tissue and changes the body contour.
Sometimes Fat Remains Stubborn
Lauren Amico, PA–C and director of the Laser and Skincare Clinic of La Jolla Cosmetic Surgery,
said that you have a certain number of people who do everything right. They exercise regularly and
eat a health diet. Nevertheless, they have deposits that refuse to disappear even despite their best
efforts. With CoolSculpting, there's a safe ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This latest technology is an advancement over what the other methods of fat reduction. Some have
used focused ultrasound, intense heat or chemical injections. The biggest difference with
Coolsculpting is how the skin, muscles and nerves will all remain safe during the treatment. What
results is a permanent reduction in the fat cells.
The result is that there permanent reduction in the fat cells. The Cryopolysis technology removes the
fat cells because of how the body's genetic makeup works. Everyone will be born with a specific
number of fat cells, but once they have been removed from the body, they never return. That is one
of the reasons that this treatment can be effective for eliminating fatty

Persuasive Essay On Why People Is Fat
When people hear these three words, many people probably become disgusted or full of judgements.
Shaming people because they can't appreciate the inner beauty. Simple three–lettered word, F–A–T,
can make people's smile turn upside down. Or the sound of tattoos with the two Ts forms empty fear
of realistic tiger on people's arms? And those two words, plastic surgery drags the mind to round
silicons and black marks outlining the ideal face. Recalling one time, I mention to other people I
need to go on diet. And due to my unhealthy health record, many people discouraged me and told
me not to go on a diet. It became quite annoying when people use the word diet referring to losing
weight, but more specifically losing fat. However, the diet I was talking about was eating three
meals a day instead of eating one meal a day. The modern era with the misconception of the word
diet, needs to be fix along with tattoos and plastic surgery. Everyone has fat, and the scientific
terminology: adipose tissues. But how many people knows that? We don't need statistic to show fat
people get bully in the society where almost everything is based on look. The only fat things people
would probably like are probably a fat amount of money or a big fat present! But the word fat is
usually refers overweight people or people start using it when they learned numbers, learned how to
compare, and learned other people are different. Like a curse word, people won't say it if they were
nice. For anatomy

The Effect Of Body Composition, Size And Age On The...
The effect of body composition, size and age on the regulation of glucose in fasting individuals
Abstract: Glucose homeostasis is the process in which the body regulates glucose by secreting
hormones such as insulin and glucagon from the pancreas. It is controlled by a mechanism known as
a negative feedback loop. The experiment compares the blood glucose levels of three fasting
individuals at several intervals within 120 minutes, body measurements such as BMI and body fat
percentage were also recorded. Sample 1 and the experimental sample had similar blood glucose up
until the readings taken at 60 minutes however from there onward sample 1 did not regulate glucose
as well as the experimental sample. Sample 2 exhibited high blood glucose levels at every reading,
showing that they do not regulate glucose properly. In comparison to the other subjects' sample 2 is
the oldest, has the highest BMI value and the largest waist–to–hip ratio, in conclusion body
composition plays an important role on how the body regulates glucose. Introduction: Glucose is a
key source of energy for much of the cells, tissues and organs within the body. The result of either a
low or high blood glucose level can have catastrophic effects on the body. For instance, a low blood
glucose level; known as hypoglycaemia, can lead to a person suffering from seizures, loss of
consciousness and at extreme cases death (Szablewski, 2011). Similarly, prolonged instances of high
blood glucose levels; known as

Morbid Obesity: A Case Study
In the United States, there is about two–thirds of the population that are obese. There are guidelines
set by the National Institutes of Health that these numbers are calculated to get results. The NIH has
a body mass index BMI to use to determine if a person is obese or not. They have three categories
they put people into, Grade 1 is slightly overweight, Grade 2 moderately and Grade 3 severely over
weight. Obesity related illnesses are avoidable expenses such as knee replacement, type 2 diabetes,
etc and these are raley seen in non–obese patients. Morbid obesity is a disease of excess energy
stores in form of fat and is an independent cause of Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and
hypertension. According to NIH morbidly obese people with a high BMI Grade 3 should have
surgical weight loss procedures and those in Grade 2 should have other the surgery only if other
treatments have failed. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Starting with physical assessments, blood pressure cuffs may be too small for upper arm you have to
change out the smaller cuff for a larger cuff to get the right blood pressure for the patients. Getting
the right weight can also be a problem if too small a wrong reading of blood pressure and can be the
cause of wrong treatment. When asuclating lung sounds the folds of skin can get in the way of
listening and this could cause an issue also. You should find areas with less fat. HHahler, 2002, 249)
When asculating bowel sounds it may take longer to find and hear them. When you find places you
can hear bowel sounds they should be marked to assist the care team to get more consistent results.
Obese patients are at higher risk for pressure ulcers and skin breakdown, assessesments are a must
on skin folds on each

Physiological Effects Of Obesity
Research concentrated on both the physiological causes and the consequences of prolonged
adiposity has recently expanded as a result of the rising prevalence of obesity and related diseases.
New studies show that understanding the mechanisms of specific immune cells in adipose tissue, the
tissue responsible for storing excess fat, may be the key to understanding and treating the modern
obesity epidemic. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and their secreted type 2 cytokines have
been strongly linked to the metabolic regulation of adipose tissue and promotion of thermogenesis,
however the specific mechanisms of this pathway are unknown. The research presented here
outlines the examination of how ILC2s and related immune cells are ... Show more content on
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Adipose tissue is the specialized connective tissue which stores energy as fat, as well as being
responsible for generating heat within the body (9). The two types of adipose tissue, white adipose
tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), have distinct roles in fat storage and obesity. BAT is
a major source of thermogenesis, and its development has been implicated in suppressing diet
induced obesity (9). The brown adipocytes which make–up BAT contain many mitochondria and
express high levels of uncoupling protein–1 (UCP1), a protein which generates heat through
uncoupling of the respiratory chain and substrate oxidation (11). WAT performs the anabolic role of
storing energy, and has been linked to diseases such as type 2 diabetes in states of prolonged obesity
(1,9). More recently however, an additional subcategory of adipocytes has been discovered, known
as beige or brite (brown in white) adipocytes. These cells are similar to brown adipocytes as they
express high levels of UCP1 and stimulate thermogenesis, however their presence in WAT can
induce lipolysis of WAT stored fat (7,17). This WAT browning pathway is an area of active research,
as the energy expenditure presents a potential strategy for treating obesity. The differentiation of
brite adipocytes is unknown however, as

The Effects Of Obesity On Health And Health
Discuss Three or Four Factors (E.G., Financial Resources, Access to Care, Insured/Uninsured,
Medicare/Medicaid) That Contribute to a Patient Being Able to Manage the Selected Disease
Information about obesity is bountiful; however, access to professional healthcare is limited.
Traditionally, wealthy families have more time to devote to their health and beauty. They can hire
personal dietitians, chiefs, trainers, and medical clinicians, who develop specialized activity plans,
and recommend and prepare organic, low–calorie, low–fat foods. Additionally, their staff supports
them through tailored barriers for current and future success. Most people who have sustained
weight loss eat breakfast every day (Wing & Phelan, 2005, p. 223S). This wakes the body up from
fasting, produces better blood–glucose control, and jump–starts the body's metabolism. The first
meal of the day can control appetite and encourages improved health consciousness. Weight–losers,
who have prolonged success, continue to weight themselves at least once a week. This behavior
increases awareness that can influence weight. If people use scale–information, they might change
their eating and activity with the increased sense of personal accountability. The number–one factor
for sustained weight loss is continuing high levels of physical activity, about one hour per day (Wing
& Phelan, 2005, p. 223S). Exercise helps prevent excess weight by using calories. Being active
helps boost HDL cholesterol and

Body Composition Analysis
Body Composition assessments are methods of measuring total body weight between fat and nonfat
tissue. Body fat is stored form of energy and not necessarily high on calorie demand. Accumulating
excessive amounts of adipose tissue in the body can result to higher risk of developing health
problems such as chronic heart disease, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and more. As society
faces a huge increase in obesity, people who are extremely underweight also deal with many health
complications like anemia, malnutrition, anorexia nervosa, and other. Physical activity and a
nutritious diet can help with losing, maintaining, and gaining appropriate weight, storing acceptable
amount of body fat. Essential fat is a percentage of body fat that is required for good health. In men,
3% essential fatty acids are recommended, and 12% EFA for women (Summerfield, 2016). Body
composition assessments can have their advantages and disadvantages. ... Show more content on
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Nonfat tissue, known as lean tissue, is metabolically active tissue, the tissue that burns calories all
day, and the leaner tissue you have, the higher your resting metabolic rate will be (active.com).
There are many methods that are commonly used when measuring body composition, and some are
more accurate than others. Skinfold measurements, bioelectrical impedance analysis, and under–
water weighing are a few assessments that accurately measures fat to lean tissue ratios. However,
less accurate but still useful assessments of body composition are waist, hips, and thigh
circumference measurements and the body mass index. The body mass index is assessed most
frequently where a weight–height table is used, but is subject to much misinterpretation
(Summerfield,

Body Fat Spreadsheet
D) Immediately when you view the statistical results from the calculations on the spreadsheet you
can see that there is a strong relationship between BMI and percent body fat measured using BIA.
This was shown by the correlation value–r– of 0.64 when p=0.001. Based off these numbers, it
displays that there is a strong relationship and a statistically significant relationship. These statistics
show us that the direction of the r–value is positive with a strong relationship and the p–value is
significant. This shows us that by using a small age bracket– 18 through 24–, sex, height and weight
that the relation between all the participants is significant. E) Based on the numbers that were
produced in the spreadsheet I believe it would be appropriate ... Show more content on
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I believe this due to the numbers that were produced in the "difference" column of the spreadsheet.
In this column the numbers come from taking BMI and subtracting % Fat BIA . Based on what the
numbers were in each of these columns could result in a negative or positive number which means
that the results are both overestimated and underestimated; if the number is negative then the results
or underestimated. These negative numbers could come from a wide variety of circumstances from
an incorrect measurement of BMI. First off, BMI measurements cannot decipher between the
different types of fat in a person or the location. The location of fat is key in terms of increased risk
of disease. For example, a person may have a lower BMI than someone else who appears healthier
but if the person with a lower BMI has a majority of their fat stored in their belly they are at higher
risk for disease than a person who has fat distributed elsewhere. The fat in the belly displays a
higher risk for disease due to the fact that it will release compounds that can commence disease
(Cespedes). Fat located on the hips, thighs, etc. are healthy in a proper amount and do not result in
such dramatic increases as fat in the belly

Growth Factors Of Breastfeeding
Obesity, a pandemic and a seemingly minimal prevention manner through breastfeeding. the
relationship may not be evident however research has shown an interesting relationship amongst the
two. The choice to breastfeed may play a key role in preventing the development of obesity in
offspring. Data that has been collected over decades has substantially increased the knowledge
behind this phenomenon of growth factors that are present in the natural substance produced by the
mammaries, such as IGF–I, adiponectin, ghrelin, obestatin and resistin, which are directly involved
in the regulation of consumption and energy balance. The presence of these various growth factors,
hormones and cytokines allows breast milk to have unique qualities that ... Show more content on
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The sole certainty that the gastrointestinal tract of infants favours absorption of the previously
mentioned bioactive compounds within breast milk as a result of the infant's gut obtaining an
elevated pH, which is direct proof that breast–milk is in fact essential. Breastfeeding allows breast
milk to have a concert effect on gut maturation, it leads the gastrointestinal tract to change from an
organ of high intestinal permeability to selective permeability which is very important in
development. Across 81 studies over the time period of 4 decades, the actual claim that
breastfeeding can protect against obesity arose from the 7 meta–analyses conducted. The rate of
childhood obesity was reduced from 24% to 12%.
More recent studies consequently have projected that breast milk contains high levels of resistin and
obestatin; energy regulative factors. Obestatin is a hormone that is produced by epithelial cells of the
stomach, and is a anorectic peptide, resistin is a adipose tissue–specific expulsion factor. These
factors alone allow the suggestion that breast milk indeed does regulate the neuroendocrine
pathways which are themselves taking part in the management of weight of the infant. This is proof
for the fact that the more breast milk a child intakes in its early stages of life, the furthermore they
are protected from potential risk of being overweight. Alongside a controlled case study suggested
that the longer a woman breastfeeds, the act marginally

Product Description Of Rat And Monkey Based Experiments Essay
Adipotide: Product Description
Adipotide is a synthetic peptide that possesses anti–obesity properties. this peptide particularly
targets and destroys specific proteins that constitute the surface of blood vessels that support white
fat (adipose) tissue hence interfering with the supply of blood to the fat cells and resulting in their
adoptosis (reabsorption and metabolization). Adipotide was initially referred to as Prohibitin–TP01
(Prohibitin–Targeting Peptide 1). It is a peptidomimetic that was synthesized by American scientists
as a potential therapeutic drug for obesity and its amino acid sequence is CKGGRAKDC–GG–
D(KLAKLAK)2. Adipotide has a molecular formula of C111H204N36O28S2. Peptidomimetics are
tiny protein like chains that imitate peptides. It is an experimental drug for weight loss. It was
developed in a way that enables it to bind to two receptors, prohibitin and ANXA2 which are found
in blood vessels that support white adipose tissue. In rat and monkey based experiments, Adipotide
has been shown to bring about rapid weight loss in both mice and rhesus monkeys. In general,
Adipotide has been observed to bring about weight loss by reducing fat tissue especially in the
abdominal region), rapid metabolic changes, and decreased food intake. Product History
Adipotide was first synthesized by Dr.Wadih Arap and Renata Pasqualini in their efforts to develop
a drug with therapeutic properties in the treatment of cancer. The researchers specifically designed
this

Obesity Is A Disease Characterized By Excessive Body Fat
Obesity is a disease characterized by excessive body fat. People who are medically obese usually are
affected by behavior, genetic and environmental factors that are difficult to control with dieting.
Obesity increases the likelihood of certain diseases especially cardiovascular disorders and diabetes.
Obesity has become a pandemic nowadays. In the Indian scenario, even with the growing awareness
about health and fitness, more than 3 percent (3 crores) of the Indian population is obese.
Our study aims to determine the association of BMIwith cardiac output, forearm and calf blood flow
in healthy young male adults. Our results are consistent with our hypothesis.
Cardiac output was found to be significantly more in obese subjects compared to overweight and
normal BMI group. Similar results were found in other studies too. Obese individuals have
expanded central blood volume. In addition, stroke volume and cardiac output are both increased.
These changes in blood volume and cardiac output are most likely due to the increased metabolic
demand that result from increases in both lean and fat mass. The large fat depots in significant
obesity produce a low–resistance vascular circuit that may further increase cardiac output. There
may also be changes in renal absorption of salt and water. The combination of these factors is
proposed to produce a form of volume overload which can give rise to high output failure later. [24]
[25]
Another study revealed that obese patients demonstrated

The Correlation Between Osa And Obesity
Polysomnography II Colby Vermillion The Correlation Between OSA and Obesity 10/10/2016
Obstructive sleep apnea has become an increasingly big problem in the United States. It is also
apparent that obesity is also one of the biggest epidemics in our country as well. There is no
question that both obesity and having obstructive sleep apnea go hand in hand for several reasons. I
will go into some detail as to why these two go hand in hand, how young kids are now having issues
with these two things, and what we as a society can do about it.
Obstructive sleep apnea is a common disorder whose prevalence is linked to an epidemic of obesity
in our country. Sleep apnea is due to recurrent episodes of upper airway obstruction during sleep
that are caused by elevations in upper airway collapsibility during sleep. OSA is characterized by
recurrent episodes of partial or complete airway obstruction resulting in hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or
a respiratory arousal.
OSA is a relatively common condition, with an estimated prevalence of 1% to 3% in otherwise
healthy children. The risk of OSA is greatly increased by obesity in children, with an estimated
prevalence of 36% in obese children. The prevalence in obese patients with snoring or other signs of
apnea is estimated to be much higher. Many severely obese children do not have OSA, indicating
that different fat distribution phenotypes may exist. The determination of fat distribution may
identify

I. Adipose tissue plays an important role in the...
I. Adipose tissue plays an important role in the maintenance of weight through the release of
adipokine hormones. These hormones include leptin and adiponectin.
a. Leptin is a satiety hormone produced by the obesity gene in adipose tissue that controls appetite
and energy expenditure (Feng et al, 2013).
i. Leptin maintains energy levels and helps to prevent obesity. ii. It affects the hypothalamus through
negative feedback, to control appetite and energy expenditure, with elevated blood levels in obese
individuals.
1. This increase may be due to the inability of leptin to stimulate fatty acid oxidation.
2. One study found that in comparison to lean subjects, obese individuals had higher levels of fatty
acid uptake, with lower stimulation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ii. High fat diets that lead to weight gain also leads to high IL–6 expression; the opposite is true of
low fat and high carbohydrate diets.
b. TNF–α is a pro–inflammatory cytokine from macrophages and monocytes.
i. Generally, insulin–resistant individuals have higher TNF–α levels in skeletal muscle, adipose
tissue, and plasma. ii. Receptors for TNF–α are increased in obese individuals. iii. Dietary
restrictions alone can decrease TNF–α, reducing inflammatory response. iv. High fat diets that lead
to weight gain also leads to high TNF–α expression; the opposite is true of low fat and high
carbohydrate diets.
c. Not all weight loss leads to a decrease in inflammatory markers such as IL–6 and TNF–α
(Campbell et al, 2013).
i. Several studies have found that there is not a reduction in these markers with more than 12%
weight loss, with one study not showing a decrease at up to 25% weight loss. ii. These results
indicate that there may be less of an impact from inflammatory markers on energy balance than
previously predicted.
III. Growth hormone (GH) is influenced by obesity because it can effect both lean and fat mass
through carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism (Thomas et al, 2013).
a. GH increases lead to higher levels of free fatty acids in circulation due to lipolysis.
b. Some of the roles of growth hormone include decreased glucose uptake by adipose and

The Case Of Vitro Human Blood
Thrombosis and Leptin The manifestation of P–selection in the case of vitro human platelets is
increased by the Leptin. Fascinatingly, the augmentation of the results of APD–induced combination
from the Leptin mitigated in the platelets found from the overweight or the obese patients in
comparison to the normal–weight patients. However, other studies showed no effect of Leptin at
concentration levels of up to 500 ng/mL from obese and other normal weight subjects. Results from
44 women diagnosed with obesity, the plasma containing Leptin has a correlation with the excretion
of urinary 11–dehydrothromboxane B2. Restrictions of caloric values reduces the levels of Leptin
and the platelet activity is reduced in the process. This is evident from the reflection of decrease in
the levels of P–selectin concentration in the plasma. There is also a positive correlation of plasma
Leptin and the concentrations of the plasminogen activator inhibitor–1 expressed in the men with
the ischemic heart diseases. From professional follow–up, it was observed that Leptin correlated
significantly with the von Willebrand and fibrinogen factor (Reaven, 2011). Studies done in Swedish
populations showed that there is a positive association of Leptin with the plasma fibrinogen and it
also expresses an inverse relationship with the plasminogen activator found in tissues and its
concentration in plasma (Townsend, 2012). An inverse correlation between the 2 inhibitors of
coagulation and Leptin, the

Obesity Is A Significant Risk Factor For A Number Of Adults
Over two–thirds of adults in the United States are considered overweight or obese [1]. Obesity is a
significant risk factor for a number of chronic conditions, including cardiovascular disease (CVD),
type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome [2], [3], [4]. Metabolic syndrome is a chronic disease
characterized by the presence of individual risk factors including: insulin resistance, dyslipidemia
(high plasma triglycerides, low high–density lipoprotein (HDL)), hyperglycemia, and hypertension
[3, 5, 6]. When evaluating the individual components of metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia,
hypertension, and insulin resistance are also considered risk factors for CVD [3]. High fat mass
(FM), especially in the form of visceral fat (VF), is commonly ... Show more content on
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The MHO have similar amounts of subcutaneous fat as those who are metabolically at risk, but have
less VF [8, 10, 11]. However, it should also be noted that MHO still had a significant amount of VF,
subcutaneous fat, and total body fat [10], [5], which may influence hormones, future development of
other risk factors, and energy expenditure.
Many studies have shown that high VF is significantly related to insulin resistance [11]. Normal
weight individuals with low subcutaneous fat, but increased VF had greater insulin resistance than
those with lower VF [8]. When evaluating this relationship in obese, metabolically at risk obese had
more VF and greater insulin resistance than MHO [5]. On the other hand, subcutaneous fat seems to
be associated with increased levels of leptin [11], a hormone secreted by adipose tissue that signals
the amount of energy stores (fat mass) available in the body [12]. Leptin levels are positively
correlated with FM [12], with obese individuals exhibiting high leptin concentrations [11]. Since
obese individuals have an excess of body fat, high concentrations of leptin should decrease energy
intake and increase energy expenditure which would promote a return to normal weight. Despite the
potential physiological function, the role of leptin in energy expenditure is not completely
understood. Research has demonstrated obese individuals to have high

Type 2 Diabetes: A Case Study
Obesity has exclusively negative impacts on human health due to its disruption of key components
of the body's Control and Communication Network, especially the Local Support and Defence
System and the Endocrine System. These disturbances carry harsh penalties as they can cause the
development of dangerous and often irreversible chronic diseases.
Type II Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease linked to obesity (Singla et al. 2010). Adipocytes
produce several hormones and cytokines, including those that regulate metabolism and
inflammatory responses in the body (Singla et al. 2010). Obese individuals characteristically have
excess adipose tissue, which results in the overproduction of these signalling molecules, disturbing
communication pathways. (Singla et al. 2010). For example, non–essential fatty acids (NEFAs) and
the hormone resistin, both secreted by adipose tissue, are overproduced by obese individuals; excess
NEFAs and resistin results in suppression of insulin activity in metabolic pathways, decreasing
glucose tolerance (Singla et al. 2010) (Kahn et al. 2006). Pro–inflammatory cytokines produced by
adipocytes, including tumour necrosis factor–α (TNF–α) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Obese individuals tend to have adipose tissue that displays a combination of hyperplasia and
hypertrophy (Surmi and Hasty 2008). This increase in both cell size and number can lead to a
hypoxia of certain adipocytes, ultimately resulting in cell death (Surmi and Hasty 2008). Phagocytic
macrophages are therefore continually recruited into the adipose tissue to clear the dead cells,
causing a state of prolonged inflammation (Surmi and Hasty 2008). Like adipocytes, activated
macrophages also release inflammatory peptides such as IL–6 and TNF–α; these cytokines activate
the NF–kB transcription factor, which is a common marker of malignant cancer tumours due to its
promotion of cell proliferation and metastasis (Hursting and Hursting

Obesity Case Study
10 mice were allocated in each group. Group 1 is the normal control, group 2 is the high–fat control,
and group 3 is the test group fed with pioglitazone (30mg/kg). Discussion: Obesity causes an
increase in the production of free radicals, leading to an increase in oxidative stress. Following
obesity, a reduction in total antioxidant capacity and the activity of enzyme such as catalase, adding
up to other obesity related problems (1,4,5). Pioglitazone activates PPAR  type 1 and 2, improve
insulin sensitivity and glycemic control, in people with type 2 diabetes (8–9). In a study by
Bahramikia and colleagues , performed on rats, receiving a high–fat diet, in comparison with the
control group, the levels of LDL–C, total cholesterol, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The serum MDA level was increased in high–fat control group, compared to the normal control
group , due to increase in fatty acids and decrease in serum antioxidant capacity. Singh et al.
reported that the use of pioglitazone (30 mg / kg), has reduced the serum MDA levels (19).
Consistently, in the present study, the serum MDA levels in the pioglitazone group was significantly
decreased, compared to the control group (p <0.05). In a study by Hussian and colleagues,
pioglitazone has reduced the serum glucose, LDL and cholesterol level in non–diabetic
hyperlipidemia rats, compared to the controls (20). In the current study, serum glucose, LDL and
serum cholesterol levels were decreased in the third group, compared to the second group (p <0.05).
The UCP–1 gene expression alterations observed in this study, can be due to the lipid alterations in
the high fat diet groups The UCP–1 gene expression alterations observed in this study, can be due to
the high fat consumption in these groups. Weight gain and decrease in TAC, the catalase enzyme
activity, and the antioxidants of the serum in the second group, compared to the first group can be
due to high calorie regimen and the free radicals produced by the high–fat diet, that has dominated
the antioxidant capacity of the serum, which are consistent with the data

Resting Metabolic Rate and RBP4
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) as main part of daily energy expenditure (14) has principal role in
energy balance. Indeed, resting metabolic rate can effect on adiposity or weight gain(14, 15). Our
results demonstrated that RMR/kg had reverse significant correlation with weight, BMI and visceral
fat. Some pathogenetic explanation for lower energy expenditure in obese subjects with metabolic
syndrome may be the lipotoxic theory, lower levels of uncoupling proteins in mitochondria and
genetic polymorphism in them(17) There are lots of studies that signify a connection of retinoid
signaling with energy balance and metabolic disease (12, 13). Previously the intracellular function
of retinoid in energy homeostasis has been recognized[16] also a number of investigators have
suggested a link between the serum retinol:RBP4 ratio with obesity and type 2 diabetes(11). In
general, adipocyte derived RBP4 has classified in category of factors with direct effect on
metabolism(5). The unique finding of the present study was detection of significantly lower levels of
RMR/kg in the subjects with higher circulating RBP4 concentration, and on the contrary, higher
levels of RMR/kg in those with lower circulating RBP4 concentration. In our study, we also found
that in high RBP4 concentration 83.3% of participants had RMR/kg < 20 kcal/24 h/kg and subjects
who had RMR/kg ≥ 20 kcal/24 h/kg were 16.7%. These findings clearly indicate that the resting
metabolic rate is reduced at high levels RBP4

Atrial Fibrillation : A Common Problem
ABSTRACT
Atrial fibrillation is a common problem, with over 2 million people affected in the United States.
Atrial fibrillation causes substantial morbidity and mortality, with an increased risk of ischemic
stroke. Thus, it is important to recognize the risk factors associated with the disease to prevent it
from occurring. In this review, being overweight and obese is positively correlated with increased
risk of developing atrial fibrillation in both men and women. This review suggests that the excess
risk of atrial fibrillation associated with obesity may be caused by the left atrial remodeling and
enlargement caused by the excess adipose tissue, hemodynamic overload, and adipokines
inflammatory response. This data raises the possibility that interventions to promote normal weight
may reduce the burden of atrial fibrillation in the current and future population. A few of the
recognized risk factors for atrial fibrillation are male sex, increasing age, hypertension, diabetes,
ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and heart valve disease (13). It has been known for more than
75 years that a critical mass of atrial tissue is necessary for atrial fibrillation to occur and left atrial
enlargement is also an important precursor of atrial fibrillation (3). Several studies have shown that
BMI is one of the most powerful determinants of the left atrial size needed for developing atrial
fibrillation (3), so getting BMI lowered by exercise and a good diet should be of high priority

The Effect Of Cardiopulmonary Parameters On Blood Pressure...
SYNOPSIS M.P.T Programme 2013–2015 AMITY INSTITUTE OF PHYSIOTHERAPY (AIPT)
COMPARE CARDIOPULMONARY PARAMETERS (BLOOD PRESSURE, HEART RATE,
SpO2 , BMI,INSPIRATORY AND EXPIRATORY CAPACITIES) IN NECK OBESE AND
ABDOMINALLY OBESE INDVIDUALS. Name Ankita Samuel Enrollment Number
A1102713009 Programme Master of Physiotherapy(2013–2015) Elective Cardiopulmonary Contact
Details 9899687131 ankitasamuel@gmail.com Introduction Obesity is a combination of genotype
and the environment involving cultural, behavioural, social, metabolic, physiological and genetic
factors as well1. The primary cause for obesity as per WHO is disproportion between excessive food
intake and lack of physical activity. Obese Individuals are at elevated risk for a variety of disabling
and critical chronic conditions, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, various skin conditions,
respiratory dysfunction, and overall mortality3. The term 'globesity ' is used to depict the epidemic
drift towards greater than before body weight universal occurrence of obesity both in urban and
developing nations has led to the usage 2. There are several anthropometric measures to assess
obesity among which Body mass index (BMI) is most broadly used. Other anthropometric
measurements of obesity include waist circumference(Cw), and waist:hip ratio, radiologic
techniques can give an overall and local assessment of body composition.5 Measurement of neck
circumference (Cn) has recently been found to

The Relationship Between Change And Body Reserves Essay
The relationship between change in live weight and change in body reserves.
Change in live weight of a ewe is reflected in changes in body reserves. A negative change in live
weight, i.e. a decrease in body weight, can occur postpartum, in the first stage of lactation. When a
ewe starts her lactation period, there is a huge shift in different energy requirements (Nicol and
Brookes, 2007). This shift is the onset of losing weight, since there is more energy required to
maintain the lamb(s), than there is energy intake. Due to a change in body reserves, especially in
adipose tissue mobilization, there is a change in live weight of the ewes (Keenan et al. 1969; Cowan
et al. 1979; Burton et al. 1974). Change in live weight does induce change in body reserves, which is
reflected in a change in the body condition score (Burgel et al. 2011). Ewes with low condition score
at breeding have been reported to have higher chance of abortion in the embryonic phase of
pregnancy (West et al., 1989). For body reserves, adipose tissue will be the first to deplete when the
ewe is not in a position to maintain her live weight (Keenan et al. 1969; Burton et al. 1974).
Changes in metabolism of ewes affect the body composition for adipose tissue, underfed animals
will have lower fat reserves than animals fed at maintenance level or overfed animals (Chilliard et
al. 2008). Body weight losses during pregnancy, regardless of the feed intake, is on average greater
for heavier ewes than for lighter

Obesity : Factors Associated With Type 2 Diabetes
Obesity remains one of the leading factors associated with Type 2 Diabetes. Type 2 Diabetes,
previously identified as Adult–Onset Diabetes, affects the way one metabolizes glucose, a crucial
energy source for the body. Type 2 Diabetes also causes an increase or decrease in insulin
production. Insulin resistance occurs when the body prohibits the usage of insulin. According to the
Center for Disease Control (CDC), Type 2 Diabetes "accounts for 90 to 95 percent of diabetic
cases"; making it the prominent form of diabetes. The CDC indicates Type 2 Diabetes results from a
combination of genetic and environmental influences ("2014 National Diabetes Statistics Report.").
Obesity, a significant risk factor, enhances the effects of Type 2 Diabetes leading to liver disease and
pancreatitis. The lack of muscle mass also contributes to Type 2 Diabetes, making it difficult for the
elimination of glucose from the body. Excess levels of fat heighten inflammation in the body,
changing the way it reacts and responds to insulin.
The additional levels of fat stimulate inflammation throughout the body. Described by Vivian
Fonseca, MD, inflammation, first targets adipose or fat cell; acting comparable to a protective
mechanism, preventing the body from losing motility and dying (Vann). Juan F. Navarro and
Carmen Mora, students from Oxford University stated, "In obesity, activation starts from the process
of pro–inflammatory cytokines [proteins] such as tumor necrosis factor–α, interleukin–1β

A Study On Type 2 Diabetes Essay

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A Study On Type 2 Diabetes Essay