The role of the Mahakam River in society is undeniably vital because it is the cornerstone of product distribution channels from upstream to downstream, namely forestry, agricultural, and even mining commodities. Especially with the National Capital (IKN) plan, the Mahakam River is in a buffer zone. Satellite imagery in Mahakam is available in various seamless access, including those of the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). This study provides an overview of Mahakam Watershed's dynamics through Landsat Imagery's perspective. The Landsat observation is preliminary research from a research grant in Geomorphometry of the Mahakam Watershed, utilizing Landsat image data by combining bands 7, 5, and 3 for Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS (Land Satellite 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor) and bands 7, 4, and 2 as Landsat 5 STM (Land Satellite 5 Sensor Thematic Mapper). The study examines the pattern and changes in the direction of the Mahakam River flow, as well as the phenomenon of the presence of three lakes. So, to the results of the identification, the Mahakam Watershed is divided into three sub-watersheds, upstream, central, and downstream. The Central sub-watershed is characterized by the presence of three natural lakes parallel to the change in flow direction caused by tectonic processes. The impact narrows the river channel, so the velocity experiences a backwash effect and anastomosing reach. Meanwhile, from the morphography aspect, the three lakes in the Mahakam Watershed are in the half-graben framework due to the second strain of the formation of Samarinda Anticlinorium. This research will continue to the measurement, calculation, and modeling stages to have more comprehensive benefits in predicting flood and drought hazards from the dynamics of the Mahakam Watershed.

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A LandSAT-driven approach to describe meander stream phenomenon in Mahakam Watershed,
East Kalimantan
Stevanus Nalendra Jati1,2
, Dasapta Erwin Irawan3
, Rusmarwan Suwarman4
, Deny Juanda Puradimaja3
1
Geological Engineering Study Program, Universitas Sriwijaya
2
PhD student, Institut Teknologi Bandung
3
Applied Geology Research Group, Institut Teknologi Bandung
4
Meterological Study Program, Institut Teknologi Bandung
Abstract
The role of the Mahakam River in society is undeniably vital because it is the cornerstone of product distribution
channels from upstream to downstream, namely forestry, agricultural, and even mining commodities. Especially with
the National Capital (IKN) plan, the Mahakam River is in a buffer zone. Satellite imagery in Mahakam is available
in various seamless access, including those of the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) and the United
States Geological Survey (USGS). This study provides an overview of Mahakam Watershed's dynamics through
Landsat Imagery's perspective. The Landsat observation is preliminary research from a research grant in
Geomorphometry of the Mahakam Watershed, utilizing Landsat image data by combining bands 7, 5, and 3 for
Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS (Land Satellite 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor) and bands 7, 4, and 2
as Landsat 5 STM (Land Satellite 5 Sensor Thematic Mapper). The study examines the pattern and changes in the
direction of the Mahakam River flow, as well as the phenomenon of the presence of three lakes. So, to the results of
the identification, the Mahakam Watershed is divided into three sub-watersheds, upstream, central, and downstream.
The Central sub-watershed is characterized by the presence of three natural lakes parallel to the change in flow
direction caused by tectonic processes. The impact narrows the river channel, so the velocity experiences a backwash
effect and anastomosing reach. Meanwhile, from the morphography aspect, the three lakes in the Mahakam
Watershed are in the half-graben framework due to the second strain of the formation of Samarinda Anticlinorium.
This research will continue to the measurement, calculation, and modeling stages to have more comprehensive
benefits in predicting flood and drought hazards from the dynamics of the Mahakam Watershed.
Keywords: Mahakam, watershed, river, three lakes, landsat.
Introduction
The Mahakam River is the center of economic activity
because it is the cornerstone of product distribution
from upstream to downstream, namely forestry,
agricultural, fishery, and even mining commodities.
Presidential Decree of the Republic of Indonesia
Number 12 of 2012 stipulates that the Mahakam River
Area is a priority river category. The most intense
transportation rate activity in the Mahakam River is
the back-and-forth distribution of coal, which strongly
influences changes in the dimensions of the Mahakam
River (Aslan et al., 2021; Hadibarata et al., 2019).
Milestone mining downstream of the Mahakam River
causes silting at every bend of the river due to the
deposition of soil material on the riverbed (Persoon
and Simarmata, 2014; Setiawan et al., 2014).
Currently, the Mahakam watershed has become a
national issue. It plays a role as a buffer for the
National Capital City (IKN) in terms of strategic water
supply, although with significant variability and
uneven spatial distribution (Arifanti et al., 2019;
Hadibarata et al., 2019). Judging from the overall flow
pattern of the Mahakam River, the dynamics of the
river's bend in the Mahakam Sentral Sub-watershed is
the center of attention. There is because, apart from
the extreme degree of curvature of the river, there is
also a change in the direction of the flow. In general,
from upstream, the Mahakam River flows to the
southeast, then in the central part, it changes relative
to the northeast for 63 km, then flows back to the
southeast. Related to the change in the flow direction,
there is a phenomenon of three successive large lakes
along the anomaly of the river flow that leads to the
northeast. The three lakes from upstream are Lake
Jempang, Lake Melintang, and Lake Semayang.
Watershed morphometric properties are the long-term
impacts of geological and climatic processes. Some
hydrogeologists have even confirmed that
morphometric parameters are vital in tropic watershed
hydraulics (Basahi et al., 2016; Elfeki et al., 2017;
Farhan et al., 2016; Niyazi et al., 2020). The
unmeasured tropical region, its morphometric
features, and related parameters impact watershed
hydraulics, especially surface runoff and groundwater
infiltration (Masoud, 2016). Many studies have
considered the integration between morphological

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characteristics and hydrological response, such as
Elfeki et al. (2018), Elfeki and Bahrawi (2017), Marko
et al. (2019). This study is the first part of significant
research related to the hydrogeomorphometry of the
Mahakam watershed. So that the priority of this study
on LadSAT observations with the aim:
1. Studying geological control concerning the
dynamics of river bends in the Mahakam
watershed.
2. Interpret the process of the formation of the
Mahakam River and the emergence of three
lakes.
3. Develop a theoretical framework for linking
rivers and three lakes in the Mahakam
watershed.
Next, the general aim of the study will be to improve
the understanding of geomorphometric variability and
its consequences on the evolution of the three lakes,
including genesis and prediction. It even provides a
quantitative assessment of the morphometric variables
and their impact on the hydrological response.
Furthermore, these results will help researchers by
quantitatively assessing the potential for flooding with
the level of risk.
Data and Method
The increased availability of satellite imagery
information and the ease of data processing within the
scope of remote sensing technology and GIS has
enabled the development of several methodologies for
the extraction of landscape characteristics from the
Digital Elevation Model (DEM), such as disaster
monitoring and analysis into a comprehensive one
(Malczewski and Rinner, 2015). The data acquisition
process, namely spatial data with seamless access
from the www.tanahairindonesia.go.id site belonging
to the Geospatial Information Agency (BIG) in the
form of cartographic data and National DEM
(DEMNas) with a resolution of 8.25-10 m (Hell and
Jakobsson, 2011). The spatial analysis uses ArcGIS
Pro 2.5 and Quantum GIS to delineate watershed
boundaries and sub-watersheds. Furthermore, DEM
data is the primary data set used in elevation control
(Table 1).
Table 1: Recapitulation of the data used.
Component Data Authority
Vector DEMNas BIG
Raster
5-STM: band 7, 4, 2 USGS
8-OLI/TIRS: band 7, 5, 3 BRIN PR-Inderaja
LandSAT IKONOS 2013 Digital Globe, US
LandSAT GeoEye Google – NGA
The data and information needed in the
geomorphometric research of the Mahakam
watershed are hydrogeological data, topography,
rainfall, land use, and flood susceptibility index (FSI)
analyzed through GIS. However, this initial study
prioritizes the presentation of Landsat data and the
identification of phenomena in the Mahakam
watershed.
Result and Discussion
The Mahakam watershed stretches from Mahakam
Ulu Regency on the west side of East Kalimantan
Province to Samarinda Municipality on the east side.
It empties into an ideal delta pattern in the Makassar
Strait. When viewed from the morphographic aspect,
the Mahakam watershed is divided into three sub-
watersheds (Figure 1), namely:
1. Upstream: in the form of mountains and hills
morphology, bordered by cliffs reaching 100-
1000 m, composed of igneous rocks resistant to
erosional processes, the river pattern is relatively
straight and stable, and the width of the narrow
river ranges from 48-100 m.
2. Central: in the form of lowlands dominated by
swamp deposits, meandering river patterns, and
developing into braided.
3. Downstream: downstream of the river mouth in
the Makassar Strait, which forms the Mahakam
Delta.
Figure 1: Map of the Mahakam River Basin which includes
the Mahakam Watershed including the Mahakam River
Basin ( River Basin Criteria and Determination, KepMen
PUPR, 2015).
This research is studio work, namely spatial
computing (Figure 2). Visualization of the results
utilizes Landsat image data available on the pages of
the Center for Remote Sensing Research, the National
Research and Innovation Agency (PR-Inderaja
BRIN), and the United States Geological Society
(USGS) by combining bands 7, 5, and 3 for Land
Satellite 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal
Infrared Sensor (Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS) and bands 7, 4,
and 2 as Landsat 5 Sensor Thematic Mapper (STM)
(Figure 3). Finally, several previous studies reviewed
the identification of meanders in the Mahakam
watershed related to the interpretation of the three
lakes' genesis. The geological component in this study
is a crucial parameter for the genesis of the three lakes.

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Figure 2: Mahakam watershed and the position of the three
lakes.
The three Mahakam lakes are natural lakes consisting
of Lake Jempang, Lake Melintang, and Lake
Semayang. These three lakes are included in the 15
national priority lakes as stipulated in Presidential
Regulation 60 of 2021. In the Presidential Regulation
document, the three lakes are termed the Mahakam
Cascade Area. Meanwhile, in the Indonesian
Dictionary (KBBI), Kaskade means a series of devices
that work sequentially one after the other. So that it
gives the meaning of the relationship between the
three lakes, namely from upstream is Lake Jempang,
then Lake Melintang, and Lake Semayang.
The determination of the Mahakam Cascade Lake
Area in 15 national priority lakes is the concern of all
stakeholders so that the carrying capacity and capacity
of the environment are maintained in line with the
vision of sustainable management. The dimensions of
these three large lakes are Lake Jempang with an area
of 15,000 ha, Lake Melintang with 11,000 ha, and
Lake Semayang with 13,000 ha (Table 2). The
position of Lake Jempang is isolated from the other
two lakes because the flow of the Mahakam River
separates it. Meanwhile, Lake Melintang and Lake
Semayang tend to merge during the rainy season until
the overflow of water increases. Even Lake Melintang
and Lake Semayang only have one outlet, the Pela
River, which empties into the Mahakam River.
Table 2: Dimensions of the three lakes in the Mahakam.
Aspect Jempang L. Melintang L. Semayang L.
Area 15.000 ha, 150
km2
11.000 ha, 110
km2
13.000 ha, 130
km2
Depth 3,5 m (dry), 7
m (rainy)
2 m (dry), 6,5 m
(rainy)
3 m (dry), 6,5
m (rainy)
Loc
adm
Jempang
Subdis, West
Kutei Reg
Muara Wis
Subdis, Kukar
Reg
Muara Wis
Subdis, Kukar
Reg
Inlet-
outlet
I: Bongan R,
Ohong R;
O: Kemujan R
I: Enggelam R,
O: Pela R
I: Kahala R,
O: Pela R
Before being stipulated in Presidential Regulation 60
of 2021, these three lakes had become targets in the
20115-2019 National Medium-Term Development
Plan (RPJMN). The RPJMN document states that the
administrative location of Lake Jempang is in
Jempang District, West Kutai Regency, while
Melintang Lake and Semayang Lake are in Muara Wis
District, Kutai Kartanegara Regency (Figure 4). The
impact of the determination of the three lakes area in
the two national strategic documents, the provincial
government, through the East Kalimantan Tourism
Office, held a national-scale agenda entitled "Festival
of 3 Lakes" in November 2021. This is to support and
increase creative ecotourism.

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Figure 3: Basic satellite image data for 1996 (top, from
LAPAN), 2000 (middle, USGS), 2010 (middle, USGS),
2019 (bottom), accessed and processed in May 2021.
Figure 4: The state of the three lakes, Lake Jempang and its
transportation facilities (above, source deniekasurya.com);
Melintang Lake during the dry season (middle, source
dispar.kaltimprov.go.id); Semayang Lake at high tide
(bottom, source Kalimantan.menlhk.go.id).
The Mahakam watershed's physiography has
phenomena relevant to three lakes. The three lakes are
located at an elevation of 2-3 meters above sea level.
Elevations flank them in the upstream part of the
Mahakam watershed and the Samarinda
Anticlinorium ridge downstream of the three lakes
(Figure 5). Spatially, in the Mahakam watershed, three
lakes are in an inter-altitude valley where the
accumulation of stagnant water flows.
Tectonostratigraphic configuration, the Mahakam
watershed is within the scope of the Kuter Basin,
which also illustrates the deviation of the Mahakam
River flow direction to the Northeast (Figure 6). The
flow shift is also marked by the presence of a lake,
which is tectono-stratigraphically called the Kutei
Lakes.
According to Satyana et al. (1999), the lake sediment
has occurred since the Plio-Pleistocene which is
closely related to the formation process of the
Samarinda Anticlinorium so that it is closely related
to tectonic processes (Figure 7). The lake deposits are
in the form of fine sedimentary material with
relatively calm currents because they are Plio-
Pleistocene Lake deposits. Moss and Chambers
(1999) stated that a compressional stress regime
controlled the study area, especially in the inversion
phase that occurred in the Eocene, by forming half-
graben depocenters (Figure 7).
Based on the river's genesis, the Mahakam River is
classified as an antecedent type because it not only
penetrates a fold but winds through a collection of 12
folds, namely the Samarinda Anticlinorium. The
antecedent type is pre-genetic, namely the river that
has flowed first, then a compressional tectonic process
occurs, then folds are formed. The compressional
stress phase in the formation event of the Samarinda
Anticlinorium is thought to have hampered the flow
of the Mahakam River, resulting in a delay in
backwashing. The impact on the behavior of the river
flow is that there is an adjustment, such as an
anastomosing reach with the form of three lakes.
Figure 5: Physiography of the Kutai Basin (Satyana et al.,
1999; Vermeulen et al., 2014).
Identification of the Landsat band combine, the three
lakes are reflected in a half-graben pattern. The
distribution of the three lakes pattern is also still linear
to the anomaly of changes in the direction of the

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Mahakam River flow to the northeast. Thus, the
dynamics of the meandering and braided stream of the
Mahakam River up to three lakes, the process is
controlled by tectonic, the phenomenon is still clearly
visible.
Figure 6: The structural pattern of the Eastern Kutai Basin
(Moss and Chambers, 1999). The green box notation is the
study area, while the red line represents the cross-sectional
area in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Cross-section of West-East, which illustrates the
relationship between the presence of lake deposits and the
pattern of the Samarinda Anticlinorium (Moss and
Chambers, 1999; Satyana et al., 1999).
Conclusions
The focus of this study is Landsat observations in the
Mahakam watershed which resulted in several studies,
including:
1. There is an anomaly in the direction of the
Mahakam River, which generally flows to the
southeast, but in the Mahakam Sentral Sub-
watershed, the flow direction changes to the
northeast for 63 km, then flows back to the
southeast.
2. The existence of three successive large lakes,
precisely in the Mahakam Sentral Sub-watershed.
These three lakes have a linear pattern concerning
changes in the direction of the Mahakam River
flow.
3. Based on space and time, the Three Lakes have
existed since the Plio-Pleistocene and were in a
half-graben framework during the formation of
the Samarinda Anticlinorium.
4. The Mahakam River is an antecedent type that
first flowed before the formation of the
Samarinda Anticlinorium.
5. The hypothesis is that the flow of the Mahakam
River will experience a narrowing of the channel
and/or obstruction of flow during the Samarinda
Anticlinorium process. So, a backwash occurs,
which has implications for the anastomosing
reach around the Three Lakes.
This study is part of the initial study of major research
on hydro-geomorphometry of the Mahakam
watershed, East Kalimantan. So that the next study
will be more in-depth related to measurements,
calculations, and modeling. The hope is that it can
prove the hypothesis built in this study and has more
comprehensive benefits to predict the danger of
flooding or drought.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Research and Technology (Kemdikburistek)
under a research grant from decentralization program
number 0277/E5/AK.04/2022 dated May 6th
2022. We
also thank to Imam Priyono, Yuniarti Ulfa, Ananta
Purwo as colleague for the discussion about
hydrogeological.
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