This document summarizes a study on hate crimes in Turkey. It provides background information on hate crimes and discusses the methodology and key results of the study. The study involved surveying 495 people at university hospitals in Istanbul about their awareness and experiences related to hate crimes. Some key findings include: 61.2% of participants knew what a hate crime was, 32.4% reported being subjected to a hate crime, and the most common type experienced was physical violence. The document discusses definitions and theories related to hate crimes and examines factors that could cause exposure to or perpetration of hate crimes.
This article explains the intricate relationship between violence and health,
aiming to transcend the conventional and restricted perspectives through
which violence is typically perceived and conceptualized. The limitationregarding the conceptualisation of violence, by researchers, when the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is taken into consideration, leads us to think that those researching violence and health are limited to the WHO definition and conceptualisation of violence due to various historical processes of knowledge production and flows, which leads to a ‘violence of closure’. I follow a reflexive approach and identify several types of violence from which I focus on cognitive violence, epistemic violence, ontological violence, and neoliberal violence. Understanding of violence needs to acknowledge that multiple forms of violence overlap entangle and intersect in a rhizomatic manner. Only sticking to the WHO definition of violence leads to a condition that creates a condition of ‘violence of closure’ that neglects various systemic and structural processes through which violence is experienced at the individual micro-level.
Psychologıcal Vıolence In Busıness Lıfe (Mobbıng- Psychologıcal Vıolence)inventionjournals
It can be said that "Mobbing" or as its alias, "psychological violence" is a phenomenon that has been extensively studied in academic studies and the press recently. The psychological violence occurring in business life as an trauma experience, emerged as an important factor which has created negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, stres, guilt and anger and in the lives of individuals who adapt to working life. As the number of research conducted on mobbing (psychological violence), felt damaging effects on individuals, has proliferated day to day in all areas of social life and working life, the researches emerged on the awareness of the issue and methods to fight mobbing is increasingly becoming important in many countries, In this study, addressed the causes, results, the process of formation, development, stage and researches on the consequences of psychological violence faced by workers in the work place, examined perspectives, revised results and findings which emerged in researches carried out on the subject and it was intended to the solutions against mobbingstruggle in business life.
This article explains the intricate relationship between violence and health,
aiming to transcend the conventional and restricted perspectives through
which violence is typically perceived and conceptualized. The limitationregarding the conceptualisation of violence, by researchers, when the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is taken into consideration, leads us to think that those researching violence and health are limited to the WHO definition and conceptualisation of violence due to various historical processes of knowledge production and flows, which leads to a ‘violence of closure’. I follow a reflexive approach and identify several types of violence from which I focus on cognitive violence, epistemic violence, ontological violence, and neoliberal violence. Understanding of violence needs to acknowledge that multiple forms of violence overlap entangle and intersect in a rhizomatic manner. Only sticking to the WHO definition of violence leads to a condition that creates a condition of ‘violence of closure’ that neglects various systemic and structural processes through which violence is experienced at the individual micro-level.
Psychologıcal Vıolence In Busıness Lıfe (Mobbıng- Psychologıcal Vıolence)inventionjournals
It can be said that "Mobbing" or as its alias, "psychological violence" is a phenomenon that has been extensively studied in academic studies and the press recently. The psychological violence occurring in business life as an trauma experience, emerged as an important factor which has created negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, stres, guilt and anger and in the lives of individuals who adapt to working life. As the number of research conducted on mobbing (psychological violence), felt damaging effects on individuals, has proliferated day to day in all areas of social life and working life, the researches emerged on the awareness of the issue and methods to fight mobbing is increasingly becoming important in many countries, In this study, addressed the causes, results, the process of formation, development, stage and researches on the consequences of psychological violence faced by workers in the work place, examined perspectives, revised results and findings which emerged in researches carried out on the subject and it was intended to the solutions against mobbingstruggle in business life.
Stanford Law Review Mapping the Margins Intersection.docxsusanschei
Stanford Law Review
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of
Color
Author(s): Kimberle Crenshaw
Source: Stanford Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 6 (Jul., 1991), pp. 1241-1299
Published by: Stanford Law Review
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039
Accessed: 11-04-2018 04:08 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
Stanford Law Review is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Stanford Law Review
This content downloaded from 128.114.228.158 on Wed, 11 Apr 2018 04:08:34 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality,
Identity Politics, and Violence Against
Women of Color
Kimberle Crenshaw*
INTRODUCTION
Over the last two decades, women have organized against the almost
routine violence that shapes their lives.1 Drawing from the strength of
shared experience, women have recognized that the political demands of mil-
lions speak more powerfully than the pleas of a few isolated voices. This
politicization in turn has transformed the way we understand violence
against women. For example, battering and rape, once seen as private (fam-
ily matters) and aberrational (errant sexual aggression), are now largely rec-
ognized as part of a broad-scale system of domination that affects women as
a class.2 This process of recognizing as social and systemic what was for-
* ? 1993 by Kimberle Crenshaw. Professor of Law, University of California, Los Angeles.
B.A. Cornell University, 1981; J.D. Harvard Law School, 1984; LL.M. University of Wisconsin,
1985.
I am indebted to a great many people who have pushed this project along. For their kind assist-
ance in facilitating my field research for this article, I wish to thank Maria Blanco, Margaret Cam-
brick, Joan Creer, Estelle Cheung, Nilda Rimonte and Fred Smith. I benefitted from the comments
of Taunya Banks, Mark Barenberg, Darcy Calkins, Adrienne Davis, Gina Dent, Brent Edwards,
Paul Gewirtz, Lani Guinier, Neil Gotanda, Joel Handler, Duncan Kennedy, Henry Monaghan, Eliz-
abeth Schneider and Kendall Thomas. A very special thanks goes to Gary Peller and Richard Yar-
borough. Jayne Lee, Paula Puryear, Yancy Garrido, Eugenia Gifford and Leti Volpp provided
valuable research assistance. I gratefully ackno.
Restorative Justice Women, Crime, Violence, and HealingJanuar.docxjoellemurphey
Restorative Justice: Women, Crime, Violence, and Healing
January 27/30, 2015
Treisha Hylton UOIT
1
Agenda
Announcements (case review )
Lecture
Class Discussion
Break
Lecture
Student Support
2
Feminism: An Overview And the Colonization of Diversity
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies that share a common stated aim: to define, establish, and defend equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights of women rights. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist generally self-defines as advocating for or supporting the rights and equality of women. Feminist theory which emerged from feminist movements aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.
3
Feminism and the Law
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies that share a common stated aim: to define, establish, and defend equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights of women This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist generally self-defines as advocating for or supporting the rights and equality of women. Feminist which emerged from feminist movement, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.
4
Overview of Women’s Movement in Restorative Justice
Addresses Multiple marginality” is manifested by women of colour, poor women, First Nations women and women that identify as Queer (LGBT)
Framework rooted in violence against women
Recently First Nations women offenders
Corrective rape
Victim blaming and re-victimization (within the criminal justice system)
Emergence of victim’s movement
Health Care Needs of incarcerated women (HIV, Aids, and Trans-women)
Linkages between crimes committed by women and crimes against women
Addresses the different pathways to incarceration (women crimes of necessity)
Exploring the Intersectionality of Victimization and Criminalization of First Nation’s Women
5
Restorative Justice: Women as Victims
Restorative justice may by an additional layer to a more complex issue of domestic violence, violence against women
Women's groups in Canada and the U.S. have raised concerns about the race and gender polit ...
1Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitud.docxdrennanmicah
1
Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitudes – A test of General Strain
Theory*
Amy Nivette
Griffith University
Manuel Eisner
University of Cambridge
Denis Ribeaud
ETH Zurich
2
ABSTRACT
Objectives: This study examines the influence of collective strain on support for violent
extremism among an ethnically and religiously mixed sample of Swiss adolescents. This
study explores two claims derived from General Strain Theory: (1) exposure to collective
strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and (2) the effect of
collective strain is conditional on perceptions of moral and legal constraints.
Methods: This study examines the effects of collective strain using data from two waves
of the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children and Youth. This study uses
ordinary least squares procedures to regress violent extremist attitudes at age 17 on strain,
moral and legal constraints, and control variables measured at ages 15-17. Conditional
effects were examined using an interaction term for collective strain and moral
disengagement and legal cynicism, respectively.
Results: The results show that vicarious collective strain does not have a direct effect on
violent extremist attitudes once other variables are controlled. However, the degree to
which individuals neutralize moral and legal constraints amplifies the impact of collective
strain on violent extremist attitudes.
Conclusions: This study shows that those who already espouse justifications for violence
and rule-breaking are more vulnerable to extremist violent pathways, particularly when
exposed to conditions of collective social and economic strife, conflict, and repression.
3
Research on violent extremism has produced a wide array of risk factors in psychological,
social, and political domains (Bhui, Warfa, and Jones 2014; Borum 2011a, 2011b;
Dalgaard-Nielsen 2010; Gill, Horgan, and Deckert 2014; LaFree and Ackerman 2009;
McGilloway, Ghosh, and Bhui 2015). These include psychological characteristics (e.g. low
self-control), social context features (e.g. alienation) and political processes (e.g. exclusion
from politics). LaFree and Ackerman (2009) argue that part of the difficulty in
synthesizing information on extremist violence is due to the breadth of attitudinal,
behavioral, and group-based outcomes examined under one conceptual umbrella. In
addition, studies differ in their analytical approach, including for instance analyses of risk
factors using survey samples and individual interviews (Doosje, Loseman, and van den
Bos 2013; Goli and Rezaei 2010; Pauwels and De Waele 2014), or retrospective life
history analyses of known terrorists (Gill et al. 2014). As a result of this diversity in
theoretical domains, outcomes, and analytical approaches, empirical findings on the
causes and correlates of violent extremist beliefs and behaviors are unders.
Theories of Female Criminality: A criminological analysis
Mohammed J. Islam
Subrata Banarjee
Nurjahan Khatun
Department of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
The Effect of Vehicle theft and hijacking - Dr Jaco BarkhuizenTracker Connect
The objectives of this study were to gather information in order to provide desired information to the following questions:
- How do victims experience the vehicle hijacking?
- What was the general make-up of the incident?
- What are the financial and physical-emotional consequences of vehicle hijacking?
- What are the social consequences of vehicle hijacking?
- And how does the financial and physical-emotional consequences contribute to the social consequences?
- What common trends can be identified to establish the effect that this crime has had on the social fabric in South Africa?
crime and society.docx-thus is a pdf based on the factors of crime affecting ...eveanchalvaj2206
A crime is defined as 'an act that breaks the law in a particular society'. Crimes occur when social control fails within a society. We can also explore the idea of a 'deviant act'. This is different to a crime, as it's not illegal, but it still breaks the norms of society.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ABUSE IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG YOUNG WOMEN IN...John1Lorcan
This study aims to investigate the psychological effects of abuse from intimate relationships on young
women. In order to overcome the complexity, challenges, and proposal for the best remedies face by the
sexually abuse victims in the Tangkhul community, both qualitative and quantitative approaches are
adopted. The study covers various aspects of research methodology, including study design, sampling
techniques, data collection tools, and analysis methods. Additionally, the study proposes a collaborative
effort between the state and other entities to enhance care and counseling services for survivors of intimate
partner abuse. The main intension and takeaway from the study is to comprehend the cultural changes
taking place along with the critically examination of the victims and how the community can take up
appropriate initiatives through care and counseling, which is the need of an hour.
States of Denial: Gendering Policy & Practice in Domestic Abuse and Mental Health Services - Professor Linda McKie, Glasgow Caledonian University - a presentation at A Difficult Alliance? Making Connections between Mental Health and Domestic Violence Research and Practice Agendas on 7 June 2011
What is sociology Sociology refers to the study of the MikeEly930
What is sociology?
Sociology refers to the study of the human social relationships or connection as well as
institutions. Besides, one can also define it as the scientific study of the community including the
patterns of social relationships, social interaction as well as culture. Therefore, it is an exciting
field of study which focuses on analyzing and explaining vita aspects in our lives, our societies
as well as the entire universe. Personally, I believe that sociology usually research or investigates
the social causes together with the effects of the various phenomenon such as the romantic love,
racial jointly with the gender identity, family conflict, deviant conduct, aging as well as the
religious faith among others.
Explain the difference between sociology and psychology?
Many people including students considering a major in the fields of social sciences question
what the primary differences are between psychology and sociology since they look so similar.
In some manners, these two fields of study go hand in hand to expose the scientific reality
concerning the humans. Besides, they both have the general goal of assisting individuals to better
understand the complex dynamics of the mental procedures, emotions, conducts as well as the
social relationships. However, there are important unique attributes which make the two fields of
study to be different from one another. For instance, psychology seeks to examine the individual
conducts or behaviors as well its causes while the sociology focuses on studying the group
dynamics as well as behaviors (Ozeren et al., 2007). .
What is sociological perspective?
The sociological perspective is frequently used by sociologists to analyze the social phenomena
at various levels and from different angles. The sociological perspectives define the three basic
categories in which individuals might go about to select how to approach a particular topic and
the methods people might use include the structural functionalism, conflict theory as well as the
symbolic interactionist perspectives. These social perspectives are critical in assisting individuals
to connect their issues with the public problems as well as their history. Moreover, the
sociological perspectives will also attempt to come up with the effects of particular social trends
and also provide a structure for knowing the social world in which we live in.
What is sociological imagination?
The sociological imagination refers to the practice of having the capacity to think ourselves away
from the common routines of our daily lives to view them with fresh and critical eyes. It is also a
vivid knowledge and awareness of the relationship which exists between experience and the
broader community. The sociological imagination is the capability to view things socially and
how they relate and influence one another. Therefore, the sociological imagination by Mills
gives a framewo ...
Slavomir Redo, Visiting Lecturer of the Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Vienna made a presentation linking Environmental justice, crime prevention and intergenerational learning on the second day of the Big Foot conference
The Carbon Cycle - A-Level Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon Emission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words. Carbon Tax Essay | Economics - Year 12 HSC | Thinkswap. Elsevier - Carbon Template. Carbon essay - Carbon is one of the most important elements in the .... (PDF) Essay: Carbon Emissions Trading: Is It Possible?. Carbon Dioxide in Organisms and Ecosystems Essay | Carbon Dioxide .... Carbond Dioxide Essay | Ocean Acidification | Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Essay-STU - How the U. Healthcare System Can Help Decrease .... Several Research Topics of Carbon Footprint Order Quantity | Scientific.Net. Carbon template - For Authors. Carbon Essay | PDF. Sources And Sinks Of Carbon Dioxide Environmental Sciences Essay .... Carbon cycle and climate change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Carbon essay - Grade: A - Review the evidence and explanations for a .... Full Marks A-Level Biology Essay - Carbon dioxide may affect organisms .... Carbon foot print essay - reportspdf739.web.fc2.com. Carbon Cycle Writing Prompt by Chelle's Corner | TpT. Carbon Emissions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 .... The Earth And Beyond - GCSE Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon cycle essay | TorneosLTC. Water and carbon essay - ####### To what extent is human activity .... The Management Of Carbon Monoxide In Nigeria Environmental Sciences ....
World War 1 Essay | Essay on World War 1 for Students and Children in .... First World War of 1914-1918 - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. World War 1 - PHDessay.com. Was World War 1 Inevitable? Free Essay Example. Causes of World War 1 Essay | Essay on Causes of World War 1 for .... World War 1 Essay | World War I | Canada. Causes of world war 1 essay - Write my essay for me with Professional .... History essay why did world war one happen - GCSE History - Marked by .... World War 1 Essay Introduction – Telegraph. Essays about the causes of world war 1. What caused the First World War? - A-Level History - Marked by Teachers.com. An Issue of World War I - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Essay on First World War (Some schools part3) - GCSE History - Marked .... Origins of wwi essay. Causes of World War I World war one took place between 1914 and 1918 ....
⇉An Inconvenient Truth Summary Essay Example | GraduateWay. An Inconvenient Truth Reaction Paper Free Essay Example. Notes on An Inconvenient Truth. An inconvenient truth vs global warming swindle essay. An inconvenient truth book summary - lavaloxa. Inconvenient truth summary essay consider. My Humanities' Class | Created especially for my FTC students. ⇉Reaction Paper-An Inconvenient Truth by Al Gore Sample Essay Example .... An Inconvenient Truth Essay by aamclcp on DeviantArt. Inconvenient Truth Study Guide. An inconvenient truth personal comment.
Stanford Law Review Mapping the Margins Intersection.docxsusanschei
Stanford Law Review
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of
Color
Author(s): Kimberle Crenshaw
Source: Stanford Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 6 (Jul., 1991), pp. 1241-1299
Published by: Stanford Law Review
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039
Accessed: 11-04-2018 04:08 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
Stanford Law Review is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Stanford Law Review
This content downloaded from 128.114.228.158 on Wed, 11 Apr 2018 04:08:34 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality,
Identity Politics, and Violence Against
Women of Color
Kimberle Crenshaw*
INTRODUCTION
Over the last two decades, women have organized against the almost
routine violence that shapes their lives.1 Drawing from the strength of
shared experience, women have recognized that the political demands of mil-
lions speak more powerfully than the pleas of a few isolated voices. This
politicization in turn has transformed the way we understand violence
against women. For example, battering and rape, once seen as private (fam-
ily matters) and aberrational (errant sexual aggression), are now largely rec-
ognized as part of a broad-scale system of domination that affects women as
a class.2 This process of recognizing as social and systemic what was for-
* ? 1993 by Kimberle Crenshaw. Professor of Law, University of California, Los Angeles.
B.A. Cornell University, 1981; J.D. Harvard Law School, 1984; LL.M. University of Wisconsin,
1985.
I am indebted to a great many people who have pushed this project along. For their kind assist-
ance in facilitating my field research for this article, I wish to thank Maria Blanco, Margaret Cam-
brick, Joan Creer, Estelle Cheung, Nilda Rimonte and Fred Smith. I benefitted from the comments
of Taunya Banks, Mark Barenberg, Darcy Calkins, Adrienne Davis, Gina Dent, Brent Edwards,
Paul Gewirtz, Lani Guinier, Neil Gotanda, Joel Handler, Duncan Kennedy, Henry Monaghan, Eliz-
abeth Schneider and Kendall Thomas. A very special thanks goes to Gary Peller and Richard Yar-
borough. Jayne Lee, Paula Puryear, Yancy Garrido, Eugenia Gifford and Leti Volpp provided
valuable research assistance. I gratefully ackno.
Restorative Justice Women, Crime, Violence, and HealingJanuar.docxjoellemurphey
Restorative Justice: Women, Crime, Violence, and Healing
January 27/30, 2015
Treisha Hylton UOIT
1
Agenda
Announcements (case review )
Lecture
Class Discussion
Break
Lecture
Student Support
2
Feminism: An Overview And the Colonization of Diversity
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies that share a common stated aim: to define, establish, and defend equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights of women rights. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist generally self-defines as advocating for or supporting the rights and equality of women. Feminist theory which emerged from feminist movements aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.
3
Feminism and the Law
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies that share a common stated aim: to define, establish, and defend equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights of women This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist generally self-defines as advocating for or supporting the rights and equality of women. Feminist which emerged from feminist movement, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.
4
Overview of Women’s Movement in Restorative Justice
Addresses Multiple marginality” is manifested by women of colour, poor women, First Nations women and women that identify as Queer (LGBT)
Framework rooted in violence against women
Recently First Nations women offenders
Corrective rape
Victim blaming and re-victimization (within the criminal justice system)
Emergence of victim’s movement
Health Care Needs of incarcerated women (HIV, Aids, and Trans-women)
Linkages between crimes committed by women and crimes against women
Addresses the different pathways to incarceration (women crimes of necessity)
Exploring the Intersectionality of Victimization and Criminalization of First Nation’s Women
5
Restorative Justice: Women as Victims
Restorative justice may by an additional layer to a more complex issue of domestic violence, violence against women
Women's groups in Canada and the U.S. have raised concerns about the race and gender polit ...
1Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitud.docxdrennanmicah
1
Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitudes – A test of General Strain
Theory*
Amy Nivette
Griffith University
Manuel Eisner
University of Cambridge
Denis Ribeaud
ETH Zurich
2
ABSTRACT
Objectives: This study examines the influence of collective strain on support for violent
extremism among an ethnically and religiously mixed sample of Swiss adolescents. This
study explores two claims derived from General Strain Theory: (1) exposure to collective
strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and (2) the effect of
collective strain is conditional on perceptions of moral and legal constraints.
Methods: This study examines the effects of collective strain using data from two waves
of the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children and Youth. This study uses
ordinary least squares procedures to regress violent extremist attitudes at age 17 on strain,
moral and legal constraints, and control variables measured at ages 15-17. Conditional
effects were examined using an interaction term for collective strain and moral
disengagement and legal cynicism, respectively.
Results: The results show that vicarious collective strain does not have a direct effect on
violent extremist attitudes once other variables are controlled. However, the degree to
which individuals neutralize moral and legal constraints amplifies the impact of collective
strain on violent extremist attitudes.
Conclusions: This study shows that those who already espouse justifications for violence
and rule-breaking are more vulnerable to extremist violent pathways, particularly when
exposed to conditions of collective social and economic strife, conflict, and repression.
3
Research on violent extremism has produced a wide array of risk factors in psychological,
social, and political domains (Bhui, Warfa, and Jones 2014; Borum 2011a, 2011b;
Dalgaard-Nielsen 2010; Gill, Horgan, and Deckert 2014; LaFree and Ackerman 2009;
McGilloway, Ghosh, and Bhui 2015). These include psychological characteristics (e.g. low
self-control), social context features (e.g. alienation) and political processes (e.g. exclusion
from politics). LaFree and Ackerman (2009) argue that part of the difficulty in
synthesizing information on extremist violence is due to the breadth of attitudinal,
behavioral, and group-based outcomes examined under one conceptual umbrella. In
addition, studies differ in their analytical approach, including for instance analyses of risk
factors using survey samples and individual interviews (Doosje, Loseman, and van den
Bos 2013; Goli and Rezaei 2010; Pauwels and De Waele 2014), or retrospective life
history analyses of known terrorists (Gill et al. 2014). As a result of this diversity in
theoretical domains, outcomes, and analytical approaches, empirical findings on the
causes and correlates of violent extremist beliefs and behaviors are unders.
Theories of Female Criminality: A criminological analysis
Mohammed J. Islam
Subrata Banarjee
Nurjahan Khatun
Department of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
The Effect of Vehicle theft and hijacking - Dr Jaco BarkhuizenTracker Connect
The objectives of this study were to gather information in order to provide desired information to the following questions:
- How do victims experience the vehicle hijacking?
- What was the general make-up of the incident?
- What are the financial and physical-emotional consequences of vehicle hijacking?
- What are the social consequences of vehicle hijacking?
- And how does the financial and physical-emotional consequences contribute to the social consequences?
- What common trends can be identified to establish the effect that this crime has had on the social fabric in South Africa?
crime and society.docx-thus is a pdf based on the factors of crime affecting ...eveanchalvaj2206
A crime is defined as 'an act that breaks the law in a particular society'. Crimes occur when social control fails within a society. We can also explore the idea of a 'deviant act'. This is different to a crime, as it's not illegal, but it still breaks the norms of society.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ABUSE IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG YOUNG WOMEN IN...John1Lorcan
This study aims to investigate the psychological effects of abuse from intimate relationships on young
women. In order to overcome the complexity, challenges, and proposal for the best remedies face by the
sexually abuse victims in the Tangkhul community, both qualitative and quantitative approaches are
adopted. The study covers various aspects of research methodology, including study design, sampling
techniques, data collection tools, and analysis methods. Additionally, the study proposes a collaborative
effort between the state and other entities to enhance care and counseling services for survivors of intimate
partner abuse. The main intension and takeaway from the study is to comprehend the cultural changes
taking place along with the critically examination of the victims and how the community can take up
appropriate initiatives through care and counseling, which is the need of an hour.
States of Denial: Gendering Policy & Practice in Domestic Abuse and Mental Health Services - Professor Linda McKie, Glasgow Caledonian University - a presentation at A Difficult Alliance? Making Connections between Mental Health and Domestic Violence Research and Practice Agendas on 7 June 2011
What is sociology Sociology refers to the study of the MikeEly930
What is sociology?
Sociology refers to the study of the human social relationships or connection as well as
institutions. Besides, one can also define it as the scientific study of the community including the
patterns of social relationships, social interaction as well as culture. Therefore, it is an exciting
field of study which focuses on analyzing and explaining vita aspects in our lives, our societies
as well as the entire universe. Personally, I believe that sociology usually research or investigates
the social causes together with the effects of the various phenomenon such as the romantic love,
racial jointly with the gender identity, family conflict, deviant conduct, aging as well as the
religious faith among others.
Explain the difference between sociology and psychology?
Many people including students considering a major in the fields of social sciences question
what the primary differences are between psychology and sociology since they look so similar.
In some manners, these two fields of study go hand in hand to expose the scientific reality
concerning the humans. Besides, they both have the general goal of assisting individuals to better
understand the complex dynamics of the mental procedures, emotions, conducts as well as the
social relationships. However, there are important unique attributes which make the two fields of
study to be different from one another. For instance, psychology seeks to examine the individual
conducts or behaviors as well its causes while the sociology focuses on studying the group
dynamics as well as behaviors (Ozeren et al., 2007). .
What is sociological perspective?
The sociological perspective is frequently used by sociologists to analyze the social phenomena
at various levels and from different angles. The sociological perspectives define the three basic
categories in which individuals might go about to select how to approach a particular topic and
the methods people might use include the structural functionalism, conflict theory as well as the
symbolic interactionist perspectives. These social perspectives are critical in assisting individuals
to connect their issues with the public problems as well as their history. Moreover, the
sociological perspectives will also attempt to come up with the effects of particular social trends
and also provide a structure for knowing the social world in which we live in.
What is sociological imagination?
The sociological imagination refers to the practice of having the capacity to think ourselves away
from the common routines of our daily lives to view them with fresh and critical eyes. It is also a
vivid knowledge and awareness of the relationship which exists between experience and the
broader community. The sociological imagination is the capability to view things socially and
how they relate and influence one another. Therefore, the sociological imagination by Mills
gives a framewo ...
Slavomir Redo, Visiting Lecturer of the Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Vienna made a presentation linking Environmental justice, crime prevention and intergenerational learning on the second day of the Big Foot conference
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2. Itır Tarı Cömert , Emel Hülya Yükseloğlu, Itır Erkan, Mehmet Kostek, Ahmet Serkan Emekli and Melek Özlem Kolusayın Ozar
86
crimes”,arecriminal offenses committed against a person or property that is guided, in whole or in part, by the
criminal’s prejudice (Sullaway, 2004; Petrosino, 1999). Recently there has been a noticeable interest in research and
legislative action given to the subject of hate crimes. This social problem was discussed through experiential and
practical studies, but, most of those researches dealt with case studies, presumption studies of hate crime
victimization, and some particularoffenderpopulations such as skinheads. A hate crime is a traditional offense like
murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. According to these crimes, the group members whom
arediscouraged by a gang or group are forced tofeel themselves sidelined and under threat, are possessed with fear,
and may encounterheavyconsequencessuchas drug addiction, psychological trauma, suicide, etc. (Herek, 1989).
On the basis of the legal definition, most hate crime researchers try to explain hate crime as anexpression of
intergroup conflict or violence and as triggered by the distinctiveness of the victim(s), because the offender only
targets victims with different group memberships (Levin &McDevitt, 2002; Levin &Rabrenovic, 2001). This
approach of hate crime has influenced both clinical concerns againsthate crime victims and researchers to focus on
the damage of hate crime. The theoretical bases for bias and prejudice are no different for disability than for other
targeted groups (Chesler, 1965; Yuker, 1965). The social identity model maintains that simple awareness of another
group’s existence leads to derogatory attitudes toward that group and favouritism toward one’s own group (Turner et
al., 1979).
Psychodynamic theory holds several explanations for bias: Motivational tension is seeded in authoritarian
personalities; aggression is displaced toward out groups perceived to have less power or status; and the perception
that disability is linked to fragile health and mortality gives rise to existential anxiety; and the view that disability
may result in a loss of attractiveness leads to aesthetic anxiety (Adorno et. al, 1950; Hahn, 1988; Sherif, 1964).
Public opinion assumes that hate crimes are more damaging to the social fabric than are crimes not motivated by
group animus. Hate crimes’ damage to intergroup relations is believed to generate a source of psychosocial stress
within the victims’ community and society at large. Increases in psychosocial stress create a less positive
environment for all citizens, including victims, and exert negative effects upon people’s mental health (Aneshensel,
1992, 1996; Thoits, 1983). Furthermore, damage to intergroup relationships might also make hate crime perpetrators
more hateful and aggressive, which contributes to an escalation of conflict and violence. This kind of “contagion
effect,” where the negative impact of a stressor is not limited to a single person but penetrates the entire social
network, has been demonstrated in previous research across various domains (Coyne et al., 1987; Johnson, 1991;
McLoyd, 1989; Noh &Avison, 1988).
Research regarding people’s beliefs about hate crimes sheds light on the kinds of attitudes that facilitate the
occurrence of hate crimes, as well as those that discourage them. (Craig, 1999; Craig & Waldo, 1996). Social
scientists, legal theorists, law enforcement, and laypersons have all struggled to understand and address these
problems on sometimes parallel and complementary courses. The juxtaposition of broad societal agreement on the
values of equality and tolerance and the presence of intergroup tensions arising from long-standing status
differences in society as well as increasing ethnic and social diversity have created a new category of criminalized
behavior: hate crime. (Garcia &McDevitt, 1999; Herek, 1999; Hamm, 1994; Levin &McDevitt, 1993; Miethe&
McCorkle, 1998).
Although a few researchers have started to address issues surrounding people’s perceptions of hate crimes, more
work needs to be done. Recently, various studies have been carried out in forensic/social sciences in order to
emphasize the importance of this subject in Turkey which has started to be used in new legal structures more
frequently at the present time.
Hate groups can be described as groups whose main purpose is to encourage and promote enmity, antagonism,
and, occasionally, violence against the people from a different race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, sex, or sexual
orientation than that of the hate group. In contrast to general belief, most hate crimesare not committed by the
organized hate groups or their members. Organized groups justify about the 8% to 15% of all hate crimes. Even
though many offenders of hate crimes do not consent to get into the uniforms or put on the symbols, they are still
inspired by the philosophy and symbols of white race superiority and other organized racialist groups. Most
offenders of hate crimes are male and white, 16 to 25 years of age. However, offenders, culprits and victims of hate
crime violence cover all ethnic and racial groups. Hate crimes generallycome out in the night and on specific
3. A general outlook on hate crimes in Turkey
87
holidays or celebrations. Approximately half of all assaultive hate crimes a weapon is involved, and victims of such
violence are likely to sustain severe physical and psychological injury than that of the victims of other types of
violent crime.
Hate crime represents a distinct form of interpersonal and intergroup hostility and assault and maycover
intimidation, terrorization, bullying,vandalism,molestation, physical and verbal assaults, and sometimes murder. A
hate crime is an illegal act comprising of intentional and planned selection of a victim depending on an offender’s
prejudice against the actual or perceived status of the victim. Victims of hate crimes featurereligious and ethnic
minorities, homosexuals including gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. Such crimes committed by reason of a person’s
actual or perceived membership in a colour, race, belief, credo, religion, gender, lineage and ancestry, physical
and/or mental disability, sexual orientation, or nationality. Hate crimes represent a unique type of aggression and
hostility including the intent to harm, butalso serves instrumental and symbolic functions for offenders. Another way
that hate crimes differ from other aggressive criminal offenses is that hate crimes generally involve multiple
offenders. The poor and marginalized groups of society increasingly continue to be pressured to renounce wealth,
power and control.
Despite several explanations thatmay be applicable to hate crime occurrents and incidents, neither can fully
account for all types of hate crimes. The reason is that factors that promote and play a part in ahate crime differ
remarkably for each case. In order to explain hate crimes, a consideration and concern of all potentially relevant
justifications is necessary.
2. Methodology
The questionnaire included both likert-type scalingand open ended questions, which consisted of hate crime,
exposure to hate crime and committed hate crime with some different variables. Scales were consisted of 37
questions. It also contained demographic characteristics questions. Sample size was of495 people. In aresearch with
this sample size, acceptable precision frequencies differ between 1% and 50% and this could be applied to thewhole
population. (Power %90,estimated precision limit from %1to %50 ±5). Selection of samples is actualized randomly.
Field survey is performed between June-December 2012. Questionnaires were applied to population by special
instructed medicine school students named as pollsters in random regions. In analysis, to make the evaluation of
questionnaires easier, likert-type answers were converted to dichotomy. During statistical analysis, descriptive
analysis was applied to dispersion of demographical data Crosstab and chi-square was performed for questions
related to hate crimes. Statistical operations were performed via SPSS 18.0 package.
3. Results
Participants were consisted of 495 people. 56% (n: 277) of the participants were female, and 44% (n: 218) were
male. The ages of participants varied between 17 and 66. 17.75% (n: 81) of the participants were 21 years old.
Based on the educational statuses of the participants, it was observed that 66.7% (n: 324) of the participants had
bachelor degree.86.3 % (n: 427) of the participants were single, 13.1% (n: 65) were married, and 0.6% (n: 3) were
divorced. According to the monthly income of the participants, 6.3% (n: 30) had a monthly income ofat least
12,000 TL while 30.3% (n: 145) had a monthly income of at most 3000 TL. 22% (n: 105) of the participants did not
want to answer this question. 73.6% (n: 359) of the participants were unemployed, 17% (n: 83) had a full-time job, and
9.4% (n: 46) had a part-time job. While 2.8% (n: 14) of the participants were housewives, 65.7% (n: 325) were
students.
Corresponding to dispersion of ethnic origin of the participants 72.3% (n: 358) were Turkish-origin, 6.9% (n: 34)
were Kurdish-origin, and 1.4% (n: 7) were immigrants. The rest of the participants were members of Azerbaijani,
Laz, Armenian, Rum, Jewish and Arabic origin. Also 85.9% (n: 425) of the participants were Muslims, 11.1% (n:
55) were Christians, 1.2% were atheists and the rest were members of other religions. The most prominent sects
among the Muslim participants were sunnism 22.6% (n: 112) and shafiism 2.6% (n: 13). Among the political
4. Itır Tarı Cömert , Emel Hülya Yükseloğlu, Itır Erkan, Mehmet Kostek, Ahmet Serkan Emekli and Melek Özlem Kolusayın Ozar
88
choices, where 18.3% (n: 101) of the participants had a choice of left-wing politics 12.9% (n: 64) had a choice of
right-wing politics.
However 61.6% (n: 300) of the participants stated that they knew what hate crime meant, 38.4% (n: 195) claimed
that they did not know that it meant. 32.6% (n: 159) of the participants were subjected to hate crime, 67.4% (n:
336) were not exposed to such crime. While 15.8% (n: 80) of the participants were subjected to a hate crime due to
their ethnic origin, 83.8% (n: 415) were not exposed to any hate crime because of their ethnic origin. 4.9% (n: 29) of the
participants committed a hate crime against someone else for his/her ethnic origin, 95.1% (n: 466) didn’t commit a hate
crime against someone else for his/her ethnic origin.
Whereas 19.8% (n: 98) of the participants were subjected to a hate crime due to fanaticism, 11.2% (n: 55) of the
participants committed a hate crimedue to fanaticism. 88.8% (n: 440) of participants committed a hate crime due to
someone’s ethnic origin. When the participants were asked whether they had been exposed to any hate crime due to their
religious preference, 16.8% (n: 83) said "yes", 83.2% (n: 412) said "no". When the participants were asked whether they
had committed any hate crime against someone else due to his/her religious preference, 16.8% (n: 9) said "yes" even as
98.2% (n: 486) said "no".
The participants were asked whether they had been exposed to any hate crime due to their language, 6.3% (n: 31)
marked "yes" meanwhile 93.7% (n: 464) marked "no". When the participants were asked whether they had committed
any hate crime against someone else due to his/her language, 1.8% (n: 9) marked "yes”.According to the twenty first and
twenty second questions, 3% (n: 15) and 4% (n: 20) of the participants marked "yes" respectively. Even though 97% and
95.9% (n: 475) of the participants (n: 480) stated "no”. As regardsquestions 23 and 24, 16.3% (n: 80) and5.9% (n: 29)
answered "yes", 83.7% (n: 415) and 94.1% (n: 466) answered "no"respectively.
When the participants were asked whether they wanted towork with a person or people from different ethnic origin
and religion, 90.5% (n: 477) and89.55 (n: 437) of the participants answered as "yes", 9.5% (n: 48) and 10.5% (n: 58)
answered as "no"respectively. Also 72.4% (n: 354) and 57.9% (n: 281) answered the questions 28 and 30 as "yes" while
27.6% (n: 141) and42.1% (n: 214) said "no"respectively. Moreover 13.8% (n: 68) of the participants had to hide their
ethnic origin, language, or religion during their school or business life, 86.2 (n: 427) did not have to hide such
characteristics. Disability was determined as a detractive factor on commitment or exposure to hate crimes. 1.2% (n: 6)
and1.2% (n: 6) of the participants answered the questions 25 and 26 as “yes" respectively. Based on the consequences
of the thirty second question, hate crimes were encountered commonly in Turkey, 90.3% (n: 446).As 17.5% (n: 86)
of the participants stated that family was the most important factor in the proliferation of "hate crime", 39.7% (n:
195) mentioned community and 42.8% (n: 218) media as the most important factor. Also 88.8% (n: 438) of the
participants declared that TV series and films had an effect on the proliferation of hate crimes, 11.2% (n: 57)
declared that series and films did not have such an effect. The results of question 36 stated the most frequent
location that have been exposed a hate crime was “neighbourhood” and “school” with 19.6% (n: 97) and 11.3% (n:
56). When the participants were asked whether there was any regulation about hate crimes in Turkey, 45% (n: 201)
answered as "yes" while 55% (n: 294) answered as "no".
Table 1. Types of the exposed hate crime
Table 1.shows the possible types of exposed hate crimes. The results indicate that the most frequent type was
detected as physical assaults with 25.5% (n: 249) whereas visual harassment were rarely encountered.
Freq %
Physical assault 249 25.5
Violence or assault threats 188 15.6
Abuse (verbal, sexual, physical) 28 14.6
Damaging property or belongings 59 9.9
Racist, detesting or aggressive vandalism 30 15.6
Visual Harassment (Offensive brochures and posters) 19 7.3
Extortion at school or work place 122 11.5
5. A general outlook on hate crimes in Turkey
89
Table 2.The statistical evaluation of the exposed hate crimes via age. (P<0.05)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 495.054a
80 .000
Likelihood Ratio 63.736 80 .908
Linear-by-Linear Association .062 1 .804
Table 2.showed that there was a statistical significance between age and hate crime exposure. A negative
correlation was established between participant’s age and exposure. As the age of the participants decreased, the
exposure rate to hate crimes increased.
Table 3.The statistical evaluation of the exposed hate crimes due to age via ethnic origin. (P<0.05)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 78.059a
40 .000
Likelihood Ratio 68.316 40 .003
Linear-by-Linear Association 19.322 1 .000
Table 4.The statistical evaluation of the committed hate crimes due to age via mental and physical disabilities. (P<0.05)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 84.275a
40 .000
Likelihood Ratio 23.486 40 .983
Linear-by-Linear Association .878 1 .349
A negative correlation was determined on exposed hate crimes among age via participant’s ethnicity and gender
preferenceon Table 3. and 4. respectively. Decrease on age causes an increase on exposure of hate crimes related
with both ethnicity and disability.
Table 5.The statistical evaluation of the committed hate crimes due to age via sexual preferences. (P<0.05)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 83.085a
40 .000
Likelihood Ratio 35.617 40 .668
Linear-by-Linear Association 2.099 1 .147
Following statistical comparisons a significant difference between age via sexual preference. The commitment
rate of hate crimes increases, as the age of the participant’s increases.
Table 6.The statistical evaluation of the committed hate crimes due to age via mental and physical disabilities. (P<0.05)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 77.447a
40 .000
Likelihood Ratio 19.609 40 .997
Linear-by-Linear Association .984 1 .321
6. Itır Tarı Cömert , Emel Hülya Yükseloğlu, Itır Erkan, Mehmet Kostek, Ahmet Serkan Emekli and Melek Özlem Kolusayın Ozar
90
The statistical relation for age via disability was significant. Higher rates of the committed hate crimes were
connected with the growing ages.
Table 7.The statistical evaluation of the exposed hate crimes due to educational status via ethnicity. (P<0.05)
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 15.571a
4 .004
Likelihood Ratio 12.324 4 .015
Linear-by-Linear Association 3.375 1 .066
According to the relation between exposed hate crimes due to educational status via ethnicity, asignificant
correlation was established. As the educational status increases, the rate of hate crime exposure increases.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
Hate crime is an unfortunate expression of negative stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup
tensions. Politics, social values, and the related Dynamics of public opinion play a role in responses to such
aggression. Arguably, the voice and experiences of minority victims of hate crime have not played a sufficiently
central role in the debates that have raged and continue to rage concerning justifications for special treatment of hate
crime and hate speech. Instead the voices of vested power and privilege have been more central to this debate and
have thusfar heavily influenced its course. The work collected in this issue is one significant step toward rectifying
that imbalance. A common thread in the diverse approaches to understand hate crime presented in this issue is a
verification of the profound and complex nature of the victim’s experience as set in the broader context of social
forces that discourage or tacitly facilitate hate crime. Thus, we view each of these articles as a significant
contribution to the literature and anticipate, as a result, stimulus to further empirical inquiry into these and other
related areas of hate crime research.
Different types of violence that occur frequently have created a serious threat for sanity of the public and
individuals. Recently hate crimes were determined as the most often type of the committed crimes in improved
society. No advanced researches were performed about occurrency rate of hate crimes in Turkey contemporarily.
Hate is a strong term to use in this context. According to most researchers in this area, hate crime activity is likely to
continue (Jenness& Broad, 1997; Levin &McDevitt, 1993; Tryman, 1992). This dire prediction results from
recognition of the interaction of two separate, though significant, factors: one having to do with forecasted
demographic trends, and the other having to do with the seemingly collective endorsement of violence. Hate crime
is an unfortunate expression of negative stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup tensions. Politics,
social values, and the related dynamics of public opinion play an important role in respondents to such aggression.
Arguably, the voice and experiences of minority victims of hate crime have not played a sufficiently central role in
the debates that have raged and continue to rage concerning justifications for special treatment of hate crime and
hate speech. Instead the voices of vested power and privilege have been more central to this debate and have thus far
heavily influenced its course. The work collected in this issue is one significant step toward rectifying that
imbalance. A common thread in the various approaches to understanding hate crime presented in this issue is a
verification of the profound and complex nature of the victim’s experience as set in the broader context of social
forces that discourage or tacitly facilitate hate crime (Craig, &Waldo, 1996).
In our study, a positive correlation was detected between age and exposure to a hate crime. All of the previous
studies were focused on specific structured groups and neither of them implied the interaction between age factors
and hate crime. Thus creates an important deficiency on general scanning about hate crime generations (Sullaway,
2004).
Most of previous researchespoint out that the bonds among the ethnicity and hate crimes are typical. Inquired
literature suggests that different ethnicities like Hispanic, Asian and African were threatened by exposure to hate
7. A general outlook on hate crimes in Turkey
91
crimes. We determined that individuals that have different origins except Turkish origin are under the risk of hate
crime subjection(Weiss, 2005).
Franklin finds relatively high rates of self-reported antigay offending and name-calling, as our findings are
similar to them, this means future research should explore more directly how individual perceptions of hate crimes
and/or support for hate crime legislation translate into reporting and other actions, such as the commission of bias-
motivated behaviour (Franklin, 2000).
Roulstone et al. draw out key aspects of hate crime policy, practice, and challenges the constructions of disability
by the approach and defects of the British criminal justice system. They assumed that when the nature of a person's
disability makes it easier for the offender to commit a particular offence, police and prosecutors often focus on the
victim being "vulnerable", an "easy target" and no further thought is given to the issue of hostility. Also we
suggested that disability was defined as an important point on hate crime commitment and exposure. Vulnerability
issue was brought out in our study in the same way. Protective roles of justice system were insufficient to apply
suitable touch. (Roulstone et al., 2011).
The most frequent type of hate crime exposure action was determined as physical assault and violence in this
paper. Past researches suggest that highly educated family structure creates a positive protective factor on sensitivity
against hate crimes. Family acquired attitude created a decisive awareness against physical assault and violence
related hate crime actions. Also social learning theory suggests such idea of created awareness thus comes out with
negative interaction between education level of family and hate crime actions. (Lyons, 2008; Bandura, 1971).
Sensitivity to the status of victims and offenders is also conditioned by witness race and gender. This is more
likely to all hate crime studies. Specifically, findings suggest a degree of in-group protectionism among minorities.
As suggested by social identity theory individuals may be motivated toward ethnocentric bias. Incidents involving
victims with in-group characteristics may be viewed as more personally threatening than incidents involving out-
group victims and our finding are similar to literature (Tajfel& Turner, 1986).
Sexual oriented studies pointed outthat lesbian, gay, and bisexual people might be particularly vulnerable to the
commitment of hate crimes. Although no significant differences were observed among the bisexual or homosexual
victims via hate crime rate, survivors manifested different types of hate crime actions and responses. Hate crimes
were less likely than nonbiased crimes to have been reported to police authorities. Similar findings were detected in
our present paper. This situation recommends that victims had experienced criminal victimization because of their
sexual orientation (Herek et al., 1999).Antigay attitudes played an important role in how the victim of an intended
antigay hate crime was perceived. In accordance with our hypotheses, we found that antigay attitudes were
significant predictors of anger against the hate crime victim, disapproval of the hate crime victim, and support of the
hate crime perpetrators. People with negative attitudes toward gays were more inclined to be angry and disapproving
of the hate crime victim and his actions.
Recently, the general situation of Turkey manifests that there is an increase on the rate of hate crimes due to
increasing racism, nationalism and adamant of society. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) reported that extensive hate crime commitment resides in Turkey; however mentioned crimes had been
ignored or covered improperly by the Turkish government. No official records or cases about the presence of the
hate crimes were noted, also governmental corporations were not formed and no present exploration about bias or
nonbiased crimes for taking precautions were performed by Turkish government. Moreover legal regulations about
punishment of the hate crime acts were not established in Turkish Criminal Justice System, this situation created a
loop hole about hate crime committers and remained them un-penalized or guilty about another type of crime.
According to the criminal records of Turkish Criminal Justice System legislation, no individuals were trailed against
the commitment of hate crime by racism or discrimination.
In spite of the articles in the Constitution and laws in Turkish legislation, nobody has so far been tried for
engaging in racist or discriminatory acts or committing a hate crime. Almost all of the people tried for this crime
have consisted of writers, scholars and human rights advocates who opposed the hate crimes in Turkey stemming
from racism, nationalism and intolerance apart from a couple of exceptions. Therefore, the law has been enforced in
reverse direction. The crimes that actually had to be judged have not been heard at courts, but the people who wrote
about and expressed their thoughts on the law itself or acted for the law to be enacted have been put on trial.
8. Itır Tarı Cömert , Emel Hülya Yükseloğlu, Itır Erkan, Mehmet Kostek, Ahmet Serkan Emekli and Melek Özlem Kolusayın Ozar
92
Recently the most important issue on approaching bias crimes was not the laws or penal code but the accession of
the society from the beginning of 2006, Turkey has hosted to series of felonies exposed by ethnical or religious
minorities and groups with different sexual orientation or preferences. Physical assaults and violence against
communities with different political opinions represent another vintage point of the motivated bias crime issue.
Minority groups may have good reasons for claiming that Turkey is in the throes of an epidemic. An "epidemic"
demands attention, remedial actions, resources, and reparations. The electronic and print media also have reasons to
support the existence of a rampant hate crime epidemic. Crime sells—so does racism, sexism, and homophobia.
Garden variety crime has become mundane. The law and order drama has to be revitalized if it is to command
attention. Clearly, violence motivated by racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism and other biases is not new. Perhaps
what is new is greater intolerance against prejudice. The conclusion that hate crime has reached epidemic
proportions today simply evinces the fact that bias crime is now much less acceptable and that victimized groups
have a special social and political status. Thus, we view each of these articles as a significant contribution to the
literature and anticipate, as a result, stimulus to further empirical inquiry into these and other related areas of hate
crime research. Hate crimes creates a deeper physical and emotional impact affecting the victims and groups with
same social characteristics than non-motivated crimes. Related deeper social impacts were determined an important
issue that hate crimes should be evaluated more carefully and separately than the non motivated crimes by official
foundations.
In consideration of the reason why the results of the this study do not overlap with the results from other studies,
one may conclude that the parameters used for the analysis and the lack of knowledge about hate crimes in Turkey
on a conceptual basis may have had an impact on this. The studies conducted on hate crimes demonstrate that the
individuals define an act of crime as a hate crime and show a positive and protective attitude towards the victim in
cases where a victim was the subject of a hate crime on account of a personal characteristic (39, 43, 44, 57, 61, 62,
68).
In that respect, this study also purported to investigate especially the effect of the sex as well as the sexual
orientation of the victim on the mentioned attitude. Accordingly, it is seen that the participants demonstrate a more
positive attitude if the victim is from the female sex regardless of the sexual orientation of the victim. However, it is
still considered that the most positive attitudes by the participants are reserved for heterosexual female victims. On
the other hand, in cases where the victim is male, a heterosexual victim is again seen in a more positive light as
compared to a homosexual victim. It is possible to summarize this result as follows: the most positive attitude was
shown towards a female heterosexual victim, whereas the most negative attitude was shown towards a male
homosexual victim. Additionally, it was observed that female participants found male homosexual victims more
negative as compared to female homosexual victims and that the male participants showed a significantly more
positive attitude towards heterosexual female victims. One can mention the existence of a protective attitude towards
women as the reason behind this positive attitude shown by the participants for victims of the female sex. The fact
that homosexual female victims are seen in a more positive light as compared to male victims can be explained as
being a result of the same protective attitude as well as the perception that being a lesbian is perceived to be less
dangerous than male homosexuality (8). The fact that the most negative attitude was shown to male homosexual
victims manifests itself as a result which is in parallel with the perception of male sexuality as the most dangerous
mode with respect to gender roles as discussed above.
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