This document reviews research on the progressive collapse of steel high-rise buildings exposed to fire. It discusses key influencing factors on whether and when a structure may collapse, and what type of collapse may occur. These factors include load ratios, beam and column strength, slab performance, connection strength, fire scenarios, bracing systems, and fire protection. Higher load ratios, strong beams, multi-compartment fires, and lack of fire protection make global downward collapse more likely. Bracing systems and fire protection can effectively prevent progressive collapse. Further research using 3D models is needed to accurately predict collapse under various fire scenarios.
Strengthening of R.C Framed Structure Using Energy Dissipating Devicespaperpublications3
Abstract: The Dampers which is added to the building scheme without any interruption to the present constituent of the building. In past days retrofitting structures are use full in the construction field however a good understanding of restraints involvement to increase the structure capacities and decreasing the seismic demand in specifically to the design process. In this work consider the energy dissipating devices for seismic strengthening of 5 stories concrete structure in this study involves viscous damping devices of V Type and Inverted V Type dampers with different effective stiffness, to prevent building damage or collapse in major earthquake.
Effect of steel bracing on vertically irregular r.c.c building frames under s...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Earthquakes are one of the most life threatening, environmental hazardous and destructive natural phenomenons that causes
shaking of ground. This result in damage to the structures, hence we need to design the buildings to withstand these earthquakes
which may occur at least once in the life time of the structure. Structures possess less stiffness and strength in case of irregular
configured frames; to enhance this, lateral load resisting systems are introduced into the frames. In this study, G+5 storey
building model has been analyzed considering different types of vertical geometric irregularities and steel bracings using
pushover analysis with the help of ETABS 9.7 software. Addition of X type brace, V type Brace and Inverted V/K type brace shows
that use of X-type of bracing is found more suitable to enhance the performance of the irregular buildings.
Key Words: pushover analysis, vertical irregularity, steel bracings, performance point.
Numerical analyses for the structural assessment of steel buildings under exp...Franco Bontempi
This paper addresses two main issues relevant to the structural assessment of buildings subjected
to explosions. The first issue regards the robustness evaluation of steel frame structures: a procedure is
provided for computing “robustness curves” and it is applied to a 20-storey steel frame building, describing
the residual strength of the (blast) damaged structure under different local damage levels. The second issue
regards the precise evaluation of blast pressures acting on structural elements using Computational Fluid
Dynamic (CFD) techniques. This last aspect is treated with particular reference to gas explosions, focusing
on some critical parameters (room congestion, failure of non-structural walls and ignition point location)
which influence the development of the explosion. From the analyses, it can be deduced that, at least for the
examined cases, the obtained robustness curves provide a suitable tool that can be used for risk management
and assessment purposes. Moreover, the variation of relevant CFD analysis outcomes (e.g., pressure) due to
the variation of the analysis parameters is found to be significant.
In the present report, at present scenario many buildings are asymmetric in elevation based on the
distribution of mass and stiffness along each storey throughout the height of the building. Most recent
earthquakes have shown that the irregular distribution of mass, stiffness and strengths may cause serious damage
in structural systems. This project performance of the torsionally balanced and torsionally unbalanced buildings
also called as symmetric and asymmetric buildings by subjecting to response-spectrum analysis. The buildings
have un-symmetrical distribution of vertical irregularinstorey’s. In this project the effort is made to study the
effect of eccentricity between centre of mass (CM) and centre of stiffness (CR) on the performance of the
buildings. Three buildings (G+3), (G+6) & (G+9) models are considered for study, which are constructed on
medium soil in seismic zone II of India (as per IS:1893-2002), one symmetric and asymmetric in vertical
irregular distribution. The performance of a multi-storey framed building during sturdy earthquake motions
depends on the distribution of mass, stiffness, and strength in both the horizontal and vertical planes of the
building. In some cases, these weaknesses may be produced by discontinuities in stiffness, strength or mass
between adjoining storeys. Such discontinuities between storeys are often allied with sudden variations in the
frame geometry along the height.
Analysis Of RC Structures Subject To Vibration By Using AnsysIJERA Editor
Recent historic events have shown that buildings that are designed in compliance with conventional building codes are not necessarily able to resist blast effects. It was observed in the past events that progressive or disproportionate collapse generally occurred due to deficient blast performance of the structure, albeit in compliance with conventional design codes. In the past, safety of structures against blast effects was ensured, to a limited extent, through perimeter control; which minimizes damage by preventing the direct impact of the blast effects on the building. With the emergence of blast resistant structural design, methodologies to inhibit progressive collapse through the structural components performance can be developed, although there are no available adequate tools to simulate or predict progressive collapse behavior of concrete buildings with acceptable precision and reliability. This paper presents part of an effort to find an affordable solution to the problem. State of the art review of the blast analysis and progressive collapse analysis procedures will be presented. Preliminary analysis has been carried out to establish the vulnerability of a typical multistory reinforced concrete framed building in Riyadh when subjected to accidental or terrorist attack blast scenarios. In addition, the results of the blast vulnerability assessment will be used to develop mitigation approach to control or prevent progressive collapse of the building. For protective structures, reinforced concrete is commonly used. Concrete structures subjected to explosive loading in a combination of blast and fragments will have very different response than statically loaded structure. During the blast and the fragment impacts the structure will shake and vibrate, severe crushing of concrete occurs and a crater forms (spalling) in the front of the concrete; for large penetration, scabbing may occur at the backside of the wall, or even perforation, with a risk of injury for people inside the structure. This thesis is intended to increase the knowledge of reinforced concrete structures subjected to explosive loading, i.e. effects of blast and fragmentation. A further aim is to describe and use the non-linear finite element (FE) method for concrete penetration analyses. Particular attention is given to dynamic loading, where the concrete behavior differs compared to static loading. The compressive and tensile strengths increase due to the strain rate effects. Initial stiffness increases, and moreover the concrete strain capacity is increased in dynamic loading. Traditionally, for prediction of the depth of penetration and crater formation from fragments and projectiles, empirical relationships are used, which are discussed here together with the effects of the blast wave that is caused by the explosion. To learn more about the structural behavior of concrete subjected to severe loading, a powerful tool is to combine advanced non-linear FE analyses and exper
Strengthening of R.C Framed Structure Using Energy Dissipating Devicespaperpublications3
Abstract: The Dampers which is added to the building scheme without any interruption to the present constituent of the building. In past days retrofitting structures are use full in the construction field however a good understanding of restraints involvement to increase the structure capacities and decreasing the seismic demand in specifically to the design process. In this work consider the energy dissipating devices for seismic strengthening of 5 stories concrete structure in this study involves viscous damping devices of V Type and Inverted V Type dampers with different effective stiffness, to prevent building damage or collapse in major earthquake.
Effect of steel bracing on vertically irregular r.c.c building frames under s...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Earthquakes are one of the most life threatening, environmental hazardous and destructive natural phenomenons that causes
shaking of ground. This result in damage to the structures, hence we need to design the buildings to withstand these earthquakes
which may occur at least once in the life time of the structure. Structures possess less stiffness and strength in case of irregular
configured frames; to enhance this, lateral load resisting systems are introduced into the frames. In this study, G+5 storey
building model has been analyzed considering different types of vertical geometric irregularities and steel bracings using
pushover analysis with the help of ETABS 9.7 software. Addition of X type brace, V type Brace and Inverted V/K type brace shows
that use of X-type of bracing is found more suitable to enhance the performance of the irregular buildings.
Key Words: pushover analysis, vertical irregularity, steel bracings, performance point.
Numerical analyses for the structural assessment of steel buildings under exp...Franco Bontempi
This paper addresses two main issues relevant to the structural assessment of buildings subjected
to explosions. The first issue regards the robustness evaluation of steel frame structures: a procedure is
provided for computing “robustness curves” and it is applied to a 20-storey steel frame building, describing
the residual strength of the (blast) damaged structure under different local damage levels. The second issue
regards the precise evaluation of blast pressures acting on structural elements using Computational Fluid
Dynamic (CFD) techniques. This last aspect is treated with particular reference to gas explosions, focusing
on some critical parameters (room congestion, failure of non-structural walls and ignition point location)
which influence the development of the explosion. From the analyses, it can be deduced that, at least for the
examined cases, the obtained robustness curves provide a suitable tool that can be used for risk management
and assessment purposes. Moreover, the variation of relevant CFD analysis outcomes (e.g., pressure) due to
the variation of the analysis parameters is found to be significant.
In the present report, at present scenario many buildings are asymmetric in elevation based on the
distribution of mass and stiffness along each storey throughout the height of the building. Most recent
earthquakes have shown that the irregular distribution of mass, stiffness and strengths may cause serious damage
in structural systems. This project performance of the torsionally balanced and torsionally unbalanced buildings
also called as symmetric and asymmetric buildings by subjecting to response-spectrum analysis. The buildings
have un-symmetrical distribution of vertical irregularinstorey’s. In this project the effort is made to study the
effect of eccentricity between centre of mass (CM) and centre of stiffness (CR) on the performance of the
buildings. Three buildings (G+3), (G+6) & (G+9) models are considered for study, which are constructed on
medium soil in seismic zone II of India (as per IS:1893-2002), one symmetric and asymmetric in vertical
irregular distribution. The performance of a multi-storey framed building during sturdy earthquake motions
depends on the distribution of mass, stiffness, and strength in both the horizontal and vertical planes of the
building. In some cases, these weaknesses may be produced by discontinuities in stiffness, strength or mass
between adjoining storeys. Such discontinuities between storeys are often allied with sudden variations in the
frame geometry along the height.
Analysis Of RC Structures Subject To Vibration By Using AnsysIJERA Editor
Recent historic events have shown that buildings that are designed in compliance with conventional building codes are not necessarily able to resist blast effects. It was observed in the past events that progressive or disproportionate collapse generally occurred due to deficient blast performance of the structure, albeit in compliance with conventional design codes. In the past, safety of structures against blast effects was ensured, to a limited extent, through perimeter control; which minimizes damage by preventing the direct impact of the blast effects on the building. With the emergence of blast resistant structural design, methodologies to inhibit progressive collapse through the structural components performance can be developed, although there are no available adequate tools to simulate or predict progressive collapse behavior of concrete buildings with acceptable precision and reliability. This paper presents part of an effort to find an affordable solution to the problem. State of the art review of the blast analysis and progressive collapse analysis procedures will be presented. Preliminary analysis has been carried out to establish the vulnerability of a typical multistory reinforced concrete framed building in Riyadh when subjected to accidental or terrorist attack blast scenarios. In addition, the results of the blast vulnerability assessment will be used to develop mitigation approach to control or prevent progressive collapse of the building. For protective structures, reinforced concrete is commonly used. Concrete structures subjected to explosive loading in a combination of blast and fragments will have very different response than statically loaded structure. During the blast and the fragment impacts the structure will shake and vibrate, severe crushing of concrete occurs and a crater forms (spalling) in the front of the concrete; for large penetration, scabbing may occur at the backside of the wall, or even perforation, with a risk of injury for people inside the structure. This thesis is intended to increase the knowledge of reinforced concrete structures subjected to explosive loading, i.e. effects of blast and fragmentation. A further aim is to describe and use the non-linear finite element (FE) method for concrete penetration analyses. Particular attention is given to dynamic loading, where the concrete behavior differs compared to static loading. The compressive and tensile strengths increase due to the strain rate effects. Initial stiffness increases, and moreover the concrete strain capacity is increased in dynamic loading. Traditionally, for prediction of the depth of penetration and crater formation from fragments and projectiles, empirical relationships are used, which are discussed here together with the effects of the blast wave that is caused by the explosion. To learn more about the structural behavior of concrete subjected to severe loading, a powerful tool is to combine advanced non-linear FE analyses and exper
Review paper on seismic responses of multistored rcc building with mass irreg...eSAT Journals
Abstract
From past earthquakes it is proved that many of structure are totally or partially damaged due to earthquake. So, it is necessary to determine seismic responses of such buildings. There are different techniques of seismic analysis of structure. Time history analysis is one of the important techniques for structural seismic analysis generally the evaluated structural response is non-linear in nature. For such type of analysis, a representative earthquake time history is required. In this project work seismic analysis of RCC buildings with mass irregularity at different floor level are carried out. Here for analysis different time histories have been used. This paper highlights the effect of mass irregularity on different floor in RCC buildings with time history and analysis is done by using ETABS software.
Keywords: Seismic Analysis, Time History Analysis, Base Shear, Storey Shear, Story Displacement.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Effect of Friction Dampers on RC Structures Subjected to Earthquakeijtsrd
Among all the natural disasters such as flood, earthquake, drought, hurricanes the least understood and the most destructive one is earthquake. Since, they cause many of injuries and economical losses leaving behind a series of signs of panic. Necessity to implement seismic codes in building design. For this a better method of analysis such as static analysis, dynamic analysis and time history analysis has to be adopted for performing the structures seismic risk assessment. This dissertation work is concerned with the "Studies on Effect of Friction Dampers on the Seismic Performance of RC G 15 Storey Buildings" According to IS 1893 part 1 2002 codal provisions the structures are analyzed by Equivalent Static method and Time History method. The modeling and analysis is done with ETAB SOFTWARE and the results obtained are seismic parameters such as Time period, Base shear, Lateral displacement and Inter storey drift, storey stiffness, storey accelaration are tabulated and then comparative study of structures with and without Friction dampers has been done. Akshay R | B. S. Suresh Chandra "Effect of Friction Dampers on RC Structures Subjected to Earthquake" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28017.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/structural-engineering/28017/effect-of-friction-dampers-on-rc-structures-subjected-to-earthquake/akshay-r
Effect of Seismic Joint in the Performance of Multi-Storeyed L-Shaped BuildingIOSR Journals
The choices of building shapes and structural systems have significant effect on their seismic performance. While symmetrical buildings result in a fairly uniform distribution of seismic forces throughout its components. Unsymmetrical buildings result in highly indeterminate distribution of forces making the analysis and prediction more complicated. L-shaped buildings are among those unsymmetrical structures which are most commonly found in practice in the form of school, office, commercial buildings. In this work three dimensional models of L-shaped buildings are investigated for their seismic performance, varying bay length and storey height. These models were analysed for three conditions viz with gap, with seismic joint and with neither of these. The modeling of structures analysis is carried out using STAAD Pro V8i, also the performance is analysed providing brick infill and compared with, without infill condition. Performances is measured in terms of displacements, axial forces, bending moments, shear forces and compared for those conditions mentioned in the identified column viz., corner, intermediate and interior
In this paper, an attempt has been made to compare the
structural cost of a basement, ground and 6 upper floors building with and without the provision of
soft storey (Stilt floor) through dynamic analysis of a residential building in Zone-V
A parametric study of x and v bracing industrial steel structureeSAT Journals
Abstract Severe earthquakes have an extremely low probability of occurrence during a structures life. If the earthquakes to be resisted by the structure elastically, it would require an expensive lateral load resisting system, which is not warranty. The structure may lose its aesthetic and functionality due to minor tremors and needs repairs; it will be a very unfavourable design. In addition to earthquake forces there may be wind or any vibrations which induce lateral loads in a structure. In our work we have taken only the earthquake load to find a system which balances the lateral loads and minimizes the displacements of the floors. With the literature review, it was founded that bracing in a structural system reduces the story drift and reduces the lateral force effect. To examine the performance of the bracings, bracing types like X and V bracings are considered and an analysis is performed in ETABS software. The results are studied, discussed and concluded for the best bracing system among both in our project. Keywords: Bracings, Time – History method
Out of Plane Behavior of Contained Masonry Infilled Frames Subjected to Seism...paperpublications3
Abstract: Brick masonry infill although considered as non-structural element largely affects the strength, stiffness and ductility of the reinforced concrete frames during the application of lateral loads due to wind or earthquake. Contained masonry refers here to the brick masonry which is used as infill in a reinforced concrete frame, wound round with 8mm diameter mild steel wires in vertical and horizontal directions and stitched to the brick masonry as well as to the reinforced concrete frames. This thesis focuses on the seismic behaviour of reinforced concrete structures with contained masonry infill, with a particular interest in the development of rational procedures for the analysis and design of RC frames with contained masonry infill. The estimation of the natural frequencies of the structural system is the basic investigation in dynamic analysis of a structure. Therefore the analysis is primarily to find out the modal frequencies of the structure and to simulate the mathematical model to earthquake loads. The structure vibrates in different modes when the earthquake takes place. The methodology suggested is to carry out a detailed study on the influence of contained masonry infill including un-reinforced masonry infill in multi-storey Reinforced Concrete frames on the fundamental natural frequencies and response due to various earthquake excitation forces. Numerical Finite element analysis is carried out on two dimensional Reinforced Concrete Frames under different configurations of contained masonry infill in addition to plain masonry and bare frames. The RC frames were designed and detailed as per relevant Indian standard codes. The present work consists of study of the behaviour of five storeyed RC frames infilled with contained masonry and also infilled with plain masonry, subjected to various earthquake excitation forces. Three types of models are considered for analysis; five storey frames of 4m wide, 5m wide and 6m wide models having total height of 16m with plain masonry infill and contained masonry infill are considered.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Seismic analysis of vertical irregular multistoried buildingeSAT Journals
Abstract It is understood that buildings which are regular in elevation (regular building) perform much better than those which have irregularity in elevation (irregular building) under seismic loading. Irregularities are not avoidable in construction of buildings. However a detailed study to understand structural behaviour of the buildings with irregularities under seismic loading is essential for appropriate design and their better performance. The main objective of this study is to understand the effect of elevation irregularity and behaviour of 3-D R.C. Building which is subjected to earthquake load. In the present study, a 5 bays X 5 bays, 16 storied structure with provision of lift core walls and each storey height 3.2 m, having irregularity in elevation, is considered as the soft storey 3-D structure. An Irregular building is assumed to be located in all zones. Linear dynamic analysis using Response Spectrum method of the irregular building is carried out using the standard and convenient FE software package. To quantify the effect of different degrees of irregularities all the structures are analysed. In addition, the analysis carried out also enables to understand the behaviour that takes place in irregular buildings in comparison to that in regular buildings. For this the behaviour parameters considered are 1) Maximum displacement 2) Base shear, 3) Time period. Key Words: asymmetric building, soft story, base shear, displacement, soft storey, time period.
Evaluation of the Seismic Response Parameters for Infilled Reinforced Concret...IOSRJMCE
RC frames with unreinforced masonry infill walls are a common form of construction all around the world. Often, engineers do not consider masonry infill walls in the design process because the final distribution of these elements may be unknown to them, or because masonry walls are regarded as non-structural elements. Separation between masonry walls and frames is often not provided and, as a consequence, walls and frames interact during strong ground motion. This leads to structural response deviating radically from what is expected in the design. The presence of masonry infills can result in higher stiffness and strength and it is cheap and built with low cost labor. Under lateral load, Masonry walls act as diagonal struts subjected to compression, while reinforced concrete confining members (Frames) act in tension and/or compression, depending on the direction of lateral earthquake forces. The main objective of this research is to develop a realistic matrix for the response modification factors for medium-rise skeletal buildings with masonry infills. In this study, the contribution of the masonry infill walls to the lateral behavior of reinforced concrete buildings was investigated. For this purpose, a five, seven and ten stories buildings are modelled as bare and infilled frames. The parameters investigated were infill ratio, panel aspect ratio, unidirectional eccentricity, bidirectional eccentricities. A Parametric study was developed on the behavior of medium rise infilled frame buildings under lateral loads to investigate the effect of these parameters as well as infill properties on this behavior
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Comparison of bracings and shear walls as seismic strengthening methods to bu...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Effect of Stiffening System on Building Resistance to Earthquake ForcesIOSRJMCE
Multi-story steel buildings of various heights under the action of earthquake force are analyzed by using time-history analysis technique. The ground motion records of El Centro, California in 1940 are considered in this study. Different types of stiffening systems (bracing and shear walls) are used for the considered buildings. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the response of steel structures subjected to earthquake excitation and to investigate the effect of various stiffening systems in improving the response of these buildings. The finite element method of SAP 2000 V17program is used in the analysis. A static analysis is conducted to obtain an indication on the stiffness of the studied stiffening models in order to interpret the stiffness effect on the response of the structures under the seismic load. It is found that, the natural period of a structure is highly affected by the height of the structure and the used stiffeningsystem. It is inversely proportional with the stiffness and directly proportional with the height of the structure. It is concluded that the roof displacement andits maximum value at a specific momentdoes not give a clear indication for the behavior of building. Therefore the full time response of the building must be considered. Also it has been concluded that it is not necessarily when the stiffness of a building increases, the roof or any story displacement of the building decreases under earthquake load.
seismic response of multi storey building equipped with steel bracingINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Steel bracing has proven to be one of the most effective systems in resisting lateral loads. Although its use to upgrade the lateral load capacity of existing Reinforced Concrete (RC) frames has been the subject of numerous studies, guidelines for its use in newly constructed RC frames still need to be developed. In this paper the study reveals that seismic performance of moment resisting RC frames with different patterns of bracing system. The three different types of bracings were used i.e. X - bracing system, V - bracing system and Inverted V - bracing system. This arrangement helped in reducing the structural response (i.e. displacement, interstorey drift, Shear Forces & Bending Moments) of the designed building structure. An (G+6) storey building was modelled and designed as per the code provisions of IS-1893:2002. And linear analysis is been carried out in the global X direction. The analysis was conducted with a view of accessing the seismic elastic performance of the building structure.
Parametric study of response of an asymmetric building for various earthquake...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Review paper on seismic responses of multistored rcc building with mass irreg...eSAT Journals
Abstract
From past earthquakes it is proved that many of structure are totally or partially damaged due to earthquake. So, it is necessary to determine seismic responses of such buildings. There are different techniques of seismic analysis of structure. Time history analysis is one of the important techniques for structural seismic analysis generally the evaluated structural response is non-linear in nature. For such type of analysis, a representative earthquake time history is required. In this project work seismic analysis of RCC buildings with mass irregularity at different floor level are carried out. Here for analysis different time histories have been used. This paper highlights the effect of mass irregularity on different floor in RCC buildings with time history and analysis is done by using ETABS software.
Keywords: Seismic Analysis, Time History Analysis, Base Shear, Storey Shear, Story Displacement.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Effect of Friction Dampers on RC Structures Subjected to Earthquakeijtsrd
Among all the natural disasters such as flood, earthquake, drought, hurricanes the least understood and the most destructive one is earthquake. Since, they cause many of injuries and economical losses leaving behind a series of signs of panic. Necessity to implement seismic codes in building design. For this a better method of analysis such as static analysis, dynamic analysis and time history analysis has to be adopted for performing the structures seismic risk assessment. This dissertation work is concerned with the "Studies on Effect of Friction Dampers on the Seismic Performance of RC G 15 Storey Buildings" According to IS 1893 part 1 2002 codal provisions the structures are analyzed by Equivalent Static method and Time History method. The modeling and analysis is done with ETAB SOFTWARE and the results obtained are seismic parameters such as Time period, Base shear, Lateral displacement and Inter storey drift, storey stiffness, storey accelaration are tabulated and then comparative study of structures with and without Friction dampers has been done. Akshay R | B. S. Suresh Chandra "Effect of Friction Dampers on RC Structures Subjected to Earthquake" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28017.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/structural-engineering/28017/effect-of-friction-dampers-on-rc-structures-subjected-to-earthquake/akshay-r
Effect of Seismic Joint in the Performance of Multi-Storeyed L-Shaped BuildingIOSR Journals
The choices of building shapes and structural systems have significant effect on their seismic performance. While symmetrical buildings result in a fairly uniform distribution of seismic forces throughout its components. Unsymmetrical buildings result in highly indeterminate distribution of forces making the analysis and prediction more complicated. L-shaped buildings are among those unsymmetrical structures which are most commonly found in practice in the form of school, office, commercial buildings. In this work three dimensional models of L-shaped buildings are investigated for their seismic performance, varying bay length and storey height. These models were analysed for three conditions viz with gap, with seismic joint and with neither of these. The modeling of structures analysis is carried out using STAAD Pro V8i, also the performance is analysed providing brick infill and compared with, without infill condition. Performances is measured in terms of displacements, axial forces, bending moments, shear forces and compared for those conditions mentioned in the identified column viz., corner, intermediate and interior
In this paper, an attempt has been made to compare the
structural cost of a basement, ground and 6 upper floors building with and without the provision of
soft storey (Stilt floor) through dynamic analysis of a residential building in Zone-V
A parametric study of x and v bracing industrial steel structureeSAT Journals
Abstract Severe earthquakes have an extremely low probability of occurrence during a structures life. If the earthquakes to be resisted by the structure elastically, it would require an expensive lateral load resisting system, which is not warranty. The structure may lose its aesthetic and functionality due to minor tremors and needs repairs; it will be a very unfavourable design. In addition to earthquake forces there may be wind or any vibrations which induce lateral loads in a structure. In our work we have taken only the earthquake load to find a system which balances the lateral loads and minimizes the displacements of the floors. With the literature review, it was founded that bracing in a structural system reduces the story drift and reduces the lateral force effect. To examine the performance of the bracings, bracing types like X and V bracings are considered and an analysis is performed in ETABS software. The results are studied, discussed and concluded for the best bracing system among both in our project. Keywords: Bracings, Time – History method
Out of Plane Behavior of Contained Masonry Infilled Frames Subjected to Seism...paperpublications3
Abstract: Brick masonry infill although considered as non-structural element largely affects the strength, stiffness and ductility of the reinforced concrete frames during the application of lateral loads due to wind or earthquake. Contained masonry refers here to the brick masonry which is used as infill in a reinforced concrete frame, wound round with 8mm diameter mild steel wires in vertical and horizontal directions and stitched to the brick masonry as well as to the reinforced concrete frames. This thesis focuses on the seismic behaviour of reinforced concrete structures with contained masonry infill, with a particular interest in the development of rational procedures for the analysis and design of RC frames with contained masonry infill. The estimation of the natural frequencies of the structural system is the basic investigation in dynamic analysis of a structure. Therefore the analysis is primarily to find out the modal frequencies of the structure and to simulate the mathematical model to earthquake loads. The structure vibrates in different modes when the earthquake takes place. The methodology suggested is to carry out a detailed study on the influence of contained masonry infill including un-reinforced masonry infill in multi-storey Reinforced Concrete frames on the fundamental natural frequencies and response due to various earthquake excitation forces. Numerical Finite element analysis is carried out on two dimensional Reinforced Concrete Frames under different configurations of contained masonry infill in addition to plain masonry and bare frames. The RC frames were designed and detailed as per relevant Indian standard codes. The present work consists of study of the behaviour of five storeyed RC frames infilled with contained masonry and also infilled with plain masonry, subjected to various earthquake excitation forces. Three types of models are considered for analysis; five storey frames of 4m wide, 5m wide and 6m wide models having total height of 16m with plain masonry infill and contained masonry infill are considered.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Seismic analysis of vertical irregular multistoried buildingeSAT Journals
Abstract It is understood that buildings which are regular in elevation (regular building) perform much better than those which have irregularity in elevation (irregular building) under seismic loading. Irregularities are not avoidable in construction of buildings. However a detailed study to understand structural behaviour of the buildings with irregularities under seismic loading is essential for appropriate design and their better performance. The main objective of this study is to understand the effect of elevation irregularity and behaviour of 3-D R.C. Building which is subjected to earthquake load. In the present study, a 5 bays X 5 bays, 16 storied structure with provision of lift core walls and each storey height 3.2 m, having irregularity in elevation, is considered as the soft storey 3-D structure. An Irregular building is assumed to be located in all zones. Linear dynamic analysis using Response Spectrum method of the irregular building is carried out using the standard and convenient FE software package. To quantify the effect of different degrees of irregularities all the structures are analysed. In addition, the analysis carried out also enables to understand the behaviour that takes place in irregular buildings in comparison to that in regular buildings. For this the behaviour parameters considered are 1) Maximum displacement 2) Base shear, 3) Time period. Key Words: asymmetric building, soft story, base shear, displacement, soft storey, time period.
Evaluation of the Seismic Response Parameters for Infilled Reinforced Concret...IOSRJMCE
RC frames with unreinforced masonry infill walls are a common form of construction all around the world. Often, engineers do not consider masonry infill walls in the design process because the final distribution of these elements may be unknown to them, or because masonry walls are regarded as non-structural elements. Separation between masonry walls and frames is often not provided and, as a consequence, walls and frames interact during strong ground motion. This leads to structural response deviating radically from what is expected in the design. The presence of masonry infills can result in higher stiffness and strength and it is cheap and built with low cost labor. Under lateral load, Masonry walls act as diagonal struts subjected to compression, while reinforced concrete confining members (Frames) act in tension and/or compression, depending on the direction of lateral earthquake forces. The main objective of this research is to develop a realistic matrix for the response modification factors for medium-rise skeletal buildings with masonry infills. In this study, the contribution of the masonry infill walls to the lateral behavior of reinforced concrete buildings was investigated. For this purpose, a five, seven and ten stories buildings are modelled as bare and infilled frames. The parameters investigated were infill ratio, panel aspect ratio, unidirectional eccentricity, bidirectional eccentricities. A Parametric study was developed on the behavior of medium rise infilled frame buildings under lateral loads to investigate the effect of these parameters as well as infill properties on this behavior
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Comparison of bracings and shear walls as seismic strengthening methods to bu...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Effect of Stiffening System on Building Resistance to Earthquake ForcesIOSRJMCE
Multi-story steel buildings of various heights under the action of earthquake force are analyzed by using time-history analysis technique. The ground motion records of El Centro, California in 1940 are considered in this study. Different types of stiffening systems (bracing and shear walls) are used for the considered buildings. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the response of steel structures subjected to earthquake excitation and to investigate the effect of various stiffening systems in improving the response of these buildings. The finite element method of SAP 2000 V17program is used in the analysis. A static analysis is conducted to obtain an indication on the stiffness of the studied stiffening models in order to interpret the stiffness effect on the response of the structures under the seismic load. It is found that, the natural period of a structure is highly affected by the height of the structure and the used stiffeningsystem. It is inversely proportional with the stiffness and directly proportional with the height of the structure. It is concluded that the roof displacement andits maximum value at a specific momentdoes not give a clear indication for the behavior of building. Therefore the full time response of the building must be considered. Also it has been concluded that it is not necessarily when the stiffness of a building increases, the roof or any story displacement of the building decreases under earthquake load.
seismic response of multi storey building equipped with steel bracingINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Steel bracing has proven to be one of the most effective systems in resisting lateral loads. Although its use to upgrade the lateral load capacity of existing Reinforced Concrete (RC) frames has been the subject of numerous studies, guidelines for its use in newly constructed RC frames still need to be developed. In this paper the study reveals that seismic performance of moment resisting RC frames with different patterns of bracing system. The three different types of bracings were used i.e. X - bracing system, V - bracing system and Inverted V - bracing system. This arrangement helped in reducing the structural response (i.e. displacement, interstorey drift, Shear Forces & Bending Moments) of the designed building structure. An (G+6) storey building was modelled and designed as per the code provisions of IS-1893:2002. And linear analysis is been carried out in the global X direction. The analysis was conducted with a view of accessing the seismic elastic performance of the building structure.
Parametric study of response of an asymmetric building for various earthquake...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Structural robustness analysis of RC frames under seismic and blast chained l...Franco Bontempi
In this paper the structural robustness assessment of concrete frame buildings under blast and under earthquake blast hazard chain scenarios is investigated. A deterministic methodology for connecting
the robustness with the blast hazard intensity and for conducting the robustness analysis under earthquake-triggered blast is presented and applied to a 3D RC frame building by implementing nonlinear time history analyses considering both plastic behavior and large displacements.
A preliminary sensitivity analysis on a 2D frame is conducted to identify the critical analysis
parameters influencing the results. The robustness curves (residual structural capacity versus the level of damage occurring in the structure), evaluated both for the blast-only and for the earthquake-blast chained cases, are compared by considering different explosion locations inside the building (location of the blast-induced structural damage). Results show that neglecting the chained load scenarios would lead to the identification of an erroneous location as critical for the
structural robustness performance.
Structural Response of Steel High Rise Buildings to Fire: System Characterist...Franco Bontempi
Due to the significant vertical elevation and complexity of the structural system, high rise buildings may suffer from the effects of fire more than other structures. For this reason, in addition to evacuation strategies and active fire protection, a careful consideration of structural response to fire is also very important. In this context, it is of interest to
investigate the characteristics of the structural system that could possibly reduce local damages or mitigate the progression of failures in case of fire. In this paper, a steel high rise building is taken as case study and the response of the building is investigated up to the crisis of the structure with respect to a standard fire in a lower and in a higher storey: the comparison of the fire induced failures at the different height allows highlighting the role played in the resulting collapse mechanisms by the beam-column stiffness ratio and by the loading condition.
Progressive collapse analysis in rc structure due to 150513181706pradip patel
Now in the recent time of terrorism, structural engineers require new consideration of terrorist attack in the design standards. Modern day structures pose a unique challenge to designers due to increased terrorist activities. Bomb blasts, vehicular attacks, Arson, Armed based attack all may result into a partial or total collapse of buildings. The work undertaken is an attempt to recognize the behaviour of RC structure under series blast loading. A model of G+4 RC structures has been considered as a progressive collapse analysis. The RC building with effect of series blast loading is analysed by using linear static and dynamic analysis. The present study work will carry out the effective study of different parameters like; different types of explosive charges (5T-5T, 7.5T-7.5T, 10T-10T TNT) at 10 mt. stand-off distance, failure of structure element at storey level and the structure is checked for progressive collapse by using commonly available, widely used software SAP 2000 will utilize for analysis
Behavior of RCC Structural Members for Blast Analysis: A ReviewIJERA Editor
In today’s scenario threat of enemies and terrorist attack is increasing. Therefore consideration of blast load in analysis and design is essential. A bomb explosion within or nearby outside the building can cause catastrophic failure of building. Blast loads have, in the recent past, become important service loads for certain categories of structure. An important task in blast resistance design is to make a realistic prediction of blast pressure. The distance of explosion from the structure is an important datum, governing the magnitude and duration of blast loads. In the present study, the RCC frame was analyzed by using conventional code for gravity loads using moment resisting frame. The blast load was calculated using UFC-340-02 (2008) or IS 4991-1968 for 500 kg and 100 Kg TNT at standoff distance of 10m and 30m from face of column at first floor level. The triangular impulse was applied as nodal time history at all front face joints. The analysis was performed using Computer aided software. The response of structure of will be evaluated under various blast scenarios. The response will be checked for safety of the structure on many parameters like displacement, acceleration and velocity.
Behavior of RCC Structural Members for Blast Analysis: A Review IJERA Editor
In today’s scenario threat of enemies and terrorist attack is increasing. Therefore consideration of blast load in analysis and design is essential. A bomb explosion within or nearby outside the building can cause catastrophic failure of building. Blast loads have, in the recent past, become important service loads for certain categories of structure. An important task in blast resistance design is to make a realistic prediction of blast pressure. The distance of explosion from the structure is an important datum, governing the magnitude and duration of blast loads. In the present study, the RCC frame was analyzed by using conventional code for gravity loads using moment resisting frame. The blast load was calculated using UFC-340-02 (2008) or IS 4991-1968 for 500 kg and 100 Kg TNT at standoff distance of 10m and 30m from face of column at first floor level. The triangular impulse was applied as nodal time history at all front face joints. The analysis was performed using Computer aided software. The response of structure of will be evaluated under various blast scenarios. The response will be checked for safety of the structure on many parameters like displacement, acceleration and velocity.
This paper presents a novel approach to the problem of durability analysis and lifetime assessment of concrete structures under
the diffusive attack from external aggressive agents. The proposed formulation mainly refers to beams and frames, but it can be easily
extended also to other types of structures. The diffusion process is modeled by using cellular automata. The mechanical damage coupled to diffusion is evaluated by introducing suitable material degradation laws. Since the rate of mass diffusion usually depends on the stress state, the interaction between the diffusion process and the mechanical behavior of the damaged structure is also taken into account by a proper modeling of the stochastic effects in the mass transfer. To this aim, the nonlinear structural analyses during time are performed
within the framework of the finite element method by means of a deteriorating reinforced concrete beam element. The effectiveness of the
proposed methodology in handling complex geometrical and mechanical boundary conditions is demonstrated through some applications.
Firstly, a reinforced concrete box girder cross section is considered and the damaging process is described by the corresponding evolution of both bending moment–curvature diagrams and axial force-bending moment resistance domains. Secondly, the durability analysis of a
reinforced concrete continuous T-beam is developed. Finally, the proposed approach is applied to the analysis of an existing arch bridge and to the identification of its critical members.
Seismic pounding between adjacent rc buildings with and without base isolatio...eSAT Journals
Abstract Among the possible structural damages during an earthquake, the seismic induced pounding also has been one of the commonly observed phenomena. This is because the separation gap between many adjacent buildings is inadequate to accommodate the relative motions, so buildings vibrate out of phase and collides. Despite the fact that the seismic pounding between nearby structures is considered in the codal procurements, the act of development is still an issue in numerous metropolitan zones where the structures are built with no adequate partition separation which brings about their pounding. In this study E-Tabs nonlinear software is used for simulation of adjacent multi-storeyed RC frame buildings of G+14 and G+9 storey, the provisions that may reduce the effects of pounding like the separation distance, addition of shear walls, lateral bracings and variation in storey height of the buildings have been considered for analysis. And the responses like storey-displacement and pounding force by considering both fixed base and base-isolated conditions are arrived. Keywords: Seismic pounding, RC frame building, Separation distance, Gap elements, Storey-displacement Pounding force, Fixed-base, Base isolation.
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2. International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
December 2018, Vol 7, No 4, 375-387
https://doi.org/10.21022/IJHRB.2018.7.4.375
International Journal of
High-Rise Buildings
www.ctbuh-korea.org/ijhrb/index.php
Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire:
Current State of Research
Jian Jiang1
and Guo-Qiang Li1,2
1
College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
2
State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
Abstract
This paper presents a review on progressive collapse mechanism of steel framed buildings exposed to fire. The influence of
load ratios, strength of structural members (beam, column, slab, connection), fire scenarios, bracing systems, fire protections
on the collapse mode and collapse time of structures is comprehensively reviewed. It is found that the key influencing factors
include load ratio, fire scenario, bracing layout and fire protection. The application of strong beams, high load ratios, multi-
compartment fires will lead to global downward collapse which is undesirable. The catenary action in beams and tensile
membrane action in slabs contribute to the enhancement of structural collapse resistance, leading to a ductile collapse
mechanism. It is recommended to increase the reinforcement ratio in the sagging and hogging region of slabs to not only
enhance the tensile membrane action in the slab, but to prevent the failure of beam-to-column connections. It is also found that
a frame may collapse in the cooling phase of compartment fires or under travelling fires. This is because that the steel members
may experience maximum temperatures and maximum displacements under these two fire scenarios. An edge bay fire is more
prone to induce the collapse of structures than a central bay fire. The progressive collapse of buildings can be effectively
prevented by using bracing systems and fire protections. A combination of horizontal and vertical bracing systems as well as
increasing the strength and stiffness of bracing members is recommended to enhance the collapse resistance. A protected frame
dose not collapse immediately after the local failure but experiences a relatively long withstanding period of at least 60 mins.
It is suggested to use three-dimensional models for accurate predictions of whether, when and how a structure collapses under
various fire scenarios.
Keywords: Progressive collapse, Influencing factors, Collapse mechanism, Fire scenario, Bracing system
1. Introduction
The traditional way of determining the fire resistance of
a structure is to test its critical members in a standard fire
(e.g., ISO 834 fire). Such tests are conducted on simply
supported members with failure criteria in terms of failure
of members, limit of deformation, rate of deformation or
limiting temperature. Since the Broadgate Phase 8 fire
and the subsequent Cardington fire tests (Kirby, 1997) in
the 1990s, the global behavior of steel framed structures in
fire has received increasing concern. It is confirmed that
steel members in real multi-story buildings have signifi-
cantly greater fire resistance than isolated members in
standard fire tests, due to the realistic member dimension,
boundary condition, and fire scenario. Especially since the
collapse of Word Trade Tower (WTC) under the terrorist
attack on September 11, 2001, there have been growing
interests in understanding progressive collapse resistance
of structures under accidental loads such as blast, impact
and fire (Hayes et al., 2005; Khandelwal et al., 2008; Men-
chel et al., 2009; Sasani et al., 2011). The term “progressive
collapse” is defined as “the spread of an initial local failure
from element to element, eventually resulting in the col-
lapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large
part of it” (ASCE, 2005). It implies that large displace-
ments, even failure, of individual structural members are
acceptable given the prevention of a global structural col-
lapse. An important lesson resulting from the collapse of
WTC is that prescriptive fire resistance ratings of indivi-
dual structural members do not guarantee the adequate
performance of a whole building system (Cowlard et al.,
2013).
Current research has focused on exploring the potential
collapse mechanism and proposing corresponding meas-
ures to mitigate or prevent the structural collapse. The
collapse mechanism of steel structures exposed to fire
depends on many influencing factors such as load ratios,
strength of beams and columns, connections, slabs, fire
scenarios, bracing systems, fire protections and their inter-
action. The objective of this paper is to review current
design and research approaches on these influencing fac-
tors to figure out the key factors to enhance the resistance
of structures against fire-induced progressive collapse.
†
Corresponding author: Guo-Qiang Li
Tel: +86-21-6598-2975; Fax: +86-21-6598-3431
E-mail: gqli@tongji.edu.cn
3. 376 Jian Jiang and Guo-Qiang Li | International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
2. Design Approaches
The progressive collapse is a relatively rare event as it
requires both an abnormal loading to initiate the local
damage, and a structure that lacks adequate continuity,
ductility and redundancy to resist the spread of failure.
The assessment of collapse performance of structures and
measures for mitigating disproportionate collapse can be
found in various design codes (GSA, 2003; ASCE 7, 2005;
DoD, 2010). ASCE 7 (2005) proposes two general app-
roaches that attempt to reduce the potential of progressive
collapse: direct design and indirect design. Direct design
approaches include the alternate path method and specific
local resistance method. The former is applied by instan-
taneously removing the potentially damaged column (sim-
ulating the local damage) and assessing the progressive
collapse resistance of the remains to ensure there are alter-
native load transferring paths to bridge over the missing
member. The location of column removal is given in GSA,
as shown in Fig. 1 where the perimeter columns at mid-
span and at corner, as well as interior columns adjacent to
the corner are selected. If the building collapses due to
the removed member, the specific local resistance method
can be used to design this key member to withstand ab-
normal loads without exceeding a specified level of dam-
age. In the indirect design approach, the structural resist-
ance against progressive collapse is considered implicitly
through the provision of minimum levels of strength, con-
tinuity and ductility, such as catenary action of the floor
slab, redundant structural systems, etc. A tie force approach
is provided by DoD (2010), which prescribes a tensile
force capacity of the floor or roof system to allow the
transfer of load from the damaged portion of the structure
to the undamaged part, as shown in Fig. 2.
The alternate path methodology is more applicable to
blast or impact loads rather than fire loads, although it is
typically considered to be “threat independent”. Firstly,
the duration of fire (in hours) is much longer than that of
blast (in milliseconds), and thus the behavior of structures
exposed to fire is a quasi-static process until the failure of
heated members (Richard Liew and Chen, 2004). Secondly,
the time when a structure collapses (i.e., fire resistance) is
a key factor apart from whether it collapses. This is to say
the duration the structure can resist collapse is of great
importance. This fire resistance against structural collapse
depends on the failure process of heated members which
should be explicitly simulated in numerical models. Thirdly,
all structural members (beams, columns, slabs) in a fire
compartment are heated and interrelate with each other
(e.g., the thermal expansion of beams and floors may push
columns away which contributes to its premature buckl-
ing). This interaction cannot be simulated by simply rem-
oving the heated columns. In addition, only one column is
removed each time in the alternate path method compared
to several columns simultaneously heated in the case of
fire. Therefore, the local failure of a structure should be
included in the collapse analysis of structures exposed to
fire to ensure an accurate prediction of both collapse time
and collapse mode. The design methods for the prevention
of fire-induced progressive collapse of structures is lacking.
3. Influencing Factors on Collapse Mechan-
ism
In case of fire, the local failure mentioned in the defin-
ition of progressive collapse is the failure of steel mem-
bers and slabs in the fire compartment. The failure of
these heated components will cause failure of adjacent
connections, beams and columns at ambient temperatures,
and thus lead to the collapse of the whole structure. Under
fire conditions, whether a structure collapses, when it col-
Figure 1. Potential location of column removal in a
framed structure (GSA, 2003). Figure 2. Tie forces in a framed structure (DoD, 2010).
4. Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire: Current State of Research 377
lapses, and how it collapses are the main concern of eng-
ineers and researchers. A state-of-the-art review of influ-
ence factors, such as load ratios, beams, columns, slabs,
connections, fire scenarios, bracing systems, fire protections
on these issues is presented in the following sections.
3.1. Influence of Load Ratios
The load ratio, defined as the ratio of the imposed load
to the load-bearing capacity of a member, significantly
affects the collapse response of structures. In the structural
fire design, a relatively low load ratio is always achieved
since a relatively small design load (e.g., Dead +0.5Live)
is considered compared to that (e.g., 1.4Dead +1.2Live)
taken in the ambient design. This is to avoid considering
two accidental events at the same time. Taking columns
for example, the load ratio in fire design varies in a range
of 0.2~0.3, compared to a level of 0.5~0.6 in ambient
design. It was evident that a high load ratio will
potentially lead to a global downward collapse of struc-
tures due to the buckling of all the columns on the fire
affected floor (Sun et al., 2012a; Jiang et al., 2014a; Jiang
et al., 2015a). It was also found that a frame with a high
load ratio of 0.6 may collapse due to the buckling of all
columns on the ground floor even if the fire occurred on
the upper floor (Jiang et al., 2015a). The influence of load
ratio is related to the critical temperature of steel mem-
bers, that the higher the load ratio, the lower the critical
temperature, and thus the earlier the collapse occurs. This
indicates that the load ratio affects both the collapse mode
and collapse time.
3.2. Influence of Beams
The influence of heated beams lies in its pulling-out
effect on the connected columns at the early stage of heat-
ing, and pull-in effect on the columns at high tempera-
tures. The former is due to the thermal expansion of the
beam at elevated temperatures, while the latter is caused
by tensile forces developed in the beam (catenary action)
due to its large deflection. The survival of beams in fire
will increase the lateral displacement in the column which
generates a large P-D effect. The failure of beams will
also lead to the loss of lateral resistance of the column,
resulting in its premature buckling.
Richard Liew et al. (1998) investigated the collapse
behavior of a three-bay three-storey frame under standard
fire. It was found that the control parameter leading to
frame collapse is the buckling of internal columns rather
than the beam mechanism. If the columns were fire-prot-
ected, the collapse limit state was governed by the limit-
ing deflection of the beam (span/20). Ali et al. (2004)
found inward and outward collapse modes of 2D single-
storey steel frames exposed to standard fires. The former
could be triggered by the catenary action of the heated
beam at high temperatures in a compartment fire. The
latter occurred when the fire was localized to the column
which buckled outward due to the thermal expansion of
the adjacent beam at a relatively lower temperature. Sun
et al. (2012a) pointed out that large beam sections could
result in a global downward collapse, due to the more
uniform load redistribution provided by the strong beam.
Jiang et al. (2014a) mentioned that the collapse modes of
steel frames with strong and weak beams were column
failure mechanism and beam failure mechanism, respec-
tively. The former mechanism was due to the buckling of
the columns below the heated floor represented by a glo-
bal collapse of the frame, while the latter was initiated by
the premature development of plastic hinges at the ends
of beams denoted by an obvious lateral drift of the heated
floor.
It is concluded that the thermal expansion of the heated
beams at low temperature and catenary action at high tem-
perature have great effects on the collapse mechanism of
steel frames exposed to fire. It is recommended to avoid
using a large beam section since strong beams, acting as
a rigid floor, will lead to an undesirable sudden collapse
of structures.
3.3. Influence of Columns
The fire-induced progressive collapse of steel buildings
is always triggered by the sequential buckling of col-
umns, no matter whether the connection (or beam) fails
or not. Fang et al. (2012) identified two collapse modes:
single-span failure and double-span failure. The former
occurred when the fire-affected column maintained its
strength in fire, or the upper ambient floor can offer suffi-
cient resistance for the heated floor. The latter was asso-
ciated with the buckling of the heated column. Fang et al.
(2013) proposed that sufficient structural robustness can-
not be guaranteed through applying fire protection only to
the steel columns due to the risk of shear failure of the
unprotected beam-to-column connections. Applying fire
protection to both columns and connections can be highly
effective. It was recommended to employ column web
stiffeners to prevent premature failure of the column web
in compression. Agarwal and Varma (2014) studied the
fire-induced progressive collapse of a 10-storey steel
building under natural fire with cooling phase. It was
found that the gravity columns played a key role in the
overall stability of the building. This is because gravity
columns have the highest load ratio (45~50%) since they
are designed to resist gravity load alone and thus had
smaller cross section, compared to moment resisting col-
umns (5~11%) which are larger and stronger to be des-
igned to resist lateral load. The results showed that, for a
corner fire on the fifth storey, the interior gravity column
failed when its temperature reached 560°C, while the
perimeter moment resisting columns withstood the fire.
Therefore, it is more critical to protect columns rather
than beams to prevent a collapse.
3.4. Influence of Slabs
Traditionally, floor slabs are used to support loads through
5. 378 Jian Jiang and Guo-Qiang Li | International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
a bending mechanism or acts as the compression flange
of composite beams. At large deflections, the slab under-
goes tensile membrane action, provided the slab’s peri-
meter is vertically supported and horizontally restrained,
as shown in Fig. 3a. It is also possible for the tensile
membrane action to occur in two-way spanning floors
that are vertically supported but horizontally unrestrained.
In this case, the slab supports load by a tension zone in
the center provided by the reinforcement and a “compres-
sion ring” forming around the edges to balance the tensile
forces (Fig. 3b). The merits of incorporating tensile mem-
brane action into the structural fire design of steel-conc-
rete composite slabs have prompted the elimination of the
fire protection of interior supporting steel beams, and thus
to optimize the construction cost of steel-framed structures.
Usmani et al. (2003) investigated the stability of WTC
tower exposed to fire alone. The results showed that the
collapse of the tower was mainly due to the thermal exp-
ansion effect rather than the material effect of loss of
strength and stiffness since the temperature of columns
was found within 400°C when the collapse occurred. The
collapse was triggered by the buckling of external col-
umns due to the loss of its lateral support provided by the
composite truss floor systems. The loss of stiffness in
floors was due to the material softening and buckling
induced by restrained thermal expansion. The details of
this collapse mechanism were further studied by Usmani
(2005) and Flint et al. (2007), and it was found that the
main reason for the collapse was the low membrane cap-
acity in compression of the truss floor. Based on the stiff-
ness of floors, Lange et al. (2012) proposed two collapse
mechanisms: a weak floor failure mechanism and a strong
floor failure mechanism (Fig. 4). The former was initiated
by the buckling of the adjacent floor below the fire-expo-
sed floor which experienced large membrane compres-
sions. If the floor was strong enough, the external column
would collapse due to the formation of plastic hinges in
it on the fire-exposed floors. Quiel and Garlock (2008)
compared the numerical results of 2D and 3D models of
steel frames in fire. It was concluded that including the
slab in the 2D structural analysis has no effect on the res-
ponse since the slab undergoes tension. However, for the
heat transfer analysis, the effect of slab should be consid-
ered to accurately predict the overall temperature distri-
bution of steel beams due to the heat sink effect from the
slab. Fang et al. (2013) proposed that increasing reinfor-
cement over the hogging moment regions of joints can
effectively improve the overall robustness of the structures
where the rupture of rebars may govern the collapse mode.
Strengthening the slab resistance through employing larger
reinforcement ratio or increasing the deck thickness was
also effective. Pham and Tan (2013) concluded that tensile
membrane action in slabs is feasible and an effective
solution for preventing progressive collapse of buildings
under column loss scenarios. Greater tensile membrane
forces can be mobilized in the central region due to the
participation of beam reinforcement and slab top reinfor-
cement. While in the outer region, the compressive ring
of concrete can be strengthened by slab hogging moment.
The studies by Agarwal and Varma (2014) showed that the
loads carried by the failed column could be transferred to
the neighboring columns through catenary action of slabs.
Increasing the reinforcement in the slab (greater than the
minimum shrinkage reinforcement) can facilitate uniform
load redistribution, and thus reduce the risk of failure
spread and collapse of the structure. Li et al. (2017) con-
ducted standard fire tests on full-scale composite slabs.
The tensile membrane action of slabs was found, and the
effect of secondary steel beams was investigated.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the vertical support
of the slabs to form tensile membrane action. It is recom-
mended to increase both sagging and hogging reinforce-
ment to enhance the tensile membrane action of the slab.
3.5. Influence of Connections
Beam-to-column connections play an important role in
the structural stability of steel structures in fire. The capa-
bility of connections to sustain large tensile forces and
rotations in fire directly affects the load distribution from
the beam to columns, and further influence the survival of
the building in fire. Evidence from the collapse of WTC
tower (FEMA, 2002, NIST, 2005) demonstrated that the
Figure 3. Tensile membrane action of reinforced concrete slabs: (a) with horizontal restraints; (b) without horizontal
restraints (Jiang et al., 2018).
6. Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire: Current State of Research 379
failure of connections led to the loss of lateral support of
external columns which led to the collapse of the tower.
The results of Cardington fire tests also showed how the
connections help the building survive the fire without
progressive collapse. Therefore, preventing the failure of
connections is essential for the collapse resistance of
structures in fire. This is always achieved by insulating
connections with fire protection materials. Without fire
protection, the temperature of joint region is much lower
than the middle of the beam due to the large mass con-
centration and thermal shielding effect from slabs. It is
specified in EN 1993-1-2 (2005) that the temperature of
the joint is 62~88% of that of the lower flange of the heated
beam at midspan. Considering the maximum temperature
of 1000°C for the lower flange, the difference of average
temperature of the joint can be more than 200°C.
Previous studies focus on the experimental and numer-
ical investigations on isolated connections or sub-assem-
blages (AI-Jabri et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2007; Qian et
al., 2008). Recently, Wang et al. (2011) conducted ten fire
tests on medium-scale restrained steel sub-frames, includ-
ing various sizes of columns and types of connections
(such as fin plate, web cleat, flush endplate, flexible end-
plate and extended endplate connections). The experim-
ental results showed that failure of connections only occ-
urred when the beam was in catenary action. The beams
were able to undergo very large deflections (span/8~span/
6) without failure. If catenary action in the beam was
considered in the structural robustness against collapse,
the effects of different columns and different joints should
be considered. The results also showed that the flexible
end plate connection performed the poorest, followed by
flush end plate and fin plate connections. The web cleat
connections performed the best. The use of light columns
with a relatively small cross section may prevent the fail-
ure of connections due the catenary action of the beam.
Based on the experimental results, three levels of modell-
ing of endplate connections were proposed by Chen and
Wang (2012). These included a detailed model with solid
elements for connection and steel members, hybrid model
with spring element for connection and solid elements for
steel members, reduced model with spring element for
connection and beam elements for steel members. Seven
fire tests were conducted by Haremza et al. (2013) on
composite steel-concrete sub-frame where the concrete
slab was included in the beam-to-column connection. The
results showed that the compressive axial forces in the
restrained beam can increase the rotation capacity and
ductility of connections.
In contrast to the numerous investigations on the failure
behavior of connections itself, studies on its effect on the
collapse behavior of whole structures is lacking. Wald et
al. (2009) carried out fire tests on the eight-storey build-
ing at Cardington. It showed that the connections were
Figure 4. Collapse mechanism of tall buildings subject to multi-floor fire (Lange et al. 2012): (a) weak floor failure
mechanism; (b) strong floor failure mechanism.
7. 380 Jian Jiang and Guo-Qiang Li | International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
subject to large axial force in a magnitude level of 300
kN during the heating and cooling phases. The tie forces
calculated by EN 1991-1-7 (2006) were lower (unsafe)
compared to the measured forces in the test. Yu et al.
(2010) found that the effective typing of joints to prevent
collapse can be improved by using a more rigid connec-
tion, increasing tensile capacity of concrete in composite
slabs, using a decking profile with higher moment resist-
ance, adding tensile reinforcement near the joint. Fang et
al. (2012) identified that the shear failure of joints can
happen either before or after the buckling of the heated
column. Fang et al. (2013) proposed failure criteria of
joints and overall system. It was assumed that the struc-
ture collapsed if the ductility limits of surrounding ambi-
ent joints were exceeded. The results showed that the fire
protection to joints can be effective in avoiding punching
shear under fire. Agarwal and Varma (2014) found that
all the connections attached to the buckled interior col-
umn exposed to fire failed immediately after the column
failure. The failure of connections can be prevented by
increasing the reinforcement in the slab which significantly
reduces the deflection of slabs. Sun et al. (2015) studied
the effect of ductility of connections on the collapse res-
istance of steel frames exposed to fire. It was found that
both tensile and compressive ductility of the connections
contributed to the fire resistance of the beams, and also
prevented the detachment of beams (Fig. 5). A beam with
a longer span required higher ductility in its connection to
achieve the specified level of fire resistance.
Therefore, there is limited research on the progressive
failure of the connection components and their effect on
the collapse resistance of whole frames in fire.
3.6. Influence of Fire Scenarios
The influence of fire scenarios includes time history of
gas temperature in the fire compartment (standard or nat-
ural fire), location of fire (internal or external; lower floor
or upper floor), number of fire compartments (single or
multiple compartments in fire) and spread of fire (i.e.,
travelling fire).
The standard fire curves (ISO 834 or ASTM E119) rep-
resent only the fully developed phase of fire which is con-
sidered as the worst-case fire in enclosure. It is evident
that standard fire curves cannot exhibit the behavior of
real fires which include three phases of growth, fully
developed, and decay of the fire. To better represent a
realistic fire, natural fire curves (or parametric fire) are
developed by taking into account the geometry of the
compartment, ventilation condition, fire load density, ther-
mal characteristics of materials. The primary difference
between standard and natural fire curves is that the latter
accounts for the cooling phase and always has a lower
maximum temperature, as shown in Fig. 6. It is found that
a frame may collapse in the cooling phase in a high-ven-
tilation fire due to the less rapid temperature rise in the
column than the beam because of the large cross-section
of the column (Richard Liew et al., 1998; Lien et al., 2009;
Agarwal and Varma, 2014). The temperature of the column
will continue to increase in the cooling phase, leading to
the collapse when it reaches the limiting temperature. In
contrast, it will take a longer time for the frame to col-
lapse (at 30 min) in the low-ventilation fire, compared to
the collapse at 13 min in the standard ISO fire. In addi-
tion, a structure will experience plastic deformation at the
early stage of a fire due to the restrained thermal expansion
and induce a considerable permanent deformation after
the fire is put out which may cause great damage, even
collapse, of the structure (Lien et al., 2009). Neal et al.
(2012) pointed out that the fire type (standard or natural
Figure 5. Progressive collapse of a frame with failure of connections (Sun et al., 2015).
Figure 6. Comparison of temperature-time curves of ISO
standard fire and natural fires. (Richard Liew et al., 1998).
8. Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire: Current State of Research 381
fire) had negligible effect on the collapse behavior of un-
protected frame since unprotected members failed early
in the fire where different fire types had similar tempera-
ture time history. For protected frames, the natural fire
with a decay phase could lead to a longer fire resistance.
The natural fire for open plan compartments is the critical
knowledge gap for performance-based design of structures
in fire, and there is a new research direction toward large-
compartment fire and travelling fire (Cowlard et al., 2013).
Recently, Lou et al. (2018) conducted real fire tests on
full-scale steel portal frames. It was found that the temp-
erature distribution in the frame was significantly non-
uniform, and the frames collapsed asymmetrically.
A fire may occur in the interior or exterior of a frame,
and also occur on its lower floor or upper floor. Gen-
erally, a fire on the ground floor is more severe than that
on the upper floor since the ground-floor columns have
the largest load ratio. However, it is also necessary to
consider the upper-floor fire that columns on the upper
floors had a smaller size cross section and thus a faster
temperature increase, compared to columns on the lower
floor. It was found that the edge bay fire was more prone
to induce the collapse of structures than the central bay
fire (Jiang et al., 2014a; 2015a). It was also found that the
most dangerous situation is the frame subjected to high
load ratios exposed to a central bay fire where its progres-
sive collapse may occur as early as 250°C (Jiang et al.,
2014a). Four collapse modes were proposed by Jiang et
al. (2014b) including the global and local downward and
lateral collapse. The collapse mechanism of frames was
in the form of lateral drift of the frame above heated floors
for an edge bay fire and downward collapse of frames
along the heated bay for a central bay fire. For multi-
compartment fires, it was found that the spread of fire in
the vertical direction had little effect on the collapse mode
of structures, while a horizontally distributed fire scenario
was prone to cause a global downward collapse of
structures (Jiang et al., 2014b). Neal et al. (2012) pointed
out that the upper floor fire resulted in a longer survival
time compared to the lower floor fire if the beams were
not protected. This is because less gravity load was trans-
ferred on the upper floor and thus the beam which spans
double bays withstood the fire longer. For the protected
beams, the fire in the upper floor led to a shorter survival
time due to the fact that the collapse mechanism was gov-
erned by the failure of columns where upper floor col-
umns had a faster temperature increase and thus shorter
withstanding time. This indicates that the effect of fire
scenarios depends on the size and fire protection of steel
members. Kilic and Selamet (2013) concluded that the
location of fire did not significantly change the collapse
mechanism as long as the fire was contained on a single
floor. This conclusion was questionable because it assumed
that all the columns on one floor were heated which was
an extreme situation. Nigro et al. (2014) used a probabili-
stic approach integrating Monte Carlo simulation to assess
the probability of failure of structures in fire. This approach
was to identify the most critical fire scenario.
Both the standard and natural fire curves assume a unif-
orm temperature distribution in the compartment consid-
ering the occurrence of flash-over. A flash-over is the
near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly exposed
combustible material in an enclosed area. The assumption
of flash-over is valid for a relatively small compartment
(i.e., small compartment fire), up to 500 m2
of floor area
without openings in the roof and for a maximum com-
partment height of 4 m (EN 1991-1-2, 2005). Flash-over
is unlikely to occur in large or open compartments, and
thus a localized fire should be taken into account where
a non-uniform temperature is assumed. Ali et al. (2004)
found that a frame under a small compartment fire will
collapse inward due to the catenary action of the heated
beams which drive the columns inward. When the fire
localized to the column, the column will buckle outward
pushed by the expanding beam at a relatively low temp-
erature.
Observations from realistic fires such as those in WTC
tower and Windsor Tower have revealed that the fire in
large open areas travels across the floors rather than burn-
ing simultaneously for the duration. Indeed, combustible
materials in large compartments are consumed at a rate
governed by the ventilation condition, leading to a non-
uniform temperature in the compartment. A review of
research on travelling fire can be found in the reference
(Behnam and Rezvani, 2015, Rackauskaite et al., 2015).
Most previous studies focus on the formation of travell-
ing fire or its effect on the behavior of structural members.
The behavior of structures against progressive collapse
under travelling fires is not well understood. Generally, a
travelling fire has two fields: the near-field (flame) and
the far-field (smoke), as shown in Fig. 7. The spread of
fire can produce larger beam deflection than does simul-
taneous heating of multiple compartments, and there was
possibility that a frame collapsed during the cooling phase
(Bailey et al., 1997). Richard Liew et al. (1998) found that
the frame can survive the fire scenario where all bays in
one storey were heated simultaneously, but not in the case
of fire spread to adjacent two compartments. This is bec-
ause extra compression was induced in the cooling beam
in the source compartment provided by the heating of
adjacent beams. It was found that the maximum deflec-
tion and residual deflection of the beam in the source
compartment were higher if fire spread was considered.
This indicates the importance of considering the possib-
ility of fire spread in the determination of the required
collapse resistance of the building exposed to fire. If not,
it is suggested to ensure the fire partition to effectively
prevent the spread of fire from one compartment to ano-
ther. Behnam and Rezvani (2015) pointed out that the
frame was more vulnerable to travelling fire compared to
standard fire. However, the collapse mechanism of struc-
tures under travelling fire is still not clear, and thus further
9. 382 Jian Jiang and Guo-Qiang Li | International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
work should be done.
3.7. Influence of Bracing Systems
Preventing the spread of local failure is the key to ensure
the resistance to disproportionate collapse. Increasing
structural redundancy is an effective way for this purpose
to enhance the robustness of structures against collapse.
Some attempts have been made by using bracing systems
to enhance redundancy of structures at ambient tempera-
tures and provide alternative load redistribution path after
a local failure. Bracing systems are most commonly used
in a building to resist lateral loads induced by seismic or
wind actions. Two types of bracing systems are always
used: vertical bracing system placed along the entire hei-
ght of the building and horizontal bracing system placed
on individual floors (e.g., hat bracing on the top floor), as
shown in Fig. 8.
The hat bracing is effective to uniformly redistribute
loads to adjacent columns, and thus delay or prevent the
collapse of structures (Flint et al., 2007). However, it failed
to resist the lateral drift of columns which may lead to a
global downward collapse (Sun et al., 2012b). A vertical
bracing system can act as a barrier to prevent the spread
of local failure to the rest of structures (Jiang et al., 2015b).
It is thus recommended to use a combined bracing system
in practical design. Sun et al. (2012a) studied the effect of
lateral bracing systems on the collapse resistance. The
bracing system was modelled by axial elastic spring with
different stiffness. It was found that the global failure of
the frame was not sensitive to the lateral stiffness, but was
governed by the sequential buckling of columns. The col-
lapse behavior of braced steel frames was further studied
by Sun et al. (2012b) where the braces were explicitly
modelled. It was found that the hat truss acted as a rigid
beam across the top storey of the frame to distribute the
vertical reaction forces between adjacent columns. The
collapse of the frame was triggered by the buckling of
bracing members in compression. The application of
stronger bracing members increased the collapse temp-
erature but generated larger axial forces in the adjacent
column, leading to its premature buckling. This indicates
that the hat truss has a limited capacity to avoid the pull-
in of columns in the heated floor. Increasing the strength
and stiffness of bracing members have the potential to
prevent the collapse. The vertical bracing system can
effectively prevent the spread of local failure from bay to
bay, and also increase the lateral restraint of the frame,
reduce the pull-in effect of the columns. Jiang et al. (2015b)
recommended an interior arrangement of vertical brac-
ings which effectively prevented the spread of local dam-
age to the rest of structures. Talebi et al. (2014) investi-
gated the application of buckling restrained braces (BRB)
on the prevention of progressive collapse of steel frames
in fire. It showed that BRBs provided an enhanced collapse
resistance for the frame due to its prevention of buckling
of bracing members.
3.8. Influence of Fire Protections
Fire resistance of steel-framed structures has traditionally
Figure 7. Illustration of a travelling fire: (a) Definition of the near field and far field; (b) distribution of gas temperature.
(Rackauskaite et al., 2015).
Figure 8. Schematic of practical layout of bracing system
in a framed structure.
10. Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire: Current State of Research 383
been ensured by applying insulating materials around the
steelwork, such as sprays, boards, blankets, and intume-
scent coatings (Xu et al., 2018). The application of fire
protections will delay the temperature rise in the steel
members and enhance their fire resistance. Quiel and
Marjanishvili (2012) studied the fire resistance of a dam-
aged steel building against progressive collapse. The mid-
dle column on the ground floor was removed in a four-
bay and five-storey frame, and a fire was assumed in the
middle two bays. It was found that the unprotected frame
collapsed due to sagging failure of beams at 10 min. The
protection of beams alone led to the buckling of the heated
unprotected columns and the collapse time was extended
to 30 min. The 1-h fire protection for both beams and col-
umns resulted in a 1.5 h fire resistance with a collapse
model of sagging failure of beams which is more ductile
and preferred than the column failure. This indicates the
importance to protect columns. Furthermore, Neal et al.
(2012) considered a combination of fire protection of
beams and columns. They concluded that fire protection
Figure 9. Collapse mode I - general collapse with combined lateral drift of the frame and buckling of columns: (a) fire
at midspan; (b) fire at edge.
Figure 10. Collapse mode II - lateral drift collapse: (a) frame with weak beams; (b) frame with high load ratio; (c) frame
with hat bracing.
Figure 11. Collapse mode III - global downward collapse: (a) frame with strong beams or high load ratio; (b) frame with
vertical bracing; (c) frame with combined hat and vertical bracing.
11. 384 Jian Jiang and Guo-Qiang Li | International Journal of High-Rise Buildings
had an important effect on the collapse resistance. The
unprotected beam always failed before the column bec-
ause it experienced a faster temperature increase due to its
three-sided fire exposure. If the beam was protected, the
collapse mode and time were affected significantly by the
fire location and the fire type. Fang et al. (2013) proposed
that the application of fire protection is not always an eff-
ective way to increase the collapse resistance for a locali-
zed fire with limited fire affected area. Fire protection
may even lead to an undesirable reduction in overall res-
istance due to the elimination of thermal expansion which
can enhance the rotation capacity and ductility of joints.
The collapse mechanism of an 8-storey braced steel frame
with concrete slabs was studied by Jiang and Li (2017b).
It was found that the fire protection of steel members had
a significant influence on the resistance of structures
against fire-induced collapse. A protected frame did not
collapse immediately after the local failure but experienced
a relatively long withstanding period of at least 60 min
(Jiang and Li, 2017b). This indicated that the overall fire
resistance of the frame against global collapse was some-
what 1-hour longer than that of individual members.
4. Discussion
4.1. Potential Collapse Mode
The collapse mode of steel framed structures exposed
to fire has been comprehensively investigated through 2D
and 3D models. It is confirmed that the progressive col-
lapse of a structure will be triggered by the buckling of
adjacent columns at ambient temperatures with or without
lateral drift in them. The lateral drift of columns is driven
by the catenary action of the heated beams or tensile mem-
brane action of the heated floors. Three collapse modes of
steel buildings are summarized based on the review of
various influencing factors in previous sections, as shown
Figs. 9~11, respectively. These are: general collapse mode,
lateral drift collapse mode and global downward collapse
mode. The general collapse is the most common collapse
mechanism where the collapse is due to the buckling of
adjacent columns experiencing obvious lateral drift (Fig.
9). If the catenary action in the beam is significant (weak
beam) or the load ratio is high, the lateral drift of the frame
will govern its collapse (Fig. 10). A frame with hat braces
under an edge fire may also collapse laterally. If the lat-
eral drift of the frame is restrained, the frame will glob-
ally collapse downward (Fig. 11). The application of ver-
tical bracing or multi-compartment fires may lead to this
downward collapse mode.
These collapse modes are concluded mainly based on
small compartment fires, their feasibility for large open-
plan compartment fires (localized fire and travelling fire)
should be further checked. Research on the measures to
mitigate or prevent the progressive collapse of steel build-
ings as well as practical design approaches is still lacking.
4.2. 2D Model vs 3D Model
The advantage of using 3D models over 2D models is to
account for more realistic fire scenarios, load redistribut-
ions and beneficial effect of slabs. A comparison between
2D and 3D models (Jiang and Li, 2017b) showed that the
2D model produced conservative results by underestimat-
ing the collapse resistance, and it cannot capture the load
redistribution in a 3D model where more loads were dis-
tributed along the short span than those along the long
span. Although, the 2D model and 3D model may lead to
similar results on whether and how a frame collapses in
some cases, but they provide quite different predictions on
when the frame collapses in most cases. This is because
the 2D model cannot fully consider the redundancy in a
real structure which will significantly delay the collapse.
Therefore, 3D models should be used to make an accurate
prediction of the collapse mode and collapse time of frames
exposed to various fire scenarios.
5. Conclusions
This paper reviewed the influencing factors on the prog-
ressive collapse mechanism of steel framed buildings
exposed to fire. Three collapse modes were found for vari-
ous load ratios, strength of beams and columns, fire scen-
arios, layouts of bracing systems. The following conclus-
ions can be drawn:
(1) The key influencing factors on the collapse mode
are load ratio, fire scenario, bracing layout, and fire
protection.
(2) A high load ratio is prone to cause global downward
collapse of a frame which is undesirable.
(3) It is found that the collapse of the frame is governed
by the stability of columns rather than deflection of
beams. It is desirable to strengthen the columns by
fire protections or column web stiffeners, or to use
relatively weak beams to facilitate the formation of
catenary action in beams which may lead to a ductile
collapse mechanism.
(4) The tensile membrane action in slabs is effective to
prevent the collapse of the frame. It is necessary to
ensure the vertical support of the slabs for the form-
ation of tensile membrane action. It is recommended
to increase both sagging and hogging reinforcement
to enhance the tensile membrane action of the slab.
(5) Preventing the failure of connections is essential
for the collapse resistance of structures in fire. The
failure of connections can be prevented by increas-
ing the reinforcement in the slab, using rigid con-
nections, applying fire protection and reducing the
size of columns.
(6) It is found that a frame may collapse in the cooling
phase and under travelling fire rather than the heat-
ing phase and standard fire, respectively. This is
because the steel members may experience maxi-
mum temperature and maximum displacement under
12. Progressive Collapse of Steel High-Rise Buildings Exposed to Fire: Current State of Research 385
these two fire scenarios. An edge bay fire is more
prone to induce the collapse of structures than the
central bay fire. Multi-compartment fires in the hori-
zontal plane, as the severest fire scenario, will lead
to global downward collapse. A fire in the upper
floor may lead to a shorter survival time due to the
buckling of adjacent columns which have a faster
temperature increase.
(7) A combination of hat and vertical bracing systems
is recommended to enhance the collapse resistance
of structures in fire. Increasing the strength and
stiffness of bracing members have the potential to
prevent the collapse.
(8) The application of fire protections on steel members
has a significant influence on the resistance of struc-
tures against fire-induced collapse. A protected
frame may not collapse immediately after the local
failure but experienced a relatively long withstand-
ing period of at least 60 min. The collapse mode and
time of protected frames may be affected signifi-
cantly by the fire location and the fire type.
(9) It is necessary to use three-dimensional models for
accurate predictions of the collapse mode and coll-
apse time of frames exposed to various fire scenarios.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper was supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China with grant
51408418, and Research project of State Key Laboratory
for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering with grant
SLDRCE14-A-05.
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