This document discusses various approaches to ethical reasoning including idealism, relativism, teleology/consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. It explores how individuals and companies make decisions about right and wrong based on these different philosophical approaches. Additionally, it examines how cultural context can influence ethical judgments and outlines challenges with finding universal moral standards.
Moral theory is the study of values and guidelines that govern how we live, including the justification of these values. There are two main branches: normative ethics, which examines applied ethics, and theoretical ethics, which focuses on moral reasoning. Moral theories provide conceptual frameworks to explain moral concepts, clarify why actions are right or wrong, and help analyze and rank moral concerns. Theories also offer guidance for resolving moral issues. Major types of theories include ethical relativism, which views morality as subjective to individuals or cultures, and universalist theories, which hold that objective moral principles exist independently of personal or cultural beliefs.
The document summarizes key concepts in business ethics including:
- Utilitarianism holds that actions should maximize good for the greatest number of people. Panera Cares aligns somewhat with utilitarianism and Sidgwick's dualism.
- Deontological frameworks like Kant's ethics judge actions based on universal principles rather than consequences. Kant argued decisions should be rationally universalized.
- The Business Standards Codex outlines eight principles of ethical behavior for companies: fiduciary duty, property rights, reliability, transparency, dignity, fairness, citizenship, and responsiveness.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able learn:
1. recognize and recall a moral experience;
2. detect a moral dilemma;
3 .identify the three levels of moral dilemmas.
Norm
Norm of Morality
• Types of norm:
Eternal Divine Law
Human Reason
Law as the object norm of morality
• General Notion of Law
o Law of Nature
o Natural Law
Moral Law
o Essential Elements for a Law to be Reasonable:
• Divisions of Law
o Eternal Law
The Natural Moral Law
Law of Conscience
i. Attributes of the Natural Law
ii. The Contents of Natural Law
Formal norms
Material norms
Human Positive Law
Law as the subject norm of morality
Conscience
• Conscience as an Act of Intellect
(Judgement of Reason)
• Conscience as a Practical Moral Judgement
• Conscience as the Proximate Norm of Morality
• Kinds of Conscience
i. Correct or True Conscience
ii. Erroneous of False conscience
Invincibly erroneous conscience
Vincibly erroneous conscience
Perplexed conscience
Pharisaical conscience
i. Certain Conscience
ii. Doubtful Conscience
iii. Scrupulous Conscience
iv. Lax Conscience
The document provides an overview of topics related to ethics that will be covered in a first year ethics course, including different ethical theories and how students will be assessed. It also includes sample exam questions testing understanding of divine command theory, which holds that morality is determined by God's commands, and the Euthyphro dilemma, a famous challenge to this view. Students are instructed to use the material to create an individual learning plan for ethics.
DIFFERENT VALUE SYSTEM OF THE PHILIPPINESShin Tampus
This document discusses the value system of the Philippines. It identifies several core Filipino values including beliefs, attitudes, convictions, principles, aims, and aspirations. Some positive values mentioned are hospitality, respect, strong family ties, generosity, and strong work ethic. Negative values include crab mentality, mañana habit, balat sibuyas, and colonial mentality. Overall, the document analyzes the cultural values that shape decision-making and behavior in the Philippines.
This document discusses the relationship between religion and ethics. It explores different perspectives on whether morality is dependent on religion such as the Divine Command Theory and the Independence Thesis. The document also examines arguments for and against the idea that religion enhances moral life or is even contrary to morality. Key figures discussed include Kant, Russell, Hume, Nowell-Smith, and Rachels.
Moral vs. Non moral standards (Lebantocia and Plaza)JunoCandor
This document outlines the topics to be discussed in a business ethics and governance philosophy course. The topics include: moral and non-moral standards; morality and etiquette; morality and law; and morality and professional codes of ethics. Moral standards are concerned with human welfare, take priority over other considerations, and depend on adequate justification. Laws are rules enforced by a community to regulate its members' actions. Professional codes of ethics are rules meant to govern conduct in a given profession.
Moral theory is the study of values and guidelines that govern how we live, including the justification of these values. There are two main branches: normative ethics, which examines applied ethics, and theoretical ethics, which focuses on moral reasoning. Moral theories provide conceptual frameworks to explain moral concepts, clarify why actions are right or wrong, and help analyze and rank moral concerns. Theories also offer guidance for resolving moral issues. Major types of theories include ethical relativism, which views morality as subjective to individuals or cultures, and universalist theories, which hold that objective moral principles exist independently of personal or cultural beliefs.
The document summarizes key concepts in business ethics including:
- Utilitarianism holds that actions should maximize good for the greatest number of people. Panera Cares aligns somewhat with utilitarianism and Sidgwick's dualism.
- Deontological frameworks like Kant's ethics judge actions based on universal principles rather than consequences. Kant argued decisions should be rationally universalized.
- The Business Standards Codex outlines eight principles of ethical behavior for companies: fiduciary duty, property rights, reliability, transparency, dignity, fairness, citizenship, and responsiveness.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able learn:
1. recognize and recall a moral experience;
2. detect a moral dilemma;
3 .identify the three levels of moral dilemmas.
Norm
Norm of Morality
• Types of norm:
Eternal Divine Law
Human Reason
Law as the object norm of morality
• General Notion of Law
o Law of Nature
o Natural Law
Moral Law
o Essential Elements for a Law to be Reasonable:
• Divisions of Law
o Eternal Law
The Natural Moral Law
Law of Conscience
i. Attributes of the Natural Law
ii. The Contents of Natural Law
Formal norms
Material norms
Human Positive Law
Law as the subject norm of morality
Conscience
• Conscience as an Act of Intellect
(Judgement of Reason)
• Conscience as a Practical Moral Judgement
• Conscience as the Proximate Norm of Morality
• Kinds of Conscience
i. Correct or True Conscience
ii. Erroneous of False conscience
Invincibly erroneous conscience
Vincibly erroneous conscience
Perplexed conscience
Pharisaical conscience
i. Certain Conscience
ii. Doubtful Conscience
iii. Scrupulous Conscience
iv. Lax Conscience
The document provides an overview of topics related to ethics that will be covered in a first year ethics course, including different ethical theories and how students will be assessed. It also includes sample exam questions testing understanding of divine command theory, which holds that morality is determined by God's commands, and the Euthyphro dilemma, a famous challenge to this view. Students are instructed to use the material to create an individual learning plan for ethics.
DIFFERENT VALUE SYSTEM OF THE PHILIPPINESShin Tampus
This document discusses the value system of the Philippines. It identifies several core Filipino values including beliefs, attitudes, convictions, principles, aims, and aspirations. Some positive values mentioned are hospitality, respect, strong family ties, generosity, and strong work ethic. Negative values include crab mentality, mañana habit, balat sibuyas, and colonial mentality. Overall, the document analyzes the cultural values that shape decision-making and behavior in the Philippines.
This document discusses the relationship between religion and ethics. It explores different perspectives on whether morality is dependent on religion such as the Divine Command Theory and the Independence Thesis. The document also examines arguments for and against the idea that religion enhances moral life or is even contrary to morality. Key figures discussed include Kant, Russell, Hume, Nowell-Smith, and Rachels.
Moral vs. Non moral standards (Lebantocia and Plaza)JunoCandor
This document outlines the topics to be discussed in a business ethics and governance philosophy course. The topics include: moral and non-moral standards; morality and etiquette; morality and law; and morality and professional codes of ethics. Moral standards are concerned with human welfare, take priority over other considerations, and depend on adequate justification. Laws are rules enforced by a community to regulate its members' actions. Professional codes of ethics are rules meant to govern conduct in a given profession.
Organizational ethics refers to applying moral choices guided by values and principles to organizational activities. An ethical organization has fairness, responsibility, purpose, and ease interacting with diverse stakeholders. Ethical ground rules foster honesty, responsibility, fairness, and participation. Managing ethics improves society, productivity, meaning, policies, reputation, and trust. Leaders are responsible for creating ethical organizations by confronting operational goals with moral obligations. Leaders must consider impacted values and interests and avoid harm. Building ethics requires leaders to develop influences, integrity, values, training, and plans for excellence. An organization's ethics reflect its leaders' ethics and skills.
This chapter discusses the fundamentals of ethics, including defining ethics as the study of distinguishing good from bad actions. It examines why ethics is important by clarifying why some acts are better, contributing to social order, intelligently appraising moral conduct, and pointing to life's true values. Ethics assumes humans are rational and free. It also deals with the objects, classifications, components, and forms of ethical analysis like normative and descriptive ethics as well as theories like consequentialism and deontology. The chapter differentiates between social and personal ethics.
The document discusses the field of ethics and moral philosophy. It defines ethics as the study of evaluating human actions and morality as concerning proper behavior. It outlines the three main areas of moral philosophy: metaethics investigates the basis of morality, normative ethics focuses on ethical standards, and applied ethics applies theory to practical issues. The document also examines the views of several philosophers on the importance of moral reflection, including Socrates advocating examining one's life, Aristotle linking happiness to fulfilling one's nature through reason, and Kant's notion of conscience as a process of moral self-judgment.
The information found in this presentation is coming from a book Gallinero, et. al. (2019) Ethics Mutya Publishing House and YouTube video discussion found at https://youtu.be/SVYcETMuJg8.Retrieval Date March 16, 2022.
This slides are meant ti introduce a course on moral philosophy. All photos in it came from the net. Sources are not included though they are mainly from Google images.
1. The document discusses different bases for moral judgement including eternal law, natural law, and conscience. Eternal law refers to God's divine will and natural order, while natural law involves humanity's participation in eternal law through reason.
2. Conscience involves making moral decisions and judgments about what is good and evil. There are different types of conscience including correct, erroneous, doubtful, scrupulous, and lax. Conscience can also be compulsory as a participation in God's eternal law.
3. The document contrasts a physicalist view of morality based on natural tendencies versus a personalist view where morality involves accordance with reason and human goals rather than just physical order.
The document discusses various aspects of conscience, including its role in making moral judgments and decisions. It defines conscience as an individual's inner voice that helps them discern right from wrong based on objective moral norms. The document outlines the different elements, moments, and levels of conscience. It emphasizes the importance of forming one's conscience through faith, prayer, studying teachings of the Church, and examining one's experiences. Both sincerity and correctness of conscience are important.
This document discusses ethics in school leadership and provides tools for ethical decision making. It introduces four paradigms for resolving ethical dilemmas: justice, critique, care, and profession. School leaders are encouraged to use a multiple paradigm approach and consider issues from different perspectives. The document also presents several ethical dilemmas school leaders may face and prompts discussion of how to address them using an ethical framework. Leaders are advised to reflect on their ethical strengths and develop ethical awareness.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions about morality and values. It examines what actions are right or wrong and how we should decide which values to pursue. Ethics helps us resolve conflicts about values and determine the proper course of action for humans. It provides guidance for organizing our goals and acting successfully to accomplish our most important values. The study of ethics explores different types of values like intrinsic and extrinsic values, and considers how ethics relates to other domains like religions and science.
The document discusses ethics in education regarding disciplining students with disabilities. It defines key terms from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) such as Functional Behavior Analysis (FBA), Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP), and Individual Alternative Education Setting (IAES). It explains that an FBA observes a student's behavior to identify issues and targets, a BIP develops from an FBA to modify or replace problematic behaviors. It also outlines disciplinary actions and procedures schools must follow under IDEA for students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs).
This document discusses values and different types of values. It begins by defining what a value is and explaining why values are needed. It then discusses whether values can be taught and if they are subjective or objective. Several types of values are outlined in sets A through C, including appetitive, aesthetic, intellectual, moral, spiritual, personal, sociological, cultural, and ultimate values. For each value type, one or more examples are provided. The document concludes by examining different perspectives on ultimate values, such as materialism, hedonism, Marxism, Hinduism, Taoism, God-ism, and humanism.
This chapter examines the nature of morality and business ethics. It discusses the difference between moral and non-moral standards, and how morality relates to concepts like religion, ethical relativism, and personal values. The chapter also explores the importance of moral principles, individual integrity, and responsibility in business contexts. Sources of morality are analyzed, including the roles of religion and ethical relativism.
The document discusses the study of ethics. It defines ethics as the science of morality in human acts, derived from Greek and Latin terms meaning ways of living or tradition. Ethics examines human motivation and behavior. There are two main approaches - atheistic, which sees man as matter without spirit, and theistic, which sees God as the supreme lawgiver. Ethics, while relying on reason, is inseparable from religion and law. It guides values education and professional conduct beyond what laws require through moral codes.
This document discusses the nature and morality of human acts. It defines human acts as actions that are consciously and freely done, requiring knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness. Human acts are distinguished from acts of man, which are actions beyond one's consciousness and control. The morality of a human act depends on its object, intention, and circumstances. Some acts are intrinsically evil regardless of intention due to their object. To determine the morality of an act, one must consider whether the object, intention, and circumstances together are good or bad.
Cultural relativism holds that beliefs and ethics are relative to the individual's social context, so there are no universal moral truths. Ethnocentrism views one's own culture as superior. The document discusses differences in marriage ages, eye contact norms, and whether practices like female genital mutilation can be condemned despite being culturally accepted in some places. While cultural relativism says not to judge other cultures, some argue practices like FGM pose significant health risks and oppress women.
This document discusses the nature of morality and ethics. It begins by defining ethics and distinguishing it from morality. Ethics comes from character and customs while morality refers to human conduct and values. It then discusses business ethics and the relationship between personal and professional ethics. It explores the differences between moral and non-moral standards, and how morality relates to etiquette, law, and professional codes. It examines the origins of moral standards and debates around relativism. Finally, it touches on concepts like conscience, moral principles, self-interest, and individual responsibility within organizations.
This document provides an overview of philosophy as a discipline of questioning. It discusses philosophy as the love of wisdom derived from two Greek words. Philosophy involves questioning, which is the core of philosophical inquiry. Authentic questions must be for the sake of knowledge. The philosophical method uses logic to arrive at clear answers through questioning. Philosophy can be explained as an unending series of questions where answers become new questions. It is also personal as philosophical concepts differ between individuals. Elements of improved philosophical reasoning include being objective, systematic, and following scientific thinking rules. The major branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. The three ultimate questions in philosophy are what can we know, what is good, and what is real.
This document defines key terms in ethics like deontology, utilitarianism, and contractarian theories. It discusses debates around issues like privacy, intellectual property, and censorship. It outlines threats to privacy from public data availability, commercial and government tracking. Issues with intellectual property include copyright, copyleft movements, and cybercrime damages. The document also discusses codes of ethics for computing like the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics.
A Utilitarian Perspective On Business EthicsJoe Andelija
This document provides an overview of utilitarianism and business ethics from a utilitarian perspective. It discusses the meaning and origins of utilitarianism, which stems from the works of Jeremy Bentham and William Stanley Jevons. It then uses the example of the Ford Pinto, where the car's rushed development process prioritized style over safety, resulting in vulnerable gas tanks that could rupture in rear-end collisions. The document examines the moral responsibility of Ford in this case from a utilitarian standpoint of weighing costs and benefits. Overall, the summary introduces utilitarianism and applies its principles to analyze an example of questionable business decisions and their ethical implications.
The document discusses pluralism and fundamentalism. It defines pluralism as a model of democracy that encourages diverse groups to present their ideas without one group dictating. Pluralism is based on dialogue and seeks understanding across differences. Fundamentalism is defined as a strict adherence to beliefs based on a literal interpretation of religious texts. It is characterized by dualistic thinking and a commitment to charismatic leadership. The challenges of managing diversity in pluralistic societies and the issues with fundamentalist interpretations of religion that undermine critical inquiry are examined.
Organizational ethics refers to applying moral choices guided by values and principles to organizational activities. An ethical organization has fairness, responsibility, purpose, and ease interacting with diverse stakeholders. Ethical ground rules foster honesty, responsibility, fairness, and participation. Managing ethics improves society, productivity, meaning, policies, reputation, and trust. Leaders are responsible for creating ethical organizations by confronting operational goals with moral obligations. Leaders must consider impacted values and interests and avoid harm. Building ethics requires leaders to develop influences, integrity, values, training, and plans for excellence. An organization's ethics reflect its leaders' ethics and skills.
This chapter discusses the fundamentals of ethics, including defining ethics as the study of distinguishing good from bad actions. It examines why ethics is important by clarifying why some acts are better, contributing to social order, intelligently appraising moral conduct, and pointing to life's true values. Ethics assumes humans are rational and free. It also deals with the objects, classifications, components, and forms of ethical analysis like normative and descriptive ethics as well as theories like consequentialism and deontology. The chapter differentiates between social and personal ethics.
The document discusses the field of ethics and moral philosophy. It defines ethics as the study of evaluating human actions and morality as concerning proper behavior. It outlines the three main areas of moral philosophy: metaethics investigates the basis of morality, normative ethics focuses on ethical standards, and applied ethics applies theory to practical issues. The document also examines the views of several philosophers on the importance of moral reflection, including Socrates advocating examining one's life, Aristotle linking happiness to fulfilling one's nature through reason, and Kant's notion of conscience as a process of moral self-judgment.
The information found in this presentation is coming from a book Gallinero, et. al. (2019) Ethics Mutya Publishing House and YouTube video discussion found at https://youtu.be/SVYcETMuJg8.Retrieval Date March 16, 2022.
This slides are meant ti introduce a course on moral philosophy. All photos in it came from the net. Sources are not included though they are mainly from Google images.
1. The document discusses different bases for moral judgement including eternal law, natural law, and conscience. Eternal law refers to God's divine will and natural order, while natural law involves humanity's participation in eternal law through reason.
2. Conscience involves making moral decisions and judgments about what is good and evil. There are different types of conscience including correct, erroneous, doubtful, scrupulous, and lax. Conscience can also be compulsory as a participation in God's eternal law.
3. The document contrasts a physicalist view of morality based on natural tendencies versus a personalist view where morality involves accordance with reason and human goals rather than just physical order.
The document discusses various aspects of conscience, including its role in making moral judgments and decisions. It defines conscience as an individual's inner voice that helps them discern right from wrong based on objective moral norms. The document outlines the different elements, moments, and levels of conscience. It emphasizes the importance of forming one's conscience through faith, prayer, studying teachings of the Church, and examining one's experiences. Both sincerity and correctness of conscience are important.
This document discusses ethics in school leadership and provides tools for ethical decision making. It introduces four paradigms for resolving ethical dilemmas: justice, critique, care, and profession. School leaders are encouraged to use a multiple paradigm approach and consider issues from different perspectives. The document also presents several ethical dilemmas school leaders may face and prompts discussion of how to address them using an ethical framework. Leaders are advised to reflect on their ethical strengths and develop ethical awareness.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions about morality and values. It examines what actions are right or wrong and how we should decide which values to pursue. Ethics helps us resolve conflicts about values and determine the proper course of action for humans. It provides guidance for organizing our goals and acting successfully to accomplish our most important values. The study of ethics explores different types of values like intrinsic and extrinsic values, and considers how ethics relates to other domains like religions and science.
The document discusses ethics in education regarding disciplining students with disabilities. It defines key terms from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) such as Functional Behavior Analysis (FBA), Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP), and Individual Alternative Education Setting (IAES). It explains that an FBA observes a student's behavior to identify issues and targets, a BIP develops from an FBA to modify or replace problematic behaviors. It also outlines disciplinary actions and procedures schools must follow under IDEA for students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs).
This document discusses values and different types of values. It begins by defining what a value is and explaining why values are needed. It then discusses whether values can be taught and if they are subjective or objective. Several types of values are outlined in sets A through C, including appetitive, aesthetic, intellectual, moral, spiritual, personal, sociological, cultural, and ultimate values. For each value type, one or more examples are provided. The document concludes by examining different perspectives on ultimate values, such as materialism, hedonism, Marxism, Hinduism, Taoism, God-ism, and humanism.
This chapter examines the nature of morality and business ethics. It discusses the difference between moral and non-moral standards, and how morality relates to concepts like religion, ethical relativism, and personal values. The chapter also explores the importance of moral principles, individual integrity, and responsibility in business contexts. Sources of morality are analyzed, including the roles of religion and ethical relativism.
The document discusses the study of ethics. It defines ethics as the science of morality in human acts, derived from Greek and Latin terms meaning ways of living or tradition. Ethics examines human motivation and behavior. There are two main approaches - atheistic, which sees man as matter without spirit, and theistic, which sees God as the supreme lawgiver. Ethics, while relying on reason, is inseparable from religion and law. It guides values education and professional conduct beyond what laws require through moral codes.
This document discusses the nature and morality of human acts. It defines human acts as actions that are consciously and freely done, requiring knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness. Human acts are distinguished from acts of man, which are actions beyond one's consciousness and control. The morality of a human act depends on its object, intention, and circumstances. Some acts are intrinsically evil regardless of intention due to their object. To determine the morality of an act, one must consider whether the object, intention, and circumstances together are good or bad.
Cultural relativism holds that beliefs and ethics are relative to the individual's social context, so there are no universal moral truths. Ethnocentrism views one's own culture as superior. The document discusses differences in marriage ages, eye contact norms, and whether practices like female genital mutilation can be condemned despite being culturally accepted in some places. While cultural relativism says not to judge other cultures, some argue practices like FGM pose significant health risks and oppress women.
This document discusses the nature of morality and ethics. It begins by defining ethics and distinguishing it from morality. Ethics comes from character and customs while morality refers to human conduct and values. It then discusses business ethics and the relationship between personal and professional ethics. It explores the differences between moral and non-moral standards, and how morality relates to etiquette, law, and professional codes. It examines the origins of moral standards and debates around relativism. Finally, it touches on concepts like conscience, moral principles, self-interest, and individual responsibility within organizations.
This document provides an overview of philosophy as a discipline of questioning. It discusses philosophy as the love of wisdom derived from two Greek words. Philosophy involves questioning, which is the core of philosophical inquiry. Authentic questions must be for the sake of knowledge. The philosophical method uses logic to arrive at clear answers through questioning. Philosophy can be explained as an unending series of questions where answers become new questions. It is also personal as philosophical concepts differ between individuals. Elements of improved philosophical reasoning include being objective, systematic, and following scientific thinking rules. The major branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. The three ultimate questions in philosophy are what can we know, what is good, and what is real.
This document defines key terms in ethics like deontology, utilitarianism, and contractarian theories. It discusses debates around issues like privacy, intellectual property, and censorship. It outlines threats to privacy from public data availability, commercial and government tracking. Issues with intellectual property include copyright, copyleft movements, and cybercrime damages. The document also discusses codes of ethics for computing like the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics.
A Utilitarian Perspective On Business EthicsJoe Andelija
This document provides an overview of utilitarianism and business ethics from a utilitarian perspective. It discusses the meaning and origins of utilitarianism, which stems from the works of Jeremy Bentham and William Stanley Jevons. It then uses the example of the Ford Pinto, where the car's rushed development process prioritized style over safety, resulting in vulnerable gas tanks that could rupture in rear-end collisions. The document examines the moral responsibility of Ford in this case from a utilitarian standpoint of weighing costs and benefits. Overall, the summary introduces utilitarianism and applies its principles to analyze an example of questionable business decisions and their ethical implications.
The document discusses pluralism and fundamentalism. It defines pluralism as a model of democracy that encourages diverse groups to present their ideas without one group dictating. Pluralism is based on dialogue and seeks understanding across differences. Fundamentalism is defined as a strict adherence to beliefs based on a literal interpretation of religious texts. It is characterized by dualistic thinking and a commitment to charismatic leadership. The challenges of managing diversity in pluralistic societies and the issues with fundamentalist interpretations of religion that undermine critical inquiry are examined.
The biggest corporation, like the humblest citiz.docxmehek4
“The biggest corporation, like the humblest citizen, must be held to strict compliance with the will of the people.”
--Theodore Roosevelt
Ethics:
The values an individual uses to interpret whether any particular action or behavior is considered acceptable or appropriate.
The social rules that govern & limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong.
The basic guidelines for cooperative social existence.
Serves to restrain the purely self-interested desires in each of us in order to make it possible for all of us to live together.
The collective values of a business organization that can be used to evaluate whether the behavior of the collective members of the organization are considered acceptable and appropriate.
Business Ethics:
Moral/Ethical problems in business:
a conflict between financial performance (revenues, costs, & profits) and social performance (obligations to all stakeholders).
Ethical standards get confused with:
Law
Etiquette
Conscience
Corporate/Professional codes
Religion
Moral or Ethical Perspectives:
Moral RelativismMoral UniversalismMoral Perspecivalism
Moral Relativism:
The belief that morality is just a function of what a particular society happens to believe, that what is right is determined by what a society says is right.
e.g. abortion is condemned as immoral in Catholic Spain, but is practiced
as a morally neutral form of birth control in Japan.
Moral relativists believe that there is no absolute moral standard, no universal definition of right or wrong.
e.g. polygamy, stealing, slavery have all been tolerated by the moral system
of one society or another
Moral Relativism Presents some unpleasant implications:
1. it undermines any moral criticism of the practices of other
societies as long as their actions conform to their own standards
e.g. can't say that slavery in the American South was immoral as long as
that society allowed it to be morally permissible
2. the concept of ethical progress does not exist
e.g. can't say that our moral standards today are more enlightened
than those in the Middle Ages
Moral Universalism: In contrast, is the belief that variations in moral standards reflect different factual circumstances rather than fundamental differences in values.
Which is right??
It is good to emphasize that in viewing other cultures we should keep an open mind and not simply dismiss their social practices.
Moral Perspectivalism:
Compromise position is between moral relativism and universalism.the consideration of multiple perspectives while at the same time asserting universal truths.through examination of a variety of perspectives, one might be able to come closer to the ideal moral standards toward which to strive.
Ethical Theories:
There are many, many ethical theories, or in other words, ethical frameworks through which we can examine and attempt to understand an ethical dilemma. In the following ...
Cultural relativism is the theory that moral truths are determined by different cultures. It argues that because cultures have different moral codes, there are no objective moral truths. However, cultural relativism has weaknesses. It cannot determine which actions are truly good or bad. If a culture approves of an action, it does not necessarily mean the action is morally right. Cultural relativism also does not allow for moral progress and assumes all beliefs are equally valid, which is problematic. While it acknowledges cultural differences, cultural relativism is flawed as an ethical theory.
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The document provides an overview of ethics and differentiates it from morals. It discusses how ethics refers to external rules from societies and professions, while morals are internal principles of right and wrong. The document examines different views on what constitutes ethics and finds that ethics cannot be reduced to feelings, religion, laws, or social acceptance alone. It concludes that ethics seeks to determine the best course of action in any situation.
Module 3 OverviewEgoism and Relativism; Pluralism and Pragmatism.docxannandleola
Module 3 Overview
Egoism and Relativism; Pluralism and Pragmatism
Welcome to Module Three. Is it wrong to smoke marijuana? Is it unethical to get an abortion? Recently, several states and municipalities have passed ordinances and ballot initiatives legalizing the use of marijuana. Also, some states have severely restricted access to abortion, whereas others have not. Are these actions right or wrong and ethical or unethical depending on physical boundaries or jurisdiction rule? This module will explore egoism, moral relativism, pluralism, and pragmatism in the context of real-world issues.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
2B
discuss ‘moral sainthood’ and its role in ethics.
6B
describe pluralism and pragmatism as they relate to ethics.
6C
analyze the benefits and criticisms of cultural relativism as it relates to ethics.
7A
evaluate the different perspectives of egoism as it relates to ethics.
7B
discuss sociological and cultural relativism as they relate to ethics.
Module 3 Reading Assignment
Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 2 and 6.
Supplemental Reading Assignments (Required):
Häyry, M. (2005). A defense of ethical relativism. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 14(1), 7-12.
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Please view the Online Presentation for Module 3.
Egoism and Relativism; Pluralism and Pragmatism
Chapter 2 Lecture Notes: Egoism and Relativism
Egoism
Psychological egoism is the view that all of our behavior is selfish or self-interested as a matter of empirical psychological fact. Although several convincing examples can be given in support of selfish or self-interested behavior, psychological egoism, as a scientific theory, fails the test of falsifiability. If psychological egoism is a scientific account of human behavior, then one should able to state what would count as evidence against the position. But all acts that might count against the theory are immediately reinterpreted in terms of selfishness or self-interest. Thus, psychological egoists tend to espouse a belief and not an empirically testable claim. Additionally, the psychological egoist appears to conflate the notions of selfishness, self-interest, and satisfaction.
Ethical egoism is the view that we ought to always act in a way that is self-interested. Unlike psychological egoism, ...
The document discusses moral development and ethical theories. It describes how educators use moral dilemmas to stimulate moral reasoning in students. It outlines several approaches to ethics, including consequentialist theories that focus on outcomes (e.g. utilitarianism), non-consequentialist theories concerned with intentions and duties (e.g. deontological, rights-based), and agent-centered theories focused on virtues and character. The document emphasizes that moral development and understanding different ethical approaches help people make proper decisions, and encourages seeking help when facing difficult choices or feelings of being stuck.
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Business ethics & professional responsibility00تعرفون الحق و الحق يحرركمIbrahimia Church Ftriends
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It notes that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. Business ethics involves making moral decisions that consider stakeholders. Ethical decision-making takes many factors into account and follows steps like gathering facts and weighing consequences. The document contrasts ethical absolutism, which believes in universal moral principles, with relativism, which says what is right varies by context. It discusses problems with relativism like justifying oppression and avoiding moral accountability. Overall, the document provides background on debates around ethical decision-making in business.
This document provides information about an ethics course at Hong Kong Baptist University. It includes the course outline, instructor details, an overview of contractarianism as presented in the first lecture, and topics that will be covered in the second lecture on current social contract theories of ethics. Specifically, it discusses two main forms of contemporary social contract theory - interest-based contractarianism focusing on mutual advantage, and Kantian contractarianism emphasizing impartial moral status.
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It begins by noting that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. It then defines business ethics as involving moral decision-making by people in business. The document outlines several factors that can influence ethical decision-making, such as issue intensity, personal moral philosophy, and organizational culture. It provides an 8-step process for sound, ethical decision-making. Finally, it discusses the differences between ethical absolutism and relativism, noting problems with the relativist approach.
Does islam need_a_reformation_i_era_dont_hate_debategoffaree
The document discusses differences between liberal and Islamic conceptions of human rights and ethics. It argues that the liberal view of individualism and universal human rights is flawed and not absolute. While there are some commonalities, such as respecting other religions, Islam's view is based on preventing oppression and maintaining social order and status quo. The document also critiques the idea that Islam must conform to rational ethics, saying there is no single standard and ethics are influenced by culture and open to interpretation. Overall it rejects that Islam needs reform and asserts that rights and ethics derive from Islamic teachings and tradition.
INTRODUCTION THINKING ETHICALLY A Framework for Moral Decisio.docxnormanibarber20063
INTRODUCTION:
THINKING ETHICALLY A Framework for Moral Decision Making
***This article updates several previous pieces from Issues in Ethics by Manuel Velasquez - Dirksen Professor of Business Ethics at Santa Clara University and former Center director - and Claire Andre, associate Center director. "Thinking Ethically" is based on a framework developed by the authors in collaboration with Center Director Thomas Shanks, S.J., Presidential Professor of Ethics and the Common Good Michael J. Meyer, and others. The framework is used as the basis for many programs and presentations at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics.
TAKEN FROM: http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html
Moral issues greet us each morning in the newspaper, confront us in the memos on our desks, nag us from our children's soccer fields, and bid us good night on the evening news. We are bombarded daily with questions about the justice of our foreign policy, the morality of medical technologies that can prolong our lives, the rights of animals or perhaps the fairness of our children's teachers dealing with diverse students in their classrooms.
Dealing with these moral issues is often perplexing. How, exactly, should we think through an ethical issue? What questions should we ask? What factors should we consider?
WHAT IS ETHICS?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on.
According to The National Institute of Health: “Ethics seeks to determine what a person should do, or the best course of action, and provides reasons why. It also helps people decide how to behave and treat one another, and what kinds of communities would be good to live in.”
“Bioethics is a subfield of ethics that explores ethical questions related to the life sciences. Bioethical analysis helps people make decisions about their behavior and about policy questions that governments, organizations, and communities must face when they consider how best to use new biomedical knowledge and innovation”.
WHAT ETHICS IS NOT:
• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.
Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it..
The document outlines the items that were covered in an online demo of a global business online education platform for Nexteer Automotive. The demo covered an introduction, the platform structure, available content, different subscriber levels, customization opportunities, a recap of the demo, questions, and next steps.
This document discusses frameworks for developing sustainable global supply chains. It identifies motivations for addressing social and environmental issues in supply chains such as customer demands, compliance with regulations, reducing costs, gaining competitive advantage, and moral obligations. Key levers for influencing supply chain sustainability are a company's purpose, policies, people, relationships with peers/partners, public policy environment, and power within the supply chain. The document recommends establishing a code of conduct, obtaining third-party certifications, selectively choosing suppliers, and monitoring suppliers as baseline practices for building a sustainable supply chain.
The survey found that companies which view their supply chain as a strategic asset achieve significantly better financial performance than those that do not. Specifically:
- "Leaders" that delivered on time in full over 95% of the time had 15% higher profit margins on average than "Laggards" below 75% delivery.
- Leaders also turned their inventory 8.7 times more per year than Laggards, optimizing working capital while maintaining high delivery rates.
- However, only 45% of respondents said their company sees the supply chain as strategic, and just 9% believe it helps them outperform peers. Greater recognition of the supply chain's importance is needed.
This document provides a summary of a report on managing risk in the global supply chain. It finds that while supply chain risk is a major issue, many companies do little to formally manage it. Key findings include that no companies surveyed use outside expertise to assess risk, 90% do not quantify risk when outsourcing production, and only 25% of supply chains are assessed for risk. It also finds that insurance is an underutilized tool for mitigating risk. The report provides recommendations for developing a three-step process to identify, prioritize and mitigate supply chain risks.
The document discusses the need for supply chain resilience in today's volatile global business environment. It outlines four major trends driving changes to supply chains: 1) consumerism and boundary bleed are spreading consumer expectations like instant service and personalization to all industries; 2) just-in-time practices create efficient but brittle supply chains; 3) emerging markets introduce new risks and opportunities; and 4) regionalism is on the rise as countries seek more local sources. To develop resilient supply chains, companies must understand these forces and continuously monitor risks beyond their borders rather than taking a reactive approach after disruptions occur.
The document provides definitions and explanations of 46 logistics services offered by third-party logistics providers (3PLs). It begins by defining what a 3PL is, as well as related terms like 1PL, 2PL, and 4PL. It then explains the services under categories of logistics services, transportation services, warehousing services, special services, and technology/web services. Some of the specific services defined include inbound logistics, just-in-time manufacturing, freight payment auditing, package delivery, air cargo, ocean transport, less than truckload shipping, and warehouse management systems.
This document discusses four ways for manufacturers to unlock hidden manufacturing capacity when facing increasing demand. It describes reducing downtime, minor stops, production variability, and establishing improvement priorities based on cost analysis. Implementing real-time manufacturing monitoring systems can help identify areas for efficiency gains without costly new investments.
This document is a white paper from UPS that summarizes the results of a global study on online shopping behaviors. Some of the key findings include:
- The "flex shopper" is emerging, switching between channels and devices to suit their convenience when researching and purchasing products. Information and control are important.
- Consumers want more delivery and payment options for convenience. Free shipping is also important.
- Satisfaction with the online shopping experience is higher than in-store globally, though preferences still exist for researching and buying in physical stores.
- Mobile barriers remain for shopping, like small images and hard to compare products. Desktops are still preferred for online research and buying.
-
This document provides a guide for creating, implementing, and institutionalizing a successful Supply Chain Resiliency Program (SCRP). It outlines a three phase process: Planning, Implementation, and Institutionalization.
The Planning phase involves developing the business case, scope, services, metrics, technology plan, governance structure, timeline and funding for the SCRP. This information is captured in a program charter. The business case establishes the purpose, goals, and alignment with business strategy. It also addresses potential objections.
The Implementation phase covers deploying people, processes, and technology to deliver the core SCRP services. This involves mapping the supply chain, collecting supplier data, identifying and scoring risks, and developing mitigation,
This document summarizes key findings from a UPS Industrial Buying Dynamics study conducted in June 2015. The study explored the behaviors, preferences, and perceptions of industrial products buyers. It found that most buyers now purchase online through distributor websites, though not exclusively. Buyers cited price, payment options, and service issues as the biggest challenges with distributors. The study also found that direct purchasing from manufacturers is on the rise, especially among younger buyers and those with higher spending. Millennial buyers in particular demand robust online information and a seamless cross-channel experience from distributors.
This document discusses 5 key supply chain focus areas for companies looking to take advantage of opportunities in China's growing consumer market:
1. The shift from an export-focused to a domestic consumer-focused supply chain structure driven by growing domestic demand.
2. Navigating China's complex and varying regulatory environment across its ports of entry and regions.
3. Targeting growth in inland and central China markets where incomes and demand are rising.
4. Working within China's fragmented network of over 100,000 logistics providers.
5. Preparing fulfillment and delivery capabilities for the massive growth of e-commerce expected to rival markets like the US and EU combined.
O documento descreve a história do desenvolvimento do Instituto Sindipeças de Educação Corporativa de 1990 a 2013, começando com ações pontuais para atender demandas do mercado e exigências legais, evoluindo para parcerias com universidades para oferecer cursos de pós-graduação focados em manufatura enxuta. O objetivo do Instituto é oferecer treinamento para integrar a cadeia de suprimentos de autopeças, compensar a falta de formação e minimizar a carência de profissionais, além de desenvolver cursos a distância e
The document summarizes findings from a study of 1,501 industrial supplies purchasers regarding their supplier selection processes, purchasing behaviors, and preferences. Key findings include:
1) While product quality, availability, and price remain most important selection criteria, delivery/returns capabilities and online purchasing are also highly important to many buyers.
2) Buyers report being very satisfied with supplier performance across all important selection criteria.
3) Online research via supplier websites and search engines is the most used and preferred method, though sales reps and catalogs also have roles.
4) Most purchases are a combination of repeat and one-time orders, presenting opportunities for new suppliers.
This report summarizes the findings of a study on managing risk in the global supply chain. The study surveyed 150 supply chain executives and conducted interviews. It found that while disruptions can significantly impact business performance, most companies do little to formally manage supply chain risk. They do not use outside expertise or quantify risks. On average, only 25% of supply chains are assessed for risk. The report provides recommendations for identifying, prioritizing and mitigating risks through measures like strong suppliers, visibility, insurance, and having backup plans.
This document provides guidelines for securing mobile devices used in enterprises. It discusses mobile device management technologies that can be used for centralized control and security. The document covers the full life cycle of securing mobile devices, from initial planning and deployment to ongoing maintenance. Regular assessments are recommended to ensure policies are being followed correctly. The guidelines are intended to help organizations securely support both organization-issued and personal devices.
Ethical mobility policy development requires protecting all stakeholders, such as employees and customers, by mitigating security risks from potential data breaches on mobile devices. Policy must consider how mobile technology is rapidly changing while personnel frequently move between organizations. A well-constructed ethical mobility system needs sustainability planning to address strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as the environment inevitably changes.
This document discusses a proven system of creativity techniques called Structured Innovation Techniques (SIT) for achieving breakthrough innovation results. It provides discussion questions for practitioners to apply the techniques, including questions about how specific organizations have used subtraction, division, multiplication, task unification and attribute dependency to develop new products and services. The document explores how overcoming barriers like fixedness and addressing contradictions can lead to innovative solutions.
The document is a quiz that tests a person's beliefs about innovation. It presents 15 statements with two response options, either A or B. The statements cover topics like whether innovation involves adding or removing features, working alone or in groups, and whether it is a planned or spontaneous process. Scoring involves assigning points based on selecting the "B" option for odd questions and "A" for even, with higher scores indicating a more accurate understanding of innovation as an unpredictable yet learnable skill best achieved through diversity and constraints.
1. ETHICS FOUNDATIONS
Lecture Note by Dr. Nitish Singh (For internal educational use only)
It is important to understand the concept of ethical reasoning, or how we as individuals decide what is right and what is wrong. Legal and ethics compliance professionals in the business world can probably benefit from stepping back from the day-to-day challenges of compliance, and consider what motivates people to make decisions, and whether such an understanding can help as a company defines its culture and embraces compliance.
Companies set the tone for their employees. As an illustration, St. Louis University has a mission statement which is rooted in ethics.
Ad Majorem De Gloriam: "For the greater glory of God."
Motto of the Society of Jesus
The Mission of St Louis University is: “Which is the pursuit of truth for the greater glory of God and for the service of humanity”. These words imply that individuals should be driven by a moral sense of what is right or wrong as well as being should conscious of magnifying the glory of the Divine. The University’s Jesuit Mission incorporates the idea of “Stewardship” which is integral to the subject of “ethics” in the context of business.
Ethics: The consensually accepted standards of behavior for an occupation, trade, or profession
Before elaborating on the process of ethical reasoning, it is important to understandthe basis of and underlying concepts behind ethical reasoning. An extended discussion on various ethical concepts and philosophies is beyond the scope of this introductory document. But for the sake of convenience and clarity, moral philosophies can be broadly categorized under two major dimensions of “Idealism versus Relativism”.
Idealism
Idealism implies that there are a set of morals or ethics that are universal and that everybody is capable of following them. Idealists are concerned about welfare of others via application of a set of moral principles, rules and laws (Forysth, 1992). An extreme position on the dimension of idealism is the belief in cultural imperialism.
Cultural imperialism in a sense implies that one set of national or cultural codes of conduct, or one set of moral principles is superior to all other. History is testament to how cultural imperialism was followed Morality: The precepts of personal behavior based on religious or philosophical grounds. Morality thus relates to rules of moral conduct.
2. by the ancient Roman Empire and then later by the British Empire. But in fact, one culture’s highest moral principle may mean nothing to another culture’s moral sensibilities. Let’s look at the role of women in the workplace in Saudi Arabia vs. the United States. In Saudi Arabia, women face discrimination in workplace, while in US national context, it is unlawful to have discrimination based on the sex of the employee. Does this mean that the U.S. moral principles of gender/sexual equality in the workplace are superior when compared to the Saudi Arabian culture?
Another problem with the concept of idealism is that it is an evolving concept, changingover time. At one time, slavery was considered part of the U.S. culture and acceptable, but today, slavery is not only illegal – as the Constitution and laws clearly provide– but slavery is also considered also inhumane and immoral. Similarly, several cultures and religions consider same sex marriages or adoptions as taboo and even immoral, while other cultures and nation states are more open to permitting individuals the freedom to marry or adopt, as a same sex couple.
Idealism also poses problems of conceptualization and execution. In terms of conceptualization, a universal value has to be of the same value or worth, and be acceptable to all at every time and every situation. Gandhi said that non-violence is a universal value.
People have reason to value this moral value of non-violence, but on the other hand, think how/where your juicy steak comes from. In practice, the universal set of moral principles that idealists espouse are open to interpretation, and can be interpreted differently in different cultures and even in different situations (McFarlin/Sweeney, 2006).
Getting an agreement by all national states on a set of core moral principles has been a challenge for centuries. Are there any universal values acceptable to all humans? This lecture note is not meant to espouse one philosophy over another, but instead this note is meant to reinforce to participants that it clearly is not easy to establish universally accepted “rights and wrongs”, in life or in a business.
Sir Isaiah Berlin, a political philosopher, expressed his opinion on the universal values by saying that universal values are shared by a majority of human beings, in the vast majority of situations, in almost all times, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behavior.
Now think about some values that might fit this category!
Isaiah Berlin (1909–97) was a British philosopher, Historian of ideas, political theorist, educator and essayist. For much of his life he was renowned for his conversational brilliance, his defense of liberalism, his attacks on political extremism and intellectual fanaticism. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
3. Relativism
“When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”
Do you think there is no absolute Truth?
Do you think ethical/moral and unethical/immoral are relative terms?
If you answer “yes”, then there might be a relativistic tilt in your thinking. Based on the relativistic point of view there is no absolute right or wrong. Aligned to this view is the idea of Cultural Relativism, wherein the morals and ethics are not universal but culturally determined. Donaldson (1989, pg 14) defines cultural relativism as, “moral concepts, in so far as they possess objectivity, gain legitimacy only through habits and attitudes of a given culture.”
Should we adopt the position of seeing moral issues, in cross cultural context, not as right or wrong but just seen as different—and thus signal our cultural tolerance? Donaldson (1989) argues that cultural relativism bears little resemblance to cultural tolerance. This is because tolerance itself is a moral value and a true relativist could not endorse tolerance over intolerance. Another argument proposed by Donaldson is that cultural relativism takes the form of “reduction ad absurdum” because no person can really live with the severe consequences of cultural relativism. For most people, the buck stops somewhere. If cultural relativism was to be taken at face value and followed to the word, then it would be impossible to criticize what goes on morally and ethically in different cultures at different times (Mitchell, 2003). Would you look at the following issues (which nation states perpetuate/d) with the lens of cultural relativism: -
The holocaust and the Nazi occupation
The Rwandan Genocide
South Africa’s Apartheid policy
China’s poor record on human rights like –Freedom of Speech.
In business, several companies justify their acts using the lens of cultural relativism. For example, Google justifies its compliance with China’s Golden Shield project aimed at censorship of free speech and surveillance of its people. Companies like Google and others have justified their presence in China, as they are doing more right than wrong by promoting western products and ideas. Another form of relativistic reasoning used by companies like Google is, “When in Rome, do as the Romans do,” so Google argues that in China it is just following the local laws.
To conclude, arguing against or for either Idealism or Relativism is a thought provoking exercise, but what should international business managers do when confronted with ethical issues in a cross-cultural context?
While the following discussion does not provide one right answer, it at least provides insights into how ethical reasoning works. Such understanding may help you frame a more educated response to complex cross-cultural ethical dilemmas.
4. Ethical Reasoning
The three broad categories of ethical reasoning are based on Teleological ethical systems/Consequentialism, Deontological ethical systems, and Virtue ethics.
Teleology/Consequentialism:
According to Consequentialism, an act is judged as moral only based on the consequences of that act. Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist paradigm that proposes that an act is moral only if it produces the maximum good. Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher, is widely associated with Utility Consequentialism. According to Bentham, a moral act should be judged based on the “greatest happiness principle,” referred to as the principle of Utility. Some criticisms of such ethical reasoning are that it does not account for justice, it fails to answer as to how to determine the greatest good, and finally it remains an exercise of costs and benefits of an action (Getz, 1990). We have seen what happens when a company like Ford does a cost and benefit analysis (Ford pinto case) and determines the action based on greatest good (of who?).
Thus an alternative teleological approach is Distributive Justice, or theory of Justice proposed by John Rawls (1971). The foundation of this approach is to answer the question: when creating a ‘just’ society what principles of justice would an individual agree upon if he/she was behind a veil of ignorance or did not know anything of his or her position/status in society? Thus without having any foreknowledge of our social standing (rich or poor), what rules of society or social contract will we implement? This Rawls contends will help create a cooperative system in which society will ensure liberty and happiness for all.
Besides the Justice theory and Utilitarianism, another consequentialist theory is Ethical Egoism. Under ‘ethical egoism’ an action is considered right if it produces results in individual’s best interest. Thus under this perspective, an action may be considered moral if it maximizes self interest. “But just imagine if everyone acted in their own self interest?”
Deontology:
The deontology based ethical reasoning is grounded in rules and principles that can help guide actions. Thus deontology provides a normative setup to help guide which choices are morally right and wrong. However common criticism of deontology is its lack of concern for the consequences of actions (Getz, 1990). Thus, a person may morally abide by the norm that killing another human being is morally impermissible act—but if this ethical reasoning leads the person to not defend him/herself against a violent criminal, in fear of inflicting death on the perpetuator of the violent crime—then there may be harm done. This approach is best captured in the work of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who proposed that our acts should be guided by a set of universal laws which could be applied in every situation and every action.
Virtue Ethics:
The idea of virtue ethics can be traced back to the works of Plato and Aristotle. This approach differs from teleological and deontological approaches as it does not deal with rules or actions guiding ethical
5. decisions, but with the character traits and virtues that help our ethical decisions. Thus Virtue ethics deals with describing and understanding the virtuous character traits that drive ethical decisions of a moral agent.
Figure 1 Classification of Ethical Theories (Adapted from: http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/intro/ethical_theories.html)
What Kind of an Ethical Person Are You?
High Relativism Low
High
Idealism
Low Situationists Absolutists Subjectivists Exceptionists
6. In the real world, not all human beings can be clearly defined as being relativist/idealist or following consequentialism/deontology based ethical reasoning. There exist several combinations and shades of gray in people’s ethical reasoning. Forsyth (1992) has proposed taxonomy of personal moral philosophies, which assumes that individuals can range from high to low on relativism versus idealism. His taxonomy proposes four distinct moral philosophies namely: Situationists, Absolutist, Subjectivist, and Exceptionists.
Situationism:
Individuals under this category are high on both relativism and idealism. By being on a high relativistic continuum, they tend to avoid the idea of universal morals or ethics. On the other hand being high on idealism they still hope that the results of an action produce maximum good.
Subjectivism:
Individuals in this category are seen as high on relativism and thus they do not prescribe to a universal code of ethics or morals. Their subjectivism and low idealism makes them see each outcome in light of their self-interest.
Absolutism:
Individuals in this category tend to have high idealism and low relativism. Thus they tend to believe and abide by a general set of moral principles (High idealism) and at the same time assess that their actions produce the maximum good (low relativism).
Exceptionism:
Individuals in this category see the utility of having some moral absolutes but they are also practical in sense that they believe that not all good intended or moral based actions produce the results for maximum good. Thus they are more concerned about balancing the positive and negative consequences of an action. If they realize that following a moral principle in a certain situation will do more harm than good, then in those situations they make moral exceptions.
7. References
Donaldson, Thomas (1989). The Ethics of International Business.Oxford University Press.
Donaldson, Thomas. & Preston, L. 1995. The stakeholder theory of the modern corporation: Concepts, evidence and implications. Academy of Management Review 20, 65-91
Davids, Meryl (1999), “Global Standards, Local Problems,” The Journal of Business Strategy, Jan/Feb vol 20.Pg 38-43.
Forsyth, Donelson R (1992), “Judging the morality of business practice: The influence of personal philosophies,” Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 11, pg 461-470.;
Getz, Kathleen A (1990), “International Code of Conduct: An Analysis of Ethical Reasoning,” Journal of Business Ethics, 9, pg 567-577.
Lambsdorff John A (2007) The big picture: measuring corruption and benchmarking progress in the fight against. Corruption. Corruption Perceptions Index 2007, Published by Transparency International
M. Friedman (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McFarlin, Dean B, Paul D. Sweeney (2006) International Management. Houghton Mifflin.
Mitchell, Charles (2003) A Short Course in International Business Ethics. World Trade Press.
Payne, Dinah, Cecily Raiborn, JornAskvik (1997), “A Global Code of Business Ethics,” Journal of Business Ethics, 16, Pg 1727-1735.
Peng, Mike W (2006) Global Strategy.South-Western Thomson.
Schmidt, David (2008), “The moral Imagination of Entrepreneurs,“ www.inc.com/resources/leadership/articles/20080101/dschmidt.html
Shirley van Buiren, and members of TI Germany’s Corporate Accountability Working
Group, in collaboration with the TI Secretariat’s Policy and Research Department. (2008) Using the OECD Guidelines to Tackle Corporate Corruption, Published by Transparency International