2 - Chemical Composition of the Cell - part 1
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This slide tries to show how elements can turn into molecules and then complex structures and further develop into organs for building a living organism. This slide is adapted from "Campbell Biology" and for further studies, you can refer to the second chapter of the book. The slide is prepared for freshman Bachelor's students.
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فرآیند بیان DNA، یا بیشتر به عنوان بیان ژن شناخته میشود، سنتز پروتئینها با استفاده از مولکولهای RNA از ژنهاست. به عبارت دیگر، پروتئینها رابط بین ژنوتیپ و فنوتیپ هستند. بیان ژن فرآیندی است که در آن DNA سنتز پروتئینها (یا در برخی موارد فقط RNAها) را هدایت میکند. آخرین مرحله بیان ژنهایی که پروتئینها را کد میکنند، ترجمه است.
15 - From DNA to Protein - Part I
The inherited DNA of an organism contains specific traits that dictate the synthesis of proteins through the RNA molecules involved in protein synthesis. In other words, proteins are the link between genotype and phenotype. Gene expression is the process by which DNA directs the synthesis of proteins (or, in some cases, just RNAs). The expression of genes that code for proteins includes two stages: transcription and translation. In this slide, we are going to take a look into the processes of replication and transcription.
DNA ارثی یک ارگانیسم حاوی صفات خاصی است که سنتز پروتئینها را از طریق مولکولهای RNA درگیر در سنتز پروتئین دیکته میکند. به عبارت دیگر، پروتئینها رابط بین ژنوتیپ و فنوتیپ هستند. بیان ژن فرآیندی است که در آن DNA سنتز پروتئینها (یا در برخی موارد فقط RNA ها( را هدایت میکند. بیان ژنهایی که برای پروتئینها کد میکنند شامل دو مرحله است: رونویسی و ترجمه. در این اسلاید قصد داریم نگاهی به فرآیندهای همانندسازی و رونویسی بیاندازیم.
14 - The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
When chromosomes are duplicated, each chromosome has two copies of the allele, one on each sister chromatid. However, Gregor Mendel’s “hereditary factors” were purely an abstract concept when he proposed their existence in 1860. Using improved techniques of microscopy, cytology and genetics were converged as biologists began to see parallels between the behavior of Mendel’s proposed hereditary factors during sexual life cycles and the behavior of chromosomes which later began to be developed into “the chromosome theory of inheritance”. According to this theory, Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment.
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وقتی کروموزومها کپی میشوند، هر کروموزوم دارای دو نسخه از یک آلل است که هر کدام بر روی هر کروماتید خواهری قرار دارد. با این حال، اصل "عوامل وراثتی" مندل، هنگامی که وی در سال 1860 وجود آنها را مطرح کرد، یک مفهوم کاملاً انتزاعی بود. با استفاده از تکنیکهای بهبود یافته میکروسکوپی، سیتولوژی و ژنتیک همگرا شدند، زیرا زیست شناسان رفتارهای موازی بین عوامل وراثتی مندل در طول چرخههای جنسی را مشاهده کردند که بعدها این رفتارهای کروموزومی به "نظریه کروموزومی وراثت " تبدیل شد. براساس این نظریه، ژنهای مندلی دارای موقعیتهای (موقعیت) خاصی در امتداد کروموزومها هستند و این کروموزومها هستند که تحت جداسازی و طبقه بندی مستقل قرار میگیرند.
13 - Mendel and the Gene Idea
توضیح وراثت به طور کلی و گسترده در دهه 1800، و به طور مشخص فرضیه "مخلوط شدن" مورد پسند دانشمندان و زیست شناسان عصر خود بود. براساس این ایده، مواد ژنتیکی توسط والدین و درست همان طور که رنگ های آبی و زرد برای تبدیل شدن به رنگ سبز ترکیب میشوند، مخلوط میشدند. البته این فرضیه توضیح نمیداد که چگونه صفات پس از کنار رفتن یک نسل دوباره در نسل بعدی ظاهر میشوند. یک گزینه جایگزین برای مدل مخلوط شدن مواد ژنتیکی، فرضیه وراثت "ذرات معلق" است یا همان ایده ژن. در این مدل، والدین واحدهای موروثی به نام ژنها را که هویت جداگانه خود را در فرزندان حفظ می کنند، منتقل میکنند. گریگور مندل راهبی بود كه سازوكار ذرهای این نوع وارثت را با استفاده از گیاه نخود فرنگی به اثبات رساند.
The explanation of heredity most widely in favor during the 1800s was the “blending” hypothesis, the idea that genetic material contributed by the two parents, mixes just as blue and yellow paints blend to make green. The blending hypothesis failed to explain how traits can reappear after they’ve skipped a generation. An alternative to the blending model is a “particulate” hypothesis of inheritance: the gene idea. In this model, parents pass on discrete heritable units—genes— that retain their separate identities in offspring. Gregor Mendel was the monk who documented a particulate mechanism for this form of inheritance using pea plants.
12 - The Cell Division Cycle
The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind is the one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from nonliving matter. This unique capacity to procreate, like all biological functions, has a cellular basis. The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division. Cell division plays several important roles which are giving rise to a new organism, enabling development, renewing and repairing and also replacing damaged tissue is multicellular organisms.
توانایی موجودات زنده در تولید بیشتر از نوع خود یکی از ویژگیهایی است که موجودات زنده را از مواد غیر زنده به بهترین وجه متمایز می کند. این ظرفیت منحصر به فرد برای تولید مثل، مانند همه عملکردهای بیولوژیک، دارای پایه سلولی است. تداوم زندگی براساس تولید مثل سلولها یا تقسیم سلولی است. تقسیم سلولی چندین نقش مهم را ایفا میکند که نه تنها باعث ایجاد یک ارگانیسم جدید میشود، همچنین امکان رشد، تجدید و ترمیم و همچنین جایگزینی بافت آسیب دیده موجودات چند سلولی را نیز فراهم می کند.
11 - Cell Communication
سلولها میتوانند به یکدیگر سیگنال بدهند و سیگنالهایی را که از سلولهای دیگر و محیط دریافت می کنند، تفسیر کنند. سیگنالها ممکن است شامل نور و یا بر اثر تماس باشند، اما اغلب مواد شیمیایی هستند. در این جلسه، ما بر مکانیسم های اصلی انتقال پیام متمرکز میشویم که سلولها سیگنالهای شیمیایی ارسال شده از سلولهای دیگر را دریافت، پردازش و پاسخ میدهند.
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Cells can signal to each other and interpret the signals they receive from other cells and the environment. The signals may include light and touch, but are most often chemicals. In this session, we focus on the main mechanisms by which cells receive, process, and respond to chemical signals sent from other cells.
10 - Photosynthesis
انرژی روی زمین توسط خورشید تأمین می شود. گیاهان و ارگانیسمهای خاص از طریق فرآیندی که فتوسنتز نامیده میشود، انرژی خورشید را توسط اندامکهای سلولی ویژهای به نام کلروپلاست به مولکول های آلی تبدیل می کنند. در این فصل ، من در مورد این روند به طور مفصل صحبت خواهم کرد.
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Life on earth is powered by sun. Plants and specific organisms convert the energy of the sun by specialized cellular organelles called chloroplasts into organic molecules through a process which is called photosynthesis. In this chapter, I will talk about this process in details.
9 - Metabolism and Transfering Energy - Part Two
سلولهای زنده برای انجام بسیاری از وظایف خود به انتقال انرژی از منابع خارجی نیاز دارند. همه ارگانیسمها باید از طریق فتوسنتز و تنفس سلولی این انرژی را از مولکول های آلی موجود درغذا بدست آورند. تنفس با استفاده از اکسیژن و تولید ATP، باعث شکستن این سوخت میشود. مواد زائد این نوع تنفس، دی اکسید کربن و آب، مواد اولیه فتوسنتز هستند. در این اسلاید، من سعی می کنم چگونگی برداشت سلولها از انرژی ذخیره شده در مولکولهای آلی و استفاده از آن برای تولید ATP از طریق تنفس سلولی را توضیح دهم.
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Living cells require transfusions of energy from outside sources to perform their many tasks. All organism need to obtain this energy from organic molecules of food through photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Respiration breaks this fuel down, using oxygen and generating ATP. The waste products of this type of respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are the raw materials for photosynthesis. In this slide, I try to explain how cells harvest this energy stored in organic molecules and used it to generate ATP through cellular respiration.
8 - Metabolism and Transfering Energy - Part One
Metabolism involves the chemical reactions that take place in organisms to sustain life. These reactions occur along metabolic pathways and either break down molecules through catabolism to release energy, or build molecules through anabolism by consuming energy. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is used to power cellular work by storing and transferring energy from exergonic reactions through its phosphate bonds. Enzymes regulate metabolic reactions by lowering their activation energy and increasing reaction rates in their active sites. Environmental factors and feedback inhibition regulate enzymatic activity and metabolic pathways.
7 - Membrane Structue and Function
در زیست شناسی کمپبل با صراحت و روشنی ذکر شده است: "غشای پلاسمایی که سلول را احاطه کرده است را میتوان به عنوان لبه حیات دانست، مرزی که سلول زنده را از محیط اطراف خود جدا میکند." در این اسلاید، ما سعی میکنیم یاد بگیریم که چگونه غشای سلولی، عبور مواد مختلف را با اندازهها و ماهیت مختلف کنترل میکند.
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It is neatly mentioned in Campbell Biology: “The plasma membrane that surrounds the cell can be considered the edge of life, the boundary that separates a living cell from its surroundings.” In this slide, we try to learn how cellular membrane controls the passage of different substances of different size and nature.
6 - A tour of the cell - Part Three
دیواره سلولی، شکل ویژهای از ماتریس خارج سلولی است که هر سلول گیاه را احاطه کرده است. دیواره سلولی مسئول بسیاری از خصوصیاتی است که سلولهای گیاهی را از سلولهای حیوانی متمایز میکند. در سلولهای حیوانی داستان متفاوت است! بافتهای مختلف دارای اجزا و سازمان منحصر به فرد و تخصصی ماتریس خارج سلولی (ECM) هستند، که هر ECM را قادر میسازند تا نقشهای خاص بافتی، از جمله پشتیبانی ساختاری، انتقال نیروها و فیلتراسیون ماکرومولکولی را انجام دهد.
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Cell wall, specialized form of extracellular matrix that surrounds every cell of a plant. The cell wall is responsible for many of the characteristics that distinguish plant cells from animal cells. In animal cells, the story is different! Different tissues have unique and specialized Extracellular Matrix (ECM) components and organization, which enables each ECM to carry out tissue-specific roles, including structural support, the transmission of forces and macromolecular filtration.
5 - A tour of the cell - Part Two
در روزهای اولیه میکروسکوپ الکترونی، زیست شناسان تصور میکردند که اندامک سلول یوکاریوتی آزادانه در سیتوزول شناور است. اما پیشرفت های انجام شده در تکنولوژی ساخت میکروسکوپهای نوری و الکترونی نشان داده است که شبکهای از فیبرها در سراسر سیتوپلاسم گسترش یافته است و آنها آن را اسکلت سلولی نامیده اند.
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In the early days of electron microscopy, biologists thought that the organelles of a eukaryotic cell floated freely in the cytosol. But improvements in both light microscopy and electron microscopy have revealed that a network of fibers is extended throughout the cytoplasm and they named it the cytoskeleton.
4 - A tour of the cell - Part One
سلولها به همان اندازه اتمها در شیمی، برای سیستمهای زنده اساسی هستند. هم اکنون انواع مختلفی از سلول ها در بدن ما کار میکنند. در طول تکامل، سلولها به روشهای مختلف اصلاح شدهاند. اگرچه سلولها میتوانند تفاوت اساسی با یکدیگر داشته باشند، اما ویژگیهای مشترکی دارند. در این اسلاید و 2 مورد بعدی، ما سفری به درون یک سلول خواهیم داشت و با اجزای سازنده آن آشنا خواهیم شد.
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Cells are as fundamental to the living systems of biology as the atom is to chemistry. Many different types of cells are working in our body right now. During the evolution, cells have been modified in many different ways. Although cells can differ substantially from one another, they share common features. In this slide and the next 2 ones, we’ll take a tour inside a cell and become acquainted with its components.
1 - variety of life
This slide is the first one of a series of slides adapted from the "Campbell Biology" for Bachelor student of science and medicine. In this Slide I have tried to briefly talk about taxonomy and the classification of organisms.
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dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
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6:个人职称评审加20分
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8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
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among stars.
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The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
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and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
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photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
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2 - Chemical Composition of the Cell - part 1
- 1. The Chemistry of Life (Part One) University of Tehran Ahmad V.Kashani, PhD
- 2. Outlines • Chemical composition of life: • Elements and compounds • Elements’ properties and the structure of the atoms • Molecules and their formation and function • Chemical reactions and chemical bonds • Formation of bonds with Carbon • Carbon: The backbone of Life • Hydrocarbons and Isomers • The molecules of Life • Polymers vs monomers
- 3. Outlines • The molecules of Life • Carbohydrates • Monosaccharides • Disaccharides • Oligosaccharides • Polysaccharides • Lipids • Proteins • Nucleic acid
- 6. Elements’ properties and the structure of their atoms • Atomic Number: • Number of protons= number of electrons in a neutral atom • Atomic Mass: • Number of protons + neutrons • Isotopes • Radioactive tracers
- 7. Elements’ properties and the structure of their atoms • Electron shells of the first 18 elements of the periodic table.
- 8. Elements’ properties and the structure of their atoms • Electron Orbitals:
- 9. • Chemical Bonds: • Strong Bonds • Covalent Bonds • Ionic Bonds • Weak Bonds • Hydrogen Bond • Van Der Waals interactions Molecules and their formation and function
- 10. • Covalent Bond: is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. • Most of the strongest chemical bonds are covalent bonds, which link atoms to form a cell’s molecules. Molecules and their formation and function
- 11. • Ionic Bond: involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. • Charged ions can be: • Positive (Cation) • Negative (Anion) Molecules and their formation and function
- 12. • Hydrogen bonds: When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, the hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge that allows it to be attracted to a different electronegative atom nearby. • In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms. Molecules and their formation and function
- 13. • Van Der Waals interactions: Occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. Ever-changing regions of positive and negative charge enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another. Molecules and their formation and function
- 14. • Van der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and other weak interactions may form not only between molecules but also between parts of a large molecule, such as a protein. Molecules and their formation and function
- 15. Chemical reactions and chemical bonds
- 16. Carbon • The backbone of life • Organic chemistry • Study of carbon compounds
- 17. Formation of bonds with Carbon
- 18. Formation of bonds with Carbon
- 19. Formation of bonds with Carbon • Carbon skeleton and molecular diversity: • hydrocarbons, organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen • Hydrocarbons are the major components of petroleum, which is called a fossil fuel because it consists of the partially decomposed remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago.
- 20. Isomers • Isomers are compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties. • Isomers: • Structural isomers • Cis-trans isomers • Enantiomers
- 21. The Molecules of Life • Carbohydrates • Lipids • Proteins • Nucleic acid
- 22. Polymers vs monomers • Synthesis or breakdown of polymers: • E.g: ATP • E.g: GTP
- 23. Carbohydrates – Fuel and Building material • Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers of sugars. • Monomers joined by covalent bond • Variety of forms: • Monosaccharides • Disaccharides • Oligosaccharides • Polysaccharides
- 24. Carbohydrates – Monosaccharides • Generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH2O e.g: Glucose (C6H12O6)
- 25. Carbohydrates – Disaccharides • Consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction (glyco refers to carbohydrate).
- 27. Carbohydrates – Oligosaccharides • An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number of monosaccharides (typically 3-10) • Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell binding.
- 28. Carbohydrates – Polysaccharides • Polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages. • Functions: • Storage Materials • In plants: starch • In animals: Glycogen – stored mainly in liver and muscle cells • Building Materials • Cellulose
- 30. Summary • Chemical composition of life: • Elements and compounds • Elements’ properties and the structure of the atoms • Molecules and their formation and function • Chemical reactions and chemical bonds • Formation of bonds with Carbon • Carbon: The backbone of Life • Hydrocarbons and Isomers • The molecules of Life • Polymers vs monomers
- 31. Summary • The molecules of Life • Carbohydrates • Monosaccharides • Disaccharides • Oligosaccharides • Polysaccharides