This document provides information about ethanol and alcoholic beverages. It discusses ethanol production through hydration of ethylene and biological fermentation. It also describes various types of alcoholic beverages and their constituents, including liquor. Liquor is produced through distillation of grains, fruits, or vegetables that have undergone fermentation. Common types of liquor include vodka, gin, rum, brandy, and whisky. Methods for estimating alcohol content in liquors, such as using an alcoholmeter/hydrometer or flash point method, are also summarized.

1. (Chemistry Faculty)
Ph.D. (AcSIR-CSMCRI, India)
Post-Doc (University of Aveiro, Portugal)

2. Ø General Introduction to Alcohol & Alcoholic Beverages
Ø Introduction, Manufacture, Properties & Identification of
Alcoholic Beverages
1. Ethanol
2. Liquor
Ø Alcohol Denaturation & Denaturants
Ø Industrial & Power Alcohol
Ø Breath Alcohol Analysis
Ø Analysis of Alcohol in Blood & Urine Samples

3. ü Alcohol, any of a class of Organic compounds characterized by one or more
hydroxyl (–OH) functional groups attached to a Carbon atom of an alkyl
group or hydrocarbon chain.
ü Example: Methanol (CH3OH) and Ethanol or Ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH).
ü Ethanol is used in toiletries, pharmaceuticals, and fuels, and it is used to
sterilize hospital instruments.
ü Alcohol is a Transparent, Colourless, Volatile Liquid, having a characteristic
Spirituous Odour and a Burning Taste.

4. ü Alcoholic Beverages: Alcoholic beverages are a mixture of Alcohol and
Water with small number of Congeners.
ü Congeners: The characteristic flavor of alcoholic beverages is due to minor
organic compound called congeners.
ü Important Congeners: Propyl alcohol, Octyl alcohol, Glycerin, Aldehydes,
Dimethyl/diethyl ester, acids from acetic to linoleic acid, ketones, trimethyl
amine etc.
ü The total content of congeners in Alcoholic beverages is ~ 0.5%
Therefore, the term Alcoholic Beverages originally referred to any
fermented liquor, such as Wine, Beer, or Distilled Spirit, that contains
Ethyl Alcohol (CH3CH2OH), as an intoxicating agent.

5. Ø Alcohol is a slow poison
that produce intoxication,
i.e., light-headedness,
confusion, disorientation
and drowsiness.
Ø Effect of alcohol after
consumption: Intoxication,
Prolonged Sleep, Hangover,
Headache, Nausea and
Abdominal discomfort.
Entry Alcoholic beverages Percentage of
Alcohol (%)
1. Cider 4
2. Beers 4 - 8
3. Wine 10 - 14
4. Port 20
5. Whisky, Gin, Brandy 40 - 45
6. Rum 50 - 60
7. Vodka 60 – 65
8. Absolute Alcohol 99.95
Most common alcoholic beverages with
percentage of Alcohol:
Absolute Alcohol safe consumption limit:
Ø Men: 210 g/week
Ø Women: 140 g/week

6. Ethanol can be industrially manufactured by two most important procedures:
1. Hydration of ethylene using Sulphuric acid or Phosphoric acid
2. Biological process through Fermentation of sugars by yeast
Hydration of Ethylene using Sulphuric acid
Ø Sulphuric acid catalyzed hydration of ethylene can produce Ethanol.
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#$%&$°(, *.$%*." ,-.
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻! − 𝑂 − 𝑆𝑂/𝐻
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻! − 𝑂 − 𝑆𝑂/𝐻 + 𝐻!𝑂
0$°(
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻!𝑆𝑂"
Ø Drawbacks: This process possess many problem due to sulphuric acid such as
safety, environmental impact, and maintaining plant.

7. Hydration of Ethylene using Phosphoric acid
Ø Ethanol can also be produced by more economical and environmentally safest
process.
Ø Catalyst: Impregnated phosphoric acid on Silica gel or Zeolite
𝐶!𝐻" + 𝐻!𝑂
-123412567 .768 29 36:67. ;<:
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻
Advantages:
Ø Catalyst can be recycled and reusable
Ø Easy to maintaining plant
Ø Easy and safe process

8. Alcoholic fermentation process (Biological process)
Ø In biological fermentation, convert sugar derivatives into Ethanol and carbon
dioxide (By-product).
Ø Yeast perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen. Thus, alcoholic fermentation
is considered as anaerobic process.
Ø Favorable thermal condition for fermentation: 35-40°C
Ø The starchy material such as cereals and grains must be converted into sugar
derivatives before fermentation.

9. Alcoholic fermentation process: 𝐶=𝐻*!𝑂= 2𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂!

10. Dehydration
Ø Dehydration of ethanol is done by heating with conc. sulfuric acid.
Combustion
Ø Ethanol burns cleanly with oxygen and produce carbon dioxide and water
molecules.
𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝐻"𝑂𝐻 + 3𝑂" 2𝐶𝑂" + 3𝐻"𝑂
𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝐻"𝑂𝐻
#$%&.(!)*";,-.°#
𝐶"𝐻0 + 𝐻"𝑂
(ΔH = -1371 kJ/mol) Exothermic Process

11. Esterification
Ø Esterification can be done in carboxylic acid and conc. sulfuric acid.
Oxidation
Ø Ethanol can easily oxidize with K2Cr2O7 and atmospheric oxygen
𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝐻"𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂 𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻"𝑂
𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝐻"𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻"𝐶𝐻! + 𝐻"𝑂
Grignard reagent
Ø Ethanol converts into ethane in presence of Grignard reagent.
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶!𝐻# − 𝑀𝑔𝐵𝑟 𝐶!𝐻= + 𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂 − 𝑀𝑔𝐵𝑟

12. Ethanol shows the following characteristics:
ü Boiling point: 78.5ºC
ü Solubility: Completely soluble in H2O
ü Specific gravity: 0.7893 at 20°C (Absolute Ethanol)
ü Combustion test: Ethanol burns with a Pale blue flame with no smoke.
Ethyl Acetate Test
Ø Mix 2-3 drops of acetic acid with 2-3 mL Ethanol, then add about an equal volume
of concentrated sulfuric acid and heat the mixture.
Ø The characteristic fruity odor of ethyl acetate is developed if ethanol is present.
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻!𝐶𝐻/ + 𝐻!𝑂

13. Ceric ammonium nitrate test
ü Ceric ammonium nitrate reagent: To prepare the reagent, 0.4 g of ceric
ammonium nitrate is added to 2M nitric acid and dilute to 1: 2 in distilled
water.
ü Test: Add 5 drops of Ethanol to 1 mL of ceric ammonium nitrate reagent and
mix well.
ü Observation: The yellow colour of the reagent changes to red indicating the
presence of Ethanol.

14. Jones oxidation reagent test
ü Jones reagent: Chromium trioxide (CrO3) solution in sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
known as Jones reagent.
ü Test: Add 1 drops of Ethanol and 1 drop of Jones reagent in 1 mL acetone and
mix well.
ü Observation: From few seconds, an Opaque suspension with a green to
blue colour is the indication of Ethanol.

15. Triiodo methane or Iodoform test
ü Test reagent: Iodine solution and Sodium hydroxide solution
ü Test: Add 2 mL of Ethanol followed by addition of 25 drop of iodine solution,
which is then heated to about 60°C and enough solution of NaOH added drop by
drop until the color of iodine is discharged.
ü Observation: A pale-yellow precipitate of triiodo methane with characteristic
odour is the indication of ethanol .
𝐶𝐻/𝐶𝐻!𝑂𝐻 + 5𝐼! + 7𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝐻𝐼/ + 𝐶𝑂! + 7𝑁𝑎𝐼 + 6𝐻!𝑂

16. Ethanol shows the following Spectroscopic characteristics:
ü FT-IR Spectra (Neat Ethanol):
Band at 3342 cm-1 due to O–H stretch, 2980 cm-1 due to C–H stretch, 1090
cm-1 due to C–O stretch, and 1050 cm-1 due to C–C–O asymmetric stretching.
ü NMR Spectra (In deuterated Chloroform):
1H NMR spectrum: 1.2 ppm (Triplet, 3H, -CH3), 3.0 ppm (Triplet, 1H, -
OH) and 3.6 ppm (multiplet, 2H, -CH2-).
13C NMR spectrum: 20 ppm (-CH3) and 60 ppm (-CH2-).

17. u Liquor is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of
grains, fruits, or vegetables that have already gone through
alcoholic fermentation.
u Liquor is a hard and distilled alcoholic drink.
u Example of Liquor: Vodka, Gin, Rum, Brandy and Whisky
u The distillation process purifies the liquid and removes diluting
components like water, for the purpose of increasing its
proportion of alcohol content.
u As liquors contain significantly more alcohol, they are also
considered as ‘Hard liquor’.

18. Raw Materials
ü Sugary materials: Containing high concentration of Natural Sugars and
using directly as received (Used without any Pretreatment).
Example: Fruits: Grapes (Brandy) and Apple
Vegetables: Sugarcane and Beet root
ü Starchy materials: Cereals and Grains are most important starchy materials.
It is first pretreated before alcoholic fermentation
(Pretreatment: convert starch into fermentable sugar derivative via
enzymatic action).
Example: Corn (Maize), Rye grain, Rice, Barley, Wheat and Potato.

19. Mash Preparation: Follow below step before alcoholic fermentation
ü Crushing & Pressing: Grapes, Apples and Other fruits
Milling: Cereal and grains
Milling & Crushing: Sugarcane
ü Mashing: Mashing is done in Mash tun for mixing the grains properly,
increase the availability of starch for enzymatic action, and converts starch
into fermentable sugars.
ü Enzymatic Treatment: The amylase enzymes is used to convert the
starches into fermentable sugars, which is suitable for the utilization by the
yeast during alcoholic fermentation process.
Roller Mills
&
Hammer Mills
Mash tun

20. Fermentation & Distillation
The basic distillation unit consists of three
parts:
ü Still: For heating the liquid
ü Condenser: For cooling the vapors
ü Receiver: For collecting the distillate

21. u Main constituents of Liquor: Ethanol (CH3CH2OH; 15-80%) and Water (H2O).
u Rum (Sugar cane spirit): Contain 50-60% Ethanol by volume
Congeners: 1-Propenol, Isobutanol, Amyl alcohol, Volatile fatty acids, Formic
acid, Acetic acid, Propionic acid, Butyric acid, Decanoic acid, Ketones (Acetone,
Cyclopentanone, 2,3-Butanedione etc.
u Whisky (Cereal): Contain 40% Ethanol by volume (Mature in wooden cask
Congeners: Volatile fatty acid ethyl esters, Higher alcohols, Free fatty acids,
Carbonyl compounds, monoterpenols, Nor isoprenoids, Phenols etc.
Ethyl ester, An essential group of aromatic compounds in Whisky, which create
pleasant aroma with fruity odour.
for 3 years)

22. u Brandy (Grapes; Distilled Wine): Contain min 36% Ethanol by volume
(Mature in Oak Wooden Cask for 6-12 months)
Congeners: Carbonyl compounds (Acetaldehydes, 1,1-Diethoxyethane,
Furfural), Alcohol (Isobutanol, Amyl alcohol, 1-Propenol, Methanol), esters
(Ethyl acetate, Ethyl lactate) etc.
u Vodka (Rye, Wheat, Potato): Contain 40-65% Ethanol by volume
(Distilled through activated charcoal to remove unwanted constituents)
Anions: Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate and Phosphate
Congeners: Ethyl esters of fatty acids (C8-C18) present in microgram/Liter.
Vodka doesn’t have any distinctive aroma and taste.

23. Alcohol in Liquor can be estimated by two most important methods:
1. Alcoholmeter and Hydrometer
2. Flash Point Method
Alcoholmeter and Hydrometer
Ø Alcoholometer: Determine the volume of alcoholic content in
Distilled spirits/ Liquors.
Ø Hydrometer: Determine the potential alcohol content of liquors.
Method: The distilled liquid first poured into a graduated cylinder and
then the alcoholmeter/ hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until
it floats freely.

24. Flash Point Method
Ø “The lowest temperature at which the
vapour of material will ignite.”
Ø This method can be used to measure
alcohol content in liquors or alcoholic
beverages.
Entry Alcoholic beverages
(% Alcohol)
Flash point
(ºC)
1. Port (20%) 36
2. Typical Vodka (40%) 26
3. Whisky & Brandy (40%) 26
4. Strong Whisky (50%) 24
5. Neutral grain spirit (90% or more) 17
Ø An Ethanol-water (Liquors) solutions with 40% alcohol by volume will catch
fire if it is heated to about 26°C and if an ignition source is applied to it. This
is called flash point of alcohol-water solution.
Ø The flash point of Absolute ethanol is 16.6°C.

25. u Alcohol denaturation is a chemical process to denature the alcohol by
adding one or more denaturants.
u It is also called Methylated spirit or Denatured rectified spirit.
u Denatured alcohol (i.e., Denatured Ethanol) made unfit for Human
consumption.
u Denaturant is a chemical substance that used to make denatured ethanol
which is not safe for human consumption.
u Denaturant makes it poisonous, bad-testing, and foul-smelling.

26. u Denaturants: Below are few chemical that used as denaturants in Alcohol
ü Pyridine and Methanol: Make denatured alcohol poisonous
ü Denatonium: Make alcohol bitter in taste
ü Isopropyl alcohol
ü Acetone
ü Methyl ethyl ketone and methyl isobutyl ketone
u Purpose of manufacturing denatured alcohol: The cheap ethanol (Non-
consumable ethanol) provides in the form of denatured alcohol for industrial
use and use in chemical manufacturing processes.

27. u Industrial alcohol is distilled Ethanol, produced and sold for other than
beverages purposes, which is normally used for industrial purposes only.
u It is used in various types of industries for the manufacturing of Paints,
Pharmaceuticals, Printing inks, Coatings, Fragrances, Flavours etc.
u It is also used in Laboratories for its solvent, sanitizing and cleaning properties.
u As a solvent, it is useful for the processing of antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins,
antiseptics, nucleic acid (DNA & RNA), biopolymers, and a variety of
medicines.
u It is used as an antiseptic in wipes and as an antibacterial agent in hand
sanitizers at concentration of > 62%.

28. Manufacturing of Industrial alcohol
u It is industrially and economically important as a solvent and for the synthesis
and processing of other chemicals.
u Methods for manufacturing of Industrial alcohols:
1. By malt fermentation
2. By catalytic hydration
3. By esterification and acid hydrolysis

29. u Power alcohol is a mixture of Ethyl alcohol and Petrol in the volume
ratio of 20: 80 with small quantities of Benzene.
u Raw Materials: Saccharide materials (Sugar cane), Starchy materials
(Potatoes and Cereal grains), Cellulosic materials and Hydrocarbons.
u It is a clean and green alternative type fuel that can be used in place of
traditional fossil fuel in all type of motor vehicles.
u The main advantage of Power alcohol is that it can be manufactured from
the agricultural waste.

30. u It is an analytical technique used to analyze the blood alcohol concentration
from a breath sample in drivers.
u Breathalyzer: It is an analytical device that used for the estimation of blood
alcohol concentration from a breath sample of drivers.
u Breathalyzer is the brand name that tests the alcohol level and it was first
developed by Robert Frank Borkenstein in 1954.
u Breathalyzer used chemical oxidation and photometry concept
to calculate blood alcohol content.

31. u In the Breathalyzer, ethanol participates in a Redox reaction and it gets
oxidized as it loses electrons and the potassium dichromate gets reduced as it
picks up some electrons.

32. u Gas chromatography (GC) is the most common method for
the analysis of blood and urine alcohol contents.
u Blood samples provides a more accurate results in terms of
alcohol contents.
u Urine alcohol content analysis is not more accurate, and sample
should be taken after 90 min of alcohol consumption and it is
common practice to discard first sample and take a second
sample for analysis.

33. Gas chromatography Method: A sample is injected via the injection port of the GC and
vaporized and carried by the flow gas to the column. The column contains a thin coating that acts
as a stationary phase. Depending on the polarity of the stationary phase, different components of a
mixture will be retained longer, based on their affinity for the stationary phase. As the components
come off the column, they are detected by a flame ionization detector (FID) and produce a signal.