2.  The method of human communication, either
spoken or written, consisting of the use of
words in a structured and conventional way.
 A system of communication used by a
particular country or community.

3.  English is a West Germanic Language that
was first spoken in early medieval
England and is now a global lingua franca .

4.  A lingua franca is also known as a bridge
language, common language, trade
language or vehicular language, is a
language or dialect systematically used to
make communication possible between
people who do not share a native
language or dialect, in particular when it is a
third language, distinct from both native
languages.

5.  It is the most commonly spoken language in
the United Kingdom, the United States,
Canada, Australia, Ireland, and New
Zealand, and is widely spoken in some areas
of the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia.
 It is the third most common native
language in the world,
after Mandarin and Spanish.

6.  It is the most widely learned second
language and an official language of the
United Nations, of the European Union, and
of many other world and regional
international organizations.

7.  English has developed over the course of more
than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a
set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great
Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century,
are called Old English.
 Middle English began in the late 11th century with
the Norman conquest of England.
 Early Modern English began in the late 15th
century with the introduction of the printing press to
London and the King James Bible, and the start of
the Great Vowel Shift.

8.  Through the worldwide influence of the British
Empire, modern English spread around the
world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries.
Through all types of printed and electronic
media, as well as the emergence of the United
States as a global superpower, English has
become the leading language of international
discourse and the lingua franca in many regions
and in professional contexts such as science,
navigation, and law.

9. I have jot down few important terminologies
regarding language in next few slides just to
enhance your knowledge over latest
frequently used terms.
Hope it will help you in understanding new
approaches toward Lingua Franca.

10.  World Englishes refers to the different varieties
of English and English-based
creoles developed in different regions of the
world.
Examples are:
 English (Australia)
 English (Ire-Land)
 English (South Africa)
 English (Pakistan)

11. Pidgin:
 A pidgin or pidgin language, is a
grammatically simplified means of
communication that develops between two or
more groups that do not have a language in
common: typically, a mixture of simplified
languages or a simplified primary language with
other languages' elements included. It is most
commonly employed in situations such
as trade.

12.  In contrast to specific languages that have
"Creole" in their name, a Creole language, or
simply a Creole, is a type or classification of
language; in particular, a Creole is a
stable, natural language that has developed
from a pidgin, that over time has
become nativized by children as their first
language, with the accompanying effect of a
fully developed vocabulary and system of
grammar.

13.  A variety of language that is distinguished
from other varieties of the same language
by features of phonology, grammar and
vocabulary and by its use by a group of
speakers who are set off from other
geographically or socially.

14. Language and its Domains

15.  Phonology—study of the speech sound (i.e., phoneme)
system of a language, including the rules for combining
and using phonemes.
 Morphology—study of the rules that govern how
morphemes, the minimal meaningful units of language, are
used in a language
 Syntax—the rules that pertain to the ways in which words
can be combined to form sentences in a language.
 Semantics—the meaning of words and combinations of
words in a language.
 Pragmatics—the rules associated with the use of language
in conversation and broader social situations.

16.  Phonology is a branch
of linguistics concerned with the systematic
organization of sounds in languages. It has
traditionally focused largely on the study of
the systems of phonemes in
particular languages .

17.  A phoneme is one of the units of sound that
distinguish one word from another in a
particular language.
 Example is, run and gun

18.  A syllable is a unit of organization for a
sequence of speech sounds. For example,
the word water is composed of two
syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically
made up of a syllable nucleus (most often
a vowel) with optional initial and final
margins (typically, consonants).

19.  In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis
that may be given to certain syllables in a
word, or to certain words in a phrase or
sentence. Stress is typically signaled by
such properties as
increased loudness and vowel length, full
articulation of the vowel, and changes
in pitch.

20.  The way in which people in
a particular area, country, or social
group, pronounce words.
 In sociolinguistics, an accent is a manner
of pronunciation peculiar to a particular
individual, location, or nation.
 An accent may be identified with the locality
in which its speakers reside or influence from
their first language.

21.  An accepted standard of the sound and stres
s patterns of a syllable, word, phrase, etc.
 Example:
 Butter --- But/ta
(not)
 Butter -- Boot/ta

22.  The rise and the fall in a language is called
intonation.

23.  The study and description of how words are
formed in language

24.  In linguistics, word formation is the creation
of a new word. Word formation is sometimes
contrasted with semantic change, which is a
change in a single word's meaning.

25. Types of word formation

26.  A blend is a word formed by joining parts of
two or more older words.
 An example is smog, which comes
from smoke and fog, or brunch, which comes
from 'breakfast' and 'lunch'.
 A blend is a word formed by merging the
sounds and meanings of two or more other
words or word parts. Also known as
a portmanteau word.

27.  Biopic, from biography and picture
 Motel, from motor and hotel
 Saifina, from Saif Ali and Karina

28.  Sometimes you find some foreigner words in
English language, which now have become
part of this language.
 Examples:
 Restaurant is basically a French word which
came from French language, has become a
part of English language.

29.  Avatar, is taken from Sanskrit
 Voodoo, is taken from African Language
 kindergarten, is taken from German
Language (Kinder: Children, Garten:
Garden).

30.  Introduction of any new word in a language
is called coinage.
 Coin a new term means to generate a new
term.

31.  i-pad
 i-phone
 Android
 Mac
 Wi-fi

32.  Prefixes – When we place an alphabet or a
combination of alphabets before a Root word
 Suffixes – When we place an alphabet or a
combination of alphabets after a Root word.
 Root-Word– A word which you could easily
find in a lexicon (dictionary).

33.  When we use compounding, we link together
two or more bases to create a new word.
Normally, the first item identifies a key
feature of the second word. For example, the
two bases back and ache can combine to
form the compound noun backache, and the
two bases post and card combine to form the
compound noun postcard.

34.  Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick
 Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke
 Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless

35.  Abbreviation involves shortening a word. We
do this in three main ways: clipping,
acronyms and blends.
 We use clipping when we shorten or ‘clip’
one or more syllables from a word. We also
commonly clip proper names for people:
 ad: advertisement, advert
 lab: laboratory
 Matt: Matthew

36.  In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that
govern the ways in which words combine to
form phrases, clauses, and sentences. More
simply, syntax can be defined as the
arrangement of words in a sentence.
 The term syntax is also used to mean the
study of the syntactic properties of a
language.

37.  The combination of two or three words to
give one full meaning of something is called
a phrase.
 Examples:
 Take-off
 Break into

38.  A clause is a group of words that includes
a subject and a verb.
 There are two types of clauses:
 Independent clauses
 Dependent clauses

39.  Independent clauses:
 An independent clause (or main clause) is
a clause that can stand by itself as a simple
sentence. An independent clause contains
a subject and a predicate and makes sense
by itself.

40.  Dependent Clauses:
 The meaning of dependent clause is
a clause that provides an independent
clause with additional information, but which
cannot stand alone as a sentence.
 Dependent clauses either modify the
independent clause of a sentence or serve
as a component of it.

41.  Semantics is the study of meaning—
in language.
 It is the study of the meaning, or an
interpretation of the meaning, of a word, sign
or sentence.

42.  Denotation
 Connotation

43.  the literal or primary meaning of a word, in
contrast to the feelings or ideas that the word
suggests.
 the action of indicating or referring to
something by means of a word, symbol, etc.
 the object or concept to which a term refers.

44.  A connotation is a commonly
understood cultural or emotional association
that some word or phrase carries, in addition
to the word's or phrase's explicit or
literal meaning, which is its denotation.

45. 
A connotation is frequently described as
either positive or negative, with regards to its
pleasing or displeasing emotional
connection.
 Example:
 Stubborn Person

46.  Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics, which
is the study of language. Pragmatics focuses
on conversational impli-cature, which is a
process in which the speaker implies and a
listener infers. Simply put, pragmatics
studies language that is not directly spoken.
Instead, the speaker hints at or suggests a
meaning, and the listener assumes the
correct intention.

47.  In a sense, pragmatics is seen as an
understanding between people to obey
certain rules of interaction. In everyday
language, the meanings of words and
phrases are constantly implied and not
explicitly stated. In certain situations, words
can have a certain meaning

48.  How are you?
 I am fine.

49. How can you become proficient in English
Language?

50.  EVERYONE—FROM BEGINNING LEARNERS in
English to veterans in journalism—knows the
frustration of not having the right
word immediately available in that lexicon one
carries between one's ears. Sometimes it's a
matter of not being able to recall the right word;
sometimes we never knew it. It is also
frustrating to read a newspaper or homework
assignment and run across words whose
meanings elude us. Language, after all, is
power.

51.  By using some durable piece of paper or a
notebook begin to write down readable script
that you discovered in reading but couldn’t
understand it at all.
 Read newspapers and journals that
challenge you in term of vocabulary. (Dawn
Newspaper, The News)

52.  Try to recall those words throughout the day
whenever you get chance.
 Once mastered, you will observe that they
were not even alien words because they are
the words most commonly used in electronic
media. You will probably be listening them
being uttered in by an actor in any sitcom or
talk-show.

53.  people are using words you never saw
before, but that you are now reading and
using words that you had previously ignored.

54.  Most bookstores carry books on building a
more powerful vocabulary, some of them
with zany names such as Thirty Days to a
More Powerful Vocabulary.
 Newspapers often carry brief daily articles
that explore the meanings of words and
phrases. These articles often emphasize
peculiar words that won't find themselves
into your working vocabulary, but they can
still be fun.

55.  Play dictionary games with your family in which
someone uses the dictionary to find a neat word
and writes down the real definition and everyone
else writes down a fake (and funny) definition. See
how many people you can fool with your fake
definitions.
 Play another dictionary game by selecting random
words from the dictionary by flipping through its
leaves and compose a poem out of it. you could
also write a short story or an article by using those
words. A short paragraph could also be handy.

56.  A thesaurus is like a dictionary except that it
groups words within constellations of meaning. It is
often useful in discovering just the right word you
need to express what you want to say.
 When people use a word that puzzles you, ask
what it means! You'll find that most instructors,
especially, are not in the least bothered by such
questions—in fact, they're probably pleased that
you're paying such close attention—but if they do
seem bothered, write down the word and look it up
later, before the context of the word evaporates

58.  At least half of the words in the English
language are derived from Greek and Latin
roots. Knowing these roots helps us to grasp
the meaning of words before we look them
up in the dictionary. It also helps us to see
how words are often arranged in families
with similar characteristics.

59. Examples:
Root Meaning English
Geo Earth Geography,
Geology
Bio Life Biology ,
Autobiography

60.  Knowing the Greek and Latin roots of
several prefixes and suffixes (beginning
and endings attached to words) can also
help us determine the meaning of words.

61. Word Meaning English
Semi half Semi circle
Uni One Unicellular
Bi Two Bilingual

62.  The dictionary should be one of the most
often used books in your home. Place
the dictionary somewhere so that you
can find it immediately and use it often.

63.  You can use the internet as an aid to
vocabulary development by exploring the
abundant opportunities for reading
available on the World Wide Web. Capital
Community College maintains an
extensive list of online newspapers and
commentary magazines.

65.  Listening Skills
 Speaking Skills
 Reading Skills
 Writing Skills

66. How can you get better at understanding
spoken English?

67.  The best way to improve is to listen to
English. A lot. There's no way around it;
you have to spend hours and hours listening
to people speaking English. Listen to things
that interest you

68.  Interactive listening is best. In other words, it's
better to talk with someone than just to listen to
a recorded TV show, radio program, or podcast.
When you talk to people live, you listen more
carefully, and you also think about how you're
going to respond.
 Don't just listen to the same kind of English all
the time. Don't just listen to the news, or only
watch TV comedies. Expose yourself to a
variety of different kinds of situations and topics.

69.  Prefer English captions to subtitles in your
native language. When you read subtitles in
your language, it keeps your brain locked
into "native language mode". English
subtitles are good, though. They help you to
match words that you know with their natural
pronunciations.
 Try listening to English in different ways.

70.  Live and work in a completely English-speaking
environment.
 Do some kind of sports, hobbies, or other
activities with a group of English speakers.
 Talk one-on-one with an English-speaking
tutor a few times a week.
 Watch movies, TV shows, and videos in
English.
 Listen to English podcasts on a topic that's
interesting to you.

71.  If you have trouble understanding every
spoken English word, record them. Later you
can listen to the recording and hear any
of the words you might have missed the first
time.
 You should listen for the tone and intonation
(sound of voice, high or low) of their words.
This will help you pronounce difficult words
more clearly and easily.

72.  Once you have begun to listen on a regular
basis, you might still be frustrated by limited
understanding.
 What should you do?

73.  Accept the fact that you are not going to
understand everything.
 Keep cool (idiom=stay relaxed) when you do
not understand - even if you continue to not
understand for a long time.
 Do not translate into your native language
(synonym=mother tongue)
 Listen for the gist (noun=general idea) of the
conversation. Don't concentrate on detail until
you have understood the main ideas.

74. How can you get comfortable and fluent in
speaking English?

75.  Be confident and speak as often as possible
to as many people as you possibly can! Do
not be shy to make mistakes! The more you
practice the better and more confident you
will become in your pronunciation and
vocabulary. Remember, speaking is a skill
like learning a musical instrument or new
sport – the only way you can get good is to
actually do it!

76.  A smartphone can be a powerful tool for
learning languages. Use it to record yourself
speaking then listen back to see how your
English sounds to other people. Make the
most of all your favourite productivity apps to
organise your practice time and make a note
of all the new words you learn.

77.  Read the newspaper or a magazine out to
yourself. You could even find a script for your
favourite TV show and act it out! This is a
great way to practice pronunciation because
you only need to concentrate on making sure
you English sounds great and don’t need to
worry about sentence structure or grammar.

78.  Choose a word you would like to work on
and use practice it in different sentences.
Use the word until you have learnt it and
keep using it regularly.

79.  Make friends with English speakers or others
learning to speak English and compare
notes. Talk about things that you have learnt
and exchange ideas.

80.  Watch movies in English and pay attention to
new vocabulary and pronunciation. Imitate
the actors and have fun with it.
 You could also listen to your favourite music
in English along with the display of lyrics on
your computer screen.

81.  This one is personally my favourite hack among
the others.
 You need to stand in front of the wall mirror or
any mirror and stare in your own eyes through
your reflection in the mirror.
 Be confident and practice speaking.
 You could go loud while practicing and pretend
if you are alone in the room, this way you will be
able to get yourself more confident at speaking
this foreign language fluently.

82. How you can enhance your reading skills?

83.  Many people have trouble with reading.
Reading is hard for some people and it can
take time. Reading is a process of the brain
where you look at symbols on a page, and
your mind sees the patterns of characters
and understands the meaning in them. If you
develop good reading skills, it'll be very
helpful to your future.

84.  Reading is like exercise for your brain.
 It can improve your focus and memory.
 It can help you learn new words and teach you things you didn’t
know.
 People read to relax, to learn or just to have fun.
 But reading in English can be difficult if you’re still learning the
language.
 It can be really tough if you’re trying to read material that’s too
hard for you.
 If you’re having trouble reading, you might think you need to
take special lessons or classes.
 But you don’t have to do this if you don’t want to!
 You can improve your English reading skills by yourself.
 You can do it right from home in your free time.

85.  Determine your reading level
 Knowing your reading level will help you find
good reading materials and keep track of
your progress.
 Even if you don’t know exactly what your
level is, the ideal (perfect) reading level is
one that is comfortable but also a little
challenging

86.  Will you be reading books for kids or adults?
Fiction or non-fiction? Are you studying
English so you can get a job or make
friends? All these questions are important in
choosing the kind of material to read. Find
writing that’s interesting or relevant to you.

87.  You can get English books and other reading
materials from your local library. If the
selection there is not that great, try your
library’s digital lending section.
 If you prefer digital books, Project
Gutenberg and Amazon are good places to
start.

88.  Pick a time and place where you can read
without interruption. Choose someplace
quiet and well-lit, where you can sit
comfortably for a while.

89.  To skim means to glance over the text
without fully reading it to get a general idea
of what it’s about.
 Skimming will become easier the more you
do it.

90.  Read the title and first paragraph.
 Read all the headings and subheadings (the big words at
the tops of some sections).
 Read the first sentences of a couple of paragraphs.
 Watch out for words in bold, italics, charts, pictures and
lists (like this one!).
 Let your eyes wander over the page and stop on any
words you don’t know.
 Try to understand what the main idea of the text is. See if
you can answer the five Ws: who, what, where, when,
why.
 Don’t spend too much time on skimming—five minutes at
the most!

91.  So you have your perfect book. You’re sitting
in a comfortable place and you have plenty
of time. Next to you is your handy notebook.

92.  Read a lot:
 As they say, practice makes perfect! The
more you read, the better you’ll get.

93.  There’s no need to rush. It doesn’t matter if
you read one page or one hundred. What
matters is that you understand what you
read. Pause if you’re tired. Re-read if you’re
confused.

94.  If the book you’re reading has an audio-book
version, read along with the narrator. This
may force you to read at a slightly faster
speed than is comfortable, which can
help improve your fluency.

95.  Have you ever gotten stuck reading one
sentence over and over…and still not
understanding it? Try backing away from the
sentence. Try not to see it as being made out
of words. Instead of reading the words one
by one, read entire phrases. Don’t try to
understand the meaning of each word. Just
try to understand what they mean together.

96.  To learn to read entire sentences instead of
individual words, work on learning sight
words. Sight words are common words that
appear often in texts.
 Sight words are words that our eyes glide
over as we read because we already know
them.

97.  “The cerulean cat is in a tree.”
(You should only have to pause at the word
“cerulean.” By the way, cerulean is a shade
of blue.)

98.  Using context clues means trying to
understand a new word by looking at what’s
around it. If you’re stuck on a word you don’t
know, try looking at the whole sentence for a
hint about what it means.

99.  When you’re reading in English, it might be
difficult not to translate into your native
language in your head. Don’t do this!
Instead, try to picture what you’re reading.

100.  After you finish reading, give yourself a few
minutes to think about what you just read. How
much did you understand? Try to summarize
what you read. You can write it, say it out loud
or just think about it. If you can’t do this, you
might have been too focused on the words
instead of the meaning. Next time you read, try
to focus less on each word you read, and more
on what the text is trying to say.

101.  How to improve English Writing Skills?

102.  Strong writing skills in English come
from practice and determination. No one
is born an excellent writer. Learning to be
an excellent writer in English takes a lot
of time and practice. Anyone can be a
good writer if they are determined
enough.

103.  Below are 8 Tips to Improve Your English
Writing Skills:

104.  Buy a notebook or journal or start an
electronic journal. By keeping your writing all
in the same place, you will be able to see
how much you are improving and keep it
organized.

105.  The importance of writing daily is that you
start to create a new habit. Writing every day
in English will soon become natural and
something you look forward to. You will not
see a significant improvement if you are not
dedicated to becoming a better writer in
English. You cannot create awesome stories
and papers if you never try.

106.  Don’t get stuck on figuring out what to write
about. You can write about anything. You can
write about what you do, things you hear or
see, news, or make up a story.

107.  Draft means a preliminary version of piece of
writing. Sometimes, your best writing
becomes better after you take a break and
work on a second or third draft. When you
revise (or rewrite) your work you are often
able to get your message across more
clearly. You make think of things that you did
not think to write in the first draft and you can
add it in a later draft.

108.  Yes, grammar is a pain. You don’t need to
know everything about English grammar.
Use online resources, such
as Grammarly, GrammarCheck orGrammarB
ook.com to help you answer a grammar
question when it comes up. You could also
switch the spell and grammar check on MS
Word, your iPad or Google Doc to check
your spelling and grammar in English.

109.  Don’t write about the same thing every day
or you will get bored. Try writing the same
story from different perspectives or different
tenses.
 For instance, instead of writing about your
experience with an animal, try to write a
story from animal’s perspective.

110.  Have a friend that knows English correct or
edit your work. Having another person read
your work helps generate more ideas to
better your writing. You could have them edit
everything or just a part that you are stuck
on. Often having another set of eyes look at
your writing helps find mistakes that you
have overlooked.

111.  You should try writing in different places or at
different times of the day. Maybe you have
writer’s block at night; try getting up 15
minutes earlier and writing in the morning.
Maybe you have trouble writing where there
is a lot of noise; try writing in a quiet and
comfortable place. Experiment in finding the
right (or write?) environment for you to write.

112. Thank-You !!!!