08_Kingdom_Fungi617[1].pptx

The kingdom of reducers
KINGDOM FUNGI
Prof. Muhammad Boota Artist 0345-4042530
Lecturer Biology ASPIRE College Pattoki

KINGDOM FUNGI
 Approx. 100,000 known species
• Many still unknown
 Some notorious pathogens
• Rusts, smuts of wheat and corn
• Molds destroying crops and food
 Delicacies
• Mushrooms, Truffles, Morels
 Commercially important organisms
• Penicillium – source of penicillin
• Yeasts – used in brewing and bakery
 Mycology – study of fungi
• Mycologists – scientists who study fungi

KINGDOM FUNGI
 Previously placed in plant kingdom
• Have cell wall
• Lack centrioles
• Are sessile / non-motile
 Different from plants / similar to animals
• Heterotrophs
• Lack cellulose in cell wall
• Have chitin – found in arthropods
• Suggests common ancestry of fungi and animals
 Different from animals
• Have cell wall
• Absorptive heterotrophs
• Non-motile Prof. Muhammad Boota Artist 0345-4042530

KINGDOM FUNGI
 DNA studies
• Different from all other groups
• Placed in separate kingdom
 Special type of mitosis
• Called nuclear mitosis
• Nuclear envelope does not break
• Mitotic spindle forms within nucleus
• Chromosomes are separated
• Nuclear membrane pinches

FUNGI – BODY FORM
 Body called mycelium
• Long, slender, branched, tubular threads
• Called hyphae
• Spread over surface (substratum)
 Chitin in cell wall
• More resistant than cellulose and lignin
 Hyphae
• Septate – having septa (cross-walls)
• Non-septate / aseptate – no cross-walls
• Partially septate – have large pores
 Coenocytic hyphae
• Aseptate hyphae
• Single, long multinucleated cell
• Allows flow of cytoplasm

FUNGI – BODY FORM
 Hyphae
• Provide large surface area
• Grows inside substrate
• Helps absorb nutrients
 Sometimes hyphae are packed
• Form complex structures
• Usually involved in reproduction
• Like mushrooms, puffballs, morels
• Grow very rapidly
 Some fungi have no hyphae
• Like yeast – non-hyphal fungi

FUNGI – BODY FORM
 Body is haploid
 Diploid stage is transient
• Only formed during sexual reproduction
 Hyphae grow rapidly
• May grow up to 1 km / day
 Single clone of Armillaria
• Affects Conifer trees
• May grow up to 15 hectares
• 1 hectare = 10,000m2
• World’s largest organism?
 8 hectares

NUTRITION IN FUNGI

NUTRITION IN FUNGI
 Lack chlorophyll
 Are heterotrophs
• Obtain nutrients from organic matter
 External digestion
• Secrete digestive enzymes
• Breakdown large molecules
• Absorb smaller products
 Absorptive nutrition
 Four modes of nutrition
• Saprotrophs, Parasites, Predators, Symbionts

SAPROTROPHIC FUNGI
 Most fungi are saprotrophs
 Decompose organic matter
• Dead organisms / remains
• Hyphae secrete digestive enzymes
• Simple organic molecules are absorbed
 Special hyphae for anchoring
• Called rhizoids
 Principal decomposers of lignin, cellulose
• Bacteria cannot break them
 Recycle nutrients in biosphere with bacteria
• C, N, P,O, H, S

PARASITIC FUNGI
 Absorb nutrients from living host
 Special hyphae
• Called haustoria
• Penetrate living tissue
• Absorb nutrients
 Two types of parasites
• Obligate parasites
• Grow only on host
• Facultative parasites
• Can grow on host
• Also on artificial media

PREDATORY FUNGI
 Some fungi are predators
 Oyster mushroom – Pleurotus ostreatus
• Omnivorous fungus
• Paralyzes nematodes
• Penetrate them, absorb nutrients
• Obtains nitrogen from animals
• Obtains glucose from wood
 Arthrobotrys
• Form constricting rings
• Trap soil nematodes
 Some produce sticky substances

MUTUALISTIC FUNGI
 Symbiotic relations
• Lichens
• Mycorrhizae
 Lichen
• Symbiotic relation
• Between fungi and photoautotrophs
• Fungus – Ascomycota or Deuteromycota
• Photoautotroph – algae or cyanobacteria
• Body is mostly fungus
• Gives water and shelter
• Algae prepares food
• Grow on unusual places – bare rocks
• Variable in color, shape, size

MUTUALISTIC FUNGI
 Lichen
• Important ecological roles
• Bioindicators of pollution
• Three growth forms:
• Crustose – grow on rocks
• Foliose – leaf like
• Fruticose – branch like
 Mycorrhiza
• between fungi and higher plants
• Roots of vascular plants (95% of all species)
• Increase surface area for absorption
• Help absorb rare substances
• Like phosphorus, zinc, copper etc.

MUTUALISTIC FUNGI
 Mycorrhiza
• Plant provides food
• Two types of mycorrhiza
• Endomycorrhiza
• Hyphae penetrate cells of root
• Form coils, swellings, branches
• Extend into surrounding soil
• Ectomycorrhiza
• Surround cells
• But do not penetrate walls
• Common in pines and firs

HABITAT OF FUNGI
 Grow in moist places
 Found everywhere
• Wherever organic matter is present
• Form spores in dry conditions
 Tolerate wide range of pH
• 2 – 9 pH, grow in acids and bases
 Tolerate wide range of temperature
• Grow in refrigerator
 Tolerate high osmotic pressure
• Grow in salt / sugar solutions
• E.g. in jams and jellies
 Store extra food as lipids or glycogen

REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI

REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
 Asexual in all
 Sexual in some
• Except imperfect fungi
 Classified on the basis of
• Sexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Through various means
• Spores
• Conidia
• Fragmentation
• Budding
 Spores
• Inside reproductive structures
• Called sporangia
• Cut-off from hyphae
• By complete septa
• Can be sexual or asexual
• Haploid
• Non-motile

 Spores
• Are small
• Do not need water for dispersal
• Dispersed by wind
• Produced in large numbers
• Help in wide distribution
• Including plant pathogens
• Sometimes dispersed by insects
• Sometimes by rain splashes
• Common means of reproduction

 Conidia
• Singular conidium
• Non-motile
• Asexual spores
• Cut off from end of modified hyphae
• Called conidiophores
• Not inside sporangia
• Usually in chains or clusters
• Produced in large numbers
• Survive for weeks
• Allow rapid colonization of new food

 Fragmentation
• Simple breaking of hyphae
• Fragment becomes new mycelium
 Budding
• Asymmetric division
• Tiny outgrowth – called bud
• Becomes separate
• Grows
• Sometimes relatively equal division

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Different in different groups
 Basic steps are common
• Fusion of haploid cells
• Fusion of haploid nuclei
• Meiosis – production of spores
 Genetically different Hyphae
• Called compatible mating types
• Come close and fuse
• Called plasmogamy
• Nuclei also fuse
• Called karyogamy
• Sometimes delayed
• May form dikaryotic (heterokaryotic) hyphae

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Haploid spores are different
• Basidiospores
• Ascospores
• Zygospores
 Produced in different structures
• Basidiocarps
• Ascocarps
 Helps in classification
• Four types
• Depending on reproductive structure
• Other characters are also different

Conjugating fungi
ZYGOMYCOTA

ZYGOMYCOTA
(CONJUGATING FUNGI)
 Asexual reproduction by spores
 Hyphae are coenocytic
• non-septate
• multinucleate
 Examples:
• Rhizopus (black bread mold),
• Pilobolus (spitting fungus)
 Sexual reproduction
• Through zygospore

ZYGOMYCOTA
(CONJUGATING FUNGI)
 Hyphae fuse
• Zygote is formed
• Dormant, thick walled, resistant
• Called zygospore
 Zygospore germinates
• Meiosis takes place
• Haploid (asexual) spores produced
 Germinate
• form new mycelium

Sac fungi
ASCOMYCOTA

ASCOMYCOTA – SAC FUNGI
 Largest group of fungi
• 60,000 species
• 50% involved in lichens
• Some are mycorrhizal
 Mostly terrestrial
• Some marine or freshwater
 Highly diverse
• Unicellular yeast
• Large cup fungi and morels
 Asexual reproduction by conidia
 Example
• Yeast, morels, powdery mildew, molds, truffles

 Hyphae are septate
 Dikaryotic phase is lengthy
• Forms ascocarp
• Like morels
 Sexual reproduction
• By ascospores
• Produced in asci
• Born on ascocarp (morel)
• 8 ascospores in 1 ascus
• Dispersed by wind

 Yeast
• Unicellular, microscopic
• Some yeasts are in other groups
• Most belong to ascomycota
 Reproduce by budding
 Sexually by ascus formation
 Ferment carbohydrates
• Produce ethanol from glucose
• Great economic importance
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae – bakers yeast

Club fungi
BASIDIOMYCOTA

BASIDIOMYCOTA – CLUB FUNGI
 Most familiar
• Edible mushrooms
• Plant pathogens – rust and smut
• Puffballs, bracket fungi
 Asexual reproduction is uncommon
 Hyphae are septate
 Dikaryotic phase in lengthy
 Sexual reproduction by basidiospores
• Born on basidia (club shaped structures)
• Formed in basidiocarps (mushrooms)
• 4 basidiospores on 1 basidium

RUST AND SMUT
 Rusts
• Rusty – orange yellow spores
• Spots on stem and leaves
• Caused by Puccinia graminis
 Smut
• Black sooty spores
• Produced in flowers
• Instead of grains
• Caused by Ustilago tritici

LIFE CYCLE OF SMUT
 Loose smut of wheat – Ustilago tritici
 Spreads by spores (teliospores)
• Carried by wind
• reaches healthy flowers
• Germinate
• Penetrate ovary
• becomes dormant
 Seeds are sown next season
• Germinates with seed
• Until seeds are produced on flower
• Breaks kernel – destroying them
• Black spores are released

Imperfect fungi
DEUTEROMYCOTA

DEUTEROMYCOTA (IMPERFECT
FUNGI)
 Heterogeneous group
 Fungi lacking sexual reproduction
 Usually related to other groups
• Sometimes to ascomycota
• Sometimes to other two
 Can be Reclassified
• Discovery of sexual reproduction
• On the basis of DNAsequence
• Even without sexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
• Through conidia

FUNGI)
 Examples:
• Penicillium (blue-green mold)
• Aspergillus (brown molds)
• Alternaria
• Fusarium
• Helminthosporium
 Parasexuality
• No sexual reproduction
• Type of genetic recombination
• Exchange of portions of chromosome
• Between nuclei in same hyphae

FUNGI)
 Penicillium
• Blue green mold
• Widespread
• Saprotrophic
• Grows on decaying fruit, bread etc
• Septate hyphae
• Asexual reproduction by conidia
• Produced in chains
• At tip of special hyphae
• Called conidiophores
• Branched, brush-like appearance

LAND ADAPTATIONS OF FUNGI

 Grow in moist habitat
 Found everywhere
• In presence of organic matter
 Very successful on land
• Special features
• Make life on land possible
 Fast-spreading hyphae
• Extensive system
• Penetrate substrate
• Increase surface area for absorption

 Cytoplasmic streaming
• Allows mixing of cytoplasm
• Nutrients are distributed easily
• Allows rapid growth and spread
 Chitin
• Present in cell wall
• Resistant to decay
• Better than cellulose and lignin
 Digest various substances
• Can digest lignin
• Can digest cellulose
• Saprotrophs
• Special hyphae called rhizoids

 No flagellated cells
• Do not need water
• Dispersal by wind
 Resistant structures
• Spores and conidia
• Zygospores
• Protection in harsh environment
 Modified hyphae
• Can reproduce without water

 More tolerant than bacteria
• Live in hyperosmotic environment
• Tolerate temperature extremes
• -5 to 50 degree centigrade
• Grow on jams and jellies
• Grow in refrigerators
• Bacteria cannot

IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
 Great importance
 Important decomposers
• Recycle nutrients
• Important for supply of nutrients
• Life would cease without them
 Mycorrhiza
• Necessary for plants
• 95% of vascular plants

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
 Lichens
• Break rocks, bring other organisms
• Ecological succession
• Bioindicators of pollution
• Sensitive to air and water quality
 Bioremediation
• Help remove / degrade pollutants

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE
 Economic gains and losses
 Some are edible
• 200 species of mushrooms (Agaricus)
• Morels (Morchella esculenta)
• Truffles (underground tubers)
 Some are poisonous
• Called toadstools
• Death angel (Amanita)
• Jack O Lantern (Omphalotus olearius)
 Used as fodder
• Reindeer moss (a lichen)
• Used in arctic / sub arctic / boreal regions

 Used in food industry
• Help in fermentation
• Production of bread and liquor
• Penicillium for flavoring cheese
• Characteristic color, aroma, taste
• Aspergillus for soy sauce from Soy bean
• Aspergillus for citric acid
 Source of antibiotics and drugs
• Penicillin – first antibiotic
• Lovastatin – lowering blood cholesterol
• Cyclosporine – for transplant rejection
• Ergotine – for migraine
• Griseofulvin – inhibits fungal growth

 Dyes
• From lichens
• Used in textile industry
 Research
• Yeast – model organism
• Rapid generation, vast knowledge
• First eukaryotes in genetic engineering
• Artificial chromosome of Saccharomyces (1983)
• Whole genome of first eukaryote sequenced 1996
• Production of hormones
• Neurospora (pink bread mold) for genetic research

ECONOMIC LOSSES
 Plant diseases
• Breakdown cellulose, lignin, cutin
• Rusts and smut
• Common in wheat, corn, rice
• Displacement and starvation
• Powdery mildews
• Common in grapes, rose, wheat
• Ergot of rye
• Red rot of sugarcane
• Potato wilt, cotton root rot,
• Apple scab,
• brown rot of peaches, plum, apricots, cherries

ECONOMIC LOSSES
 Animal Diseases
• Ringworm
• Athlete’s foot
• Skin infection due to deuteromycota
• Candidiosis - Oral and vaginal thrush
• Caused by yeast Candida albicans
• Histoplasmosis – lung infection
• Spores of soil fungus
• Contaminated with bird feces
• Can become fatal if infection spreads
• Aspergillosis – due to Aspergillus fumigatus
• In immune deficient patients (AIDS)
• Can be fatal

ECONOMIC LOSSES
 Carcinogenic chemicals
• Produced by Aspergillus
• Mycotoxins
• Aflatoxin – most potent carcinogen
• Present in milk, eggs, meat
 Ergotism
• Eating flour contaminated with ergot
• Poisonous
• Causes nervous spasms
• Psychotic delusions
• gangrene

ECONOMIC LOSSES
 Damage to property
• Damage to food, wood, fibers, leather
• 15-50% of all food is lost
• Wood rot fungi destroy living trees
• Also wooden structures
• Bracket fungi destroy timber
• Pink yeast (Rhodotorula) – shower curtains

08_Kingdom_Fungi617[1].pptx

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