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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Man always seeks company. He is gregarious by nature. He always likes to be with the
other people. He mixes with different individuals and influence them with his own nature,
outlook, views and opinions and is himself influenced by their ideas and behaviour. Every man
tries for social approval. He behaves in such a way that the others may respect his individuality
and consider him as someone who counts. The man's social ‘nature is the foundation of social
psychology. His interaction with other people and with other groups, his wish for social
approval, his attitude towards social groups, his quarrels with his neighbours, his fights with his
enemy, etc., etc., are all the subject-matter of social psychology. In fact we can say that social
psychology makes a study of man in his interaction with the society.
Social psychology is considered to be very modern. It will not be wrong to say that it is
ultra modern. It is a creature of the mid-twentieth century. But there is no doubt in it that
much earlier than that period in which social psychology took the form of a science, the political
philosophers were seeking an answer to the questions pertaining to the social nature of men.
In fact, we can say that the roots of social psychology are quite ancient while its development
in the present form is modern. Plato and Aristotle are the philosophers, who can be put, as
social theorists. Some other names of the important psychologists and philosophers, who have
contributed towards the development of social theory are these Hartley, Steinthal and Lazarus,
Tarde, Ross and Mcdougall. In the following paragraphs we will endeavour to throw some light
on the development of social psychology from the historical angle.
HISTORICAL RETROSPECT
The development of social psychology is akin to the historical development of other
sciences. Whatever phases occur in the development of a particular science similar phases have
occurred in the development of social psychology. The first phase or the earliest phase in the
development of a science is the arm-chair phase. In this phase, the physical equipment is
absent: The thinker sits on an arm-chair and puts forward his theories regarding that particular

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science. As a matter of fact, this phase is never given up in the development of social
psychology this phase is clearly marked.
After the first phase comes the second phase at which the observations are made, the
data is recorded and the theories which have been propounded at the first phase are tested.
The social psychology entered this phase even earlier than twentieth century. For example
there were tarried some early investigations with the man of genius to determine his origin and
his social function. In this connection Galton’s name is prominent, who published in 1869 a
book Hereditary Genius. Besides Galton we can name Starbuch -who wrote ‘Psychology of
Religion in 1898, Lombrose who wrote Criminal Man- in 1889 and Myers, McDougall and Rivers.
In the third stage of the development of a science, laboratories are set up and research
institutes are founded. New research operations are conducted on a larger scale and are
continuous. In the field of social psychology, the earliest research programmes in social
behavior were carried on by those institutions whose primary interest was outside the social
psychology. For example, the child research institutes conducted quite a good number of
investigations in. the field of social development in childhood.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY—IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES
From Plato to Comte the theories concerned with the social nature of the man were based
on the theories of state. We may say that early social psychology was largely a branch of
political philosophy.
Views of Greek Thinkers
Plato and Aristotle were the first among the Western thinkers, who gave some very
interesting ideas regarding the social nature of man Plato in his book “The Republic” wrote that
the need of states is felt because the individual himself is not self-sufficient. He needs the help
of many other individuals. The State which emerges out with the help of different individuals is
based on the predominance of certain social sentiments. The social groups are formed because
man feels a need for them. We may put Plato’s views as’, of the “utilitarian” or “ social contract”
type.

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Aristotle’s views are different from Plato’s views. Aristotle consider that the will to mix up
or gregarious motive is something instinctive. He considers that man by nature is a “political
animal”. He feels that it is the basis of our inborn nature that we adhere to positive affiliations
and collective way of living.
Influence of Thinkers of Seventeenth Century
After viewing the developments of social Psychology in the ancient times we come down
to the seventeenth century in seventeenth century, we can name Male-Branche as an exponent
of social psychology. He indirectly mentioned in his writing the two tendencies of suggestibility
and imitation and about out the shared norms of thinking. Hobbes in his book Leviathan in
1651, tried to give a theory regarding the origin of the Society. Similarly John Locke in
Government made an effort to give a theory regarding the origin of society. Thomas Moore in
his book Utopia referred to the importance of the socialization of the individuals His emphasis
was on the group value of sympathy.
Development of Social Psychology in 18th & 19th Centuries
In the eighteenth and nineteenth Centur1es we can name David Hume, Bain Hegel Comte and
Mai as the exponents of social psychology Comte gave the famous “Law of three stages “. ‘He
said that a science emerges gradually from the theological through the metaphysical into the
Positive stages of development. In 1839 Comte Concluded that sociology must be regarded as a
new Positive Science. Comte had put forward a very important question, “How can the
individual be at once cause and consequence of society?” The individual is a product of the
society yet the society is created by him. Man is not merely a biological organism but has
something more than this He is social being and moral agent who needs a special science to
explore and give interpretations to his nature. On the basis of these views, we may put Comte
as one of the founders of social Psychology.
But social psychology took the form of distinct science after Darwin's theory of evolution
has been propagated. In 1860 a journal, “Folk Psychology", was started by Steinthal and
Lazarus." This Journal was devoted to the study of the psychological characteristics of different

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racial groups. Tarde in 1890 in his book “Laws of imitation” laid much stress on the influence of
the social environment on the individual life. Le Bon in 1892 made an effort to explain crowd
behaviour. J. N. Baldwin in 1897 propagated the concepts of imitation, intervention and social
aspects of personality Charles Cooley made a study of the Primary groups like the family and
community and stressed their importance in the moral and social development of the
individual.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The Year I908 is notable. In that year E. A. ROSS gave a very convincing explanation of
the behaviour of crowd strikers and revolutionary mobs. He also paid attention to the
similarities which are found among groups in respect of religious behaviour and cultural
elements arid language patterns. In the same year McDougall gave his theory of social
behaviour. In this theory he gave an explanation of social behaviour on the basis of instincts
and emotions He considered that in social interaction, the instincts and emotions are dynamic
determinants.
McDougall emphasized that one must study the impulses and emotions which sustain the
mental and bodily activity of the individual and regulate his conduct. He considered them as
“the springs of human action’. McDougall was of the opinion that man’s mind is the product of
molding influences which are exerted upon the social environment.
After McDougall there was rapid development in the field of. Social psychology. There
were many who were in favor of McDougall’s view regarding the instincts and emotions. But his
opposition also began to grow and social psychology began to take a new turn.
Social psychology has now progressed towards experimental side. Many experiments in
the field of social psychology are being conducted in U. K., U. S. A. and other advanced
countries. These experiments are being conducted in many directions. The fields, in which much
experimentation is being carried on are pertaining to the public opinion research, market
research and survey sample interviewing.

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Special groups of techniques Psychodrama, Sociodrama and Sociometry are being
employed. The American Sociometric Society was founded in 1945. The research centres for
group dynamics were also founded in 1945 by Kurt Lewin.
By the middle of twentieth century experiment social psychology had gained much
ground. Lewin, Lippit and. White were the persons who introduced the conception of social
climates or group atmosphere. Following their historic experiments regarding the various types
of leaderships, which approximated authoritarian, democratic and laissez- faire, social
atmosphere in the experimental groups, the experiments in the group dynamics, group
structure, group decision and group cohesion, had begun to be conducted on a large scale.
We may say that the historical development of social psychology was based on the two
directional approaches of psychological and sociological interest. According to Newcomb:
The history of social psychology may be likened to the digging of a tunnel. Sociologists did
the first digging, starting from their own side of the mountain. Their information as to what lay
on the psychological side of the mountain was necessarily limited and was mainly applied by
way of speculation and analogy. The psychologists, who started burrowing somewhat later, had
a vague sense of direction, but no map of the terrain where they needed to emerge. These two
tunnels have been building for more than a half century now, and they are still, nowhere near
meeting. They are not even going toward each other. The two teams of engineers scarcely
bother to read each other’s maps, though they have free access to them."
It is to be remembered that the development of social psychology was to understand the
social behaviour. The social behaviour was studied in three stages. We will now describe these
stages.
THREE STAGES IN THE STUDY OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
From the historical perspective we can describe the study of social behaviour in three
stages. Each stage prompted the ‘next stage and incorporated new knowledge in it. Today all
the three stages are actively involved in studying social behaviour.

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The oldest stage of the study of social behaviour is that of social philosophy. At this stage
emphasis was laid on hypotheses and discussions because there was no attempt to obtain valid
information in’ a systematic manner. On the basis of authority r rationality the ‘conclusions
were drawn. This stage is still active in the study of modern, human behaviour through the’
drawing of conclusions on the basis of reasoning rather than on’ experimentation.
The second stage commenced since Nineteenth century. This is the stage of social
empiricism. This stage points towards the comprehensive study of human qualities and the
state of the human society. At this stage a systematic collection of data is encouraged. Thus
this stage advanced from the stage of discussion. Yet it continued to apply reasoning to social
problems. One illustration of this stage we can find in opinion poll. When we estimate that how
many individuals would vote in which direction in a given sample then we are at this stage. But
at this stage we do not try to find out why do individuals vote in a particular manner.
Social empiricism led to the third stage which we may call as the stage of Social Analysis.
This is the development of twentieth century and is very significant in the study of
contemporary social psychology.
At this stage the relationships are studied more deeply and the social principles, are
examined and established. The social analysis is directed towards causation. The data is
collected systematically and the causes are drawn from it. The main characteristic of this stage
is that it goes beyond the description stage to find out the relationships among variables. For
this experimentations are also done. For example, at this stage we do not confine ourselves to
the study of how the students behave while facing a strict teacher but also investigate why do

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they behave in this particular manner. For seeking the answer to the question “why” we
experiment by producing an environment of strictness.
In the modern times investigations are carried on at all the three stages and also often in
one investigation all the three stages are more or less involved.
SIX DECADES OF GROWTH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
(1940’s, 50’s, 60’s, 70’s, 80’s and 90’s)
The Second World War (1939 to 1944) especially attracted the attention of investigators
towards social psychology. The social psychologists in the Forties made special studies of the
psychology of Prejudices, Propaganda, Rumours etc. The tyranny of the Nazis in Germany was
the main reason for developing interest in these and similar topics. The social psychologists
wanted to understand those characteristics of personality which make individuals vulnerable to
the acceptance of fascist viewpoint or similar other political views.
In the fifties the scope of investigations of social psychologists became more broad
based. Now the group behaviour became: the important subject of study. Another direction
which the investigations took was towards finding out the relationship of various personality
qualities (like achievement or need for social approval) with the social behaviour. Perhaps the
most significant contribution of this decade was the theory of Cognitive Dissonance propogated
by Festinger. Festinger emphaized that basically human beings do not like dissonance and
wherever or whenever dissonance occur they try to reduce it.
In the sixties there were more refinements in investigations in social psychology. The
researches were carried on cognitive dissonance with more sophistication but besides these,
studies in many other areas also began to be undertaken. The number of such areas is so vast
that we can not describe all of them in this brief historical survey. Still we can mention some of
those topics which were studied more deeply. These were Aggression and Violence, Attraction
and Love, Altruism and Helping, Social Exchange Imitation and Modelling, Group Decision
Making, Person Perception etc. We may emphasize herein that the area of investigation of social

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psychologists became so vast that all the possible aspects of social behaviour which could be
thought of were included in its scope.
The pace of researches in the area of social psychology continued to be very rapid in the
decade of seventies In this decade there was increase in the number of researches and the
topics of -researches Better scientific approaches began to be employed in the investigations
and the results of the studies started having wider applications There was all round refinement
in the investigations now. The researches were conducted about the impact of heat, noise;
crowd, mob etc. on the social behaviour. This was one area of research of this decade.
A second important area in which much research work was done in .the seventies was
‘Attribution”. The social Psychologists studied the process through which the motivations
wishes, desires and characteristics of the other persons are known This area is still the most
significant research area in which investigations are continuing in the nineties.
The third area in which the researches in the seventies were conducted was that of non-
verbal communication. In nineties this s also a significant field of research in which social
Psychologists are involved
The fourth area of investigations in seventies was the area of sexual behaviour. The
women studies were also began to be seriously undertaken in ‘the seventies’ which continued to
gain attention in next two decades of eighties and nineties.
The emphasis in the decade, of seventies was on such investigations which have
relevance to the society and social life. Many intricate social problems began to be investigated
in this decade.
In the 80’s the social psychologists were studying the social phenomena in the controlled
environment in the laboratories. But field studies were also given equal importance. In these
studies the social behaviour was investigated in the actual situation in which it occurred. For
example, in the actual school situation in which different type of teachers were serving the
impact of teacher behaviour on the discipline of the students or on the school climate was
studied.

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The teacher or the worker burn out in the school or industrial situation have also been
investigated in the 80’s and in the 90’s. The teacher bum out refers to the tiredness,
exhaustion, boredom or a stressed existence of the teacher which impedes his normal function
of teaching. .
In the 90s the development of social psychology is taking place at a rapid pace. The
cultural influences of mental life of the individuals is one such significant area in which
researches from 50’s onwards are seriously being undertaken. Leadership behaviour which was
studied in the early stages of the development of social psychology is still engaging the
attention of investigators who are now using much more sophisticated tools in such studies.
The space research has also involved the impact of loneliness on individual behaviour. The
social dimensions of life in space are being investigated.
Studies on terrorism, internal or external, have been undertake by many social
psychologists in the 80’s and 90’s.
In short at the threshold of twenty first century the researchers in social psychology are
taking interest in all those activities, processes and happenings which are altering the pace of
social life and are influencing the social behaviour of the individuals.
PRESENT POSITION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
We have described the directions in which the researches in social psychology are taking
place in the nineties. Earlier in this chapter we have traced the development of social
psychology since the time of its earliest exponents. Now let us focus our attention on the
present position of social psychology.
We have already mentioned that the significance of social psychology was greatly
enhanced after the Second World War. The main reasons for this were the miseries caused by
the war and the killing of lakhs of people. The miseries of war and the plight of the orphans and
widows led the scholars towards the understanding of the causes of wars and the steps for
preventing them. They started investigating the social phenomena like Propaganda, Rumour,
Prejudice, International Relations, Mass Communication etc. Many studies were also conducted

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on Aggression and Violence. The answer to the question "Is aggression hereditary” was
explored by the researchers.
Some prominent social psychologists who contributed significantly in the development of
social psychology are as follows:
William White : He on the basis’ of his studies on children explained the process of social
interaction among them.
Theodore Newcomb : He studied the influence of Reference Group.
Asch : In 1951-52 studied the phenomenon of social conformity.
Sheriff and his associates conducted many studies on competition, cooperation etc.
Adorno and his associates investigated those personality traits which were responsible
for the acceptance of a political viewpoint without critically examining it.
Besides the above the work of Aronson, Bales, Berkowitz, Fiedler, Hovland, Milgram,
Raven, Festinger etc. also led to the growth of social psychology.
In this last decade of the twentieth century social psychology is showing tremendous
growth. Now it is being universally recognized that the society exerts very deep influence on the
human behaviour. To save the human beings from conflict or tension producing situations it is
necessary to understand the sociological tendencies of the man and the manner in which they
develop and influence the human behaviour. The psychologists are busy in developing such an
understanding.
The investigations are now being conducted in the following directions
1. The influence of crowd, noise, temperature, pollution etc. on the human behaviour. The
investigations are interested in finding out the influence, of various elements in the
environment on the social behaviour pattern of the human beings.
2. Various aspects of Mass Communication’ such as the influence of TV programmes on
cultural development, the influence of information technology on social and individual life
patterns etc.

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3. The various dimensions of sexual behaviour, sexual deviations and the -social life of
sexually deviants; relationship between crime and sexology; impotency and frigidity in social
context; attitudes towards birth control of different communities and religious groups.
4. Aggression, violence, altruism, segregation, social injustice. political corruption etc.
5. Social behaviour in space and space age.
6. Cross cultural studies.
7. In Indian situation there are many social problems about which investigations are either
being carried on or are being planned or there is simple awareness of these problems without
any concrete attempt towards- investigating them. Some of the existing problems are:
(i) Religious Fundamentalism.
(ii) Casteism and the behaviour towards socially deprived.
(iii) Cruelty towards women, status and position of women, dowry
etc
(iv) Family disharmony, marital problems, divorce, abortion and their sociological implications.
(v) Obstacles in the development of democratic outlook.
(vi) Corruption, socio-psychological aspects of political corruption and nexus between
politician, criminal and police.
(vii) Role of bureaucracy in present social and political environment.
(viii) Population and birth control.
(ix) Problems of working women.
(x) Unemployment and its influence on social life.
(xi) National and industrial tensions.
(xii) Community life in slum and congested areas of towns.
(xiii) Problems of youth.
(xiv) Typical problems of old age and rehabilitation of the old.
(xv) Impact of violence and aggression on public life.
(xvi) Crime and criminal behaviour.

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DEFINITION, NATURE, PROBLEMS AND SCOPE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is one of the most important branches of human knowledge. No doubt,
it is a new study but its real merit lies in its scope of tackling the multifarious problems with
which the individuals are confronted in their interaction with the society. Society, today, has
become quite complex From the simple group in which individuals were living on the basis of
some natural urges it has assumed very complex shape Today there are large number of
groups interacting with one another. There are various types of societies. There are various
types of social groupings like clubs associations and institutions. An individual can be a member
of more than one group of many societies, of many clubs and institutions or many associations.
This complexity of an individual’s membership to various forms of social groupings have raised
many typical problems for the individual himself and for the social groupings of which he
becomes a member. To understand the man’s conduct in his interaction with the various forms
of groupings it is essential that we study social, psychology.
DEFINITION AND NATURE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Kimball Young says. “Social Psychology is the study of persons in their interactions with one
another and with reference to the effects of this interplay upon the individual’s thoughts,
feelings, emotions and habits.’ According to this definition social psychology deals with the
individuals interrelations with one another and it also studies the effects of individual
interactions with one another upon their own thoughts, feelings, emotions and habits. Thus we
can say that this definition seeks the roots of social psychology, mainly in Sociology and
Psychology. It must however, be remembered that in the development of this psychology,
history, political science, economics and philosophy have contributed much. These branches of
knowledge have also thrown much light on the interactions of men with one another.

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Krech and Crutchfield in their book “Social’ Psychology” define Social Psychology as “The
science of behaviour of the individual in society.” According to’ this definition social psychology
is put as a science. It is considered as a science of behaviour of the individual in society. Krech
and Crutchfield consider that social psychology is the only science of society which is concerned
with “Every aspect of the individual’s behavior in society.” Thus, in this definition whole
individual in his total behaviour with the society is the subject-matter of the study.
F. H. Allport in his book, “Social Psychology” defines it as “Social Psychology is the study
of behaviour of individuals in their relations to other individuals and in social situation.” In the
definition Allport has dealt with the study of behaviour of the individual in two-fold ways. He
has emphasised the relationship of individual with one another and also the individuals
behaviour in social situation. This definition deals not only with the behaviour of the individuals
but with their attitudes also. We can quote another definition by Klineberg who says that,
“Social Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour of the individuals as related to other
individuals.” In this definition scientific study of individual’s behaviour in interaction with other
individuals is emphasised.
Another definition of Social Psychology is, “Social Psychology is the study of the way in
which individuals are affected by social situation.” (Stephen Worchel and Ted Cooper)
Fisher in 1982 defined Social Psychology, “As the scientific study of how the behaviour of
an individual is influenced by and in turn influences the others in the social environment."
Sherif and Sherif consider that, “Social Psychology is the scientific study of the experience
and behaviour of individual in relation to social stimulus situations."
Myers has defined Social Psychology as “The scientific study of how people think about,
influence and relate to one another.”
Feldman says that; “Social Psychology is the discipline that examines how a person’s
thoughts, feelings and actions are affected by others. “
In all the above definitions, the study of the interaction of the individual with society has
been emphasised. Thus, all the above definitions point out that social psychology should be

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defined as a science which is to study the psychology of the individual man, when he is
confronted with a social situation. Individual behaviour, when he will interact with the other
individuals will always be dependent on his own nature. But the social surroundings, social
setting and social situations will also be responsible to a great extent for his behaviour. Thus, to
understand what type of behaviour the individual will depict in social situations, the study of
individual psychology and sociology is essential. Hence any definition of social –must include
both the psychological and sociological aspects of the individual’s behavior. Thus, it can be
said that Social Psychology is scientific study of the behaviour of an individual when he comes
in contact with the other individuals or interacts with any social group or groups or is confronted
with some social situation in which he participates consciously or unconsciously.
NATURE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social Psychology in its nature is scientific. This is because it employs scientific techniques
in enhancing its knowledge. As in sciences it makes systematic observations and through direct
experimentations it studies social problems. It is true that in the study of this subject it does
not use the similar type of tools as are used in scientific subjects like physics or chemistry. But
the general techniques used in the study of Social Psychology are similar to those used in other
sciences.
(* Detailed description of the scientific nature of Social Psychology given later.)
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
As explained above social psychology is a scientific study of an individual's experiences and
behaviour which occur in relationship with social stimulus situations. It describes the
relationship of the individual with the social environment. When we define social psychology as
the- study of the behaviour of an individual in relation to the behavior of other individual then
we are paying attention to the process of social interaction. The second person or other
individuals provide social stimulus. Hence the concept of social interaction depends on the
mutual influence of one person on another person or persons.

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In a group there develop interpersonal relationships among the members of the group.
Every individual influences the others behaviour and thinking. For example in a family a
husband influences his wife and his wife influences him. The child influences parents and is
himself being influenced by them. Thus in a social group the people exert mutual influences
and this process is known as the process of social interaction. .
Young defines social interaction as follows:
“Broadly defined interaction refers to the fact that the response gesture words, or gross
bodily movements of one individual is the stimulus of another, who in turn, responds to the
first”.
We may explain it in a simple manner as follows:
S1—R1(S2)
R1 (S2) – R2 (S2)
whereas S1 is the stimulus of first individual
R1 is the response of the first individual
S2 is the stimulus of the second individual
R2 is the response of the second individual which becomes the stimulus to the first
individual
Thus R1 represents the stimulus S2 & R2 to stimulus S1.
We can further clarify the implications of the above definition by an example. Let us take
“the example of a social interaction between a child and his mother. The child is hungry. The
hunger is the stimulus (S1) of the first person. The child asks the mother, “Mother give me
food.” This is the response of the first person (R1). The mother replies, “ Food is not ready.”
This is her response (R2). The stimulus for mother’s response was R1. In the above schematic
diagram it is shown as R1(S2). The child after getting the mother’s response that food is not
ready asks, “Why is food not ready.” This is shown as R2 (S1). This is in response to mother.
Thus mother’s response becomes the stimulus to the child.
A simple definition of Social Interaction is given by Dawson & Gettys -

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“Social Interaction is a process whereby man interperietrates the minds of each other.”
According to this definition the social interaction is a mental process which establish
mental relationships among different persons. In social interactions the members of a group
influence each other.
TYPES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Three types of social interactions can be described -
(1) Person to Person
(2) Person to Group
(3) Group to Group
(1) Person to Person - In this type of interaction only a few persons are involved. When the
relationships are established between a person and one or two other persons it is person to
person interaction. A mother's relationship with her son or a husband's relationship with his
wife are the examples of person to person interaction. We may say that in person to person
social interaction inter personal relationship is established. Such interactions are very common
in our everyday life.
2. Person to Group - When an individual comes in contact with a group and interacts with
it the person to group type of social interaction takes place. These type of interactions occur
when the individual gets stimulus from the group and he responds to it. An individual
establishes relationships with his family, neighbourhood, community, caste and religion. These
relationships form the foundation of his personality. The family, neighbourhood and community
etc. are mostly responsible for the development of his personality.
3. Group to Group- In group to group interactions Kuppuswami says. “Individual identifies
himself with a group and reacts to another group as a whole.”
The examples of this type of interactions are those that occur between the residents of
two villages or the relationships between different caste groups in the same village or the
relationships between the resident of two nations. The social psychology studies all the three

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types of interactions but it must be remembered that the individual is the unit of analysis in
social interaction.
LEVELS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
In 1924 Floyd Allport defined Social Psychology "as the scientific study of the experience
and behaviour of individuals in relation to other individual, group and culture."
In this definition the three’ levels of social interactions are described 1aking the individual
as the central figure.
(i) Person with other persons. .
(ii) Person, with collectivity which is like a, group.
(iii) Person with the consequences of the behaviour of other individuals (with culture).
(1) Person with other Persons—The broad ‘field of human behaviour is the social
interaction of one person with another person. The social interactions take place in the presence
Of more ‘than one person.. The individuals perceive each other, are mutually attracted and
influence each other.
This level of behaviour is visible in the case of Interpersonal, perception friendship, social
power social reinforcement etc.
(ii) Person with Collectivity—The second important level of human social behaviour is the
relationship of the individual with collectivity or group. The individual establishes his own states
in the group and plays a definite role. His behaviour may be influenced by
the group He may interact with those groups whose member he is as well a with those groups
whose membership he does not’ hold.
(iii) Person with Culture—The third important level of human behaviour is the mutual
exchange of ideas between one individual and many of the products of behaviour of the groups.
These products appear in the form of culture of the society. In one respect the culture may be
considered as a residue of human behaviour. In culture there are included such material objects
as arms, instruments, arte-facts etc. which are known as material culture and also such

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abstract objects as traditions, customs, laws, values etc. which are known as non-material
culture.
If we consider these three levels of human behaviour in a unified form then we can say
that there is hardly any situation which can be described as unsocial.
PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The definitions of social psychology clearly, show that it is a science which has quite a
wide scope. It deals with the individuals and also deals with the society. The problems with
which individual is confronted when he comes in contact with the other individuals or with the
‘social situations’ form the subject-matter of social psychology. Below we are dealing with the
problems of social psychology.
1 Study of Socialisation
The child as soon as he comes to this world finds himself in a social situation He is born to
a woman and is fathered by a man both of whom- take care of him as soon as he sees the light
of the first day. As he begins to grow, the, other individuals come in his contact and the process
of his socialisation extends from his parents to others: How this socialisation takes place is one
of the most important problems of social psychology.
It may however, be remembered that the child at birth is not like a clean slate. He is born
with certain native endowments: He comes to this world with some abilities, capacities,
aptitudes, urges and impulses. These native endowments play an important role in the process
of his socialization. This means that the child is governed to quite an appreciable extent by his
own individual endowment in his behaviour with the other individuals. Thus, to understand the
process of his socialization the understanding of his nature is a1so essential. Hence, second
problem of Social Psychology is with respect to the individual’s nature and process of
socialization. Under these two main problems; there are many subsidiary problems which we
may now consider.
2. Study of Innate Tendencies

19. 19
The social psychologist has to make a study of the endowment with which a child is born
into this world. He will also have to make a study of the problems relating to the modification of
the individuals inborn traits under the effect of environment. He will have to tackle the problem
of individuals becoming easily suggestible. The imitation sympathy, emotion etc. affect
differently the different individuals and how do they do so are the other problems which will
need his attention.
3. Study of Social Interaction
In whatever way the individual acts, his behaviour is bound to affect the other individuals.
The child is affected by the behaviour of his parents and other family members and they also in
turn are affected by his behaviour. How this interaction of one individual with the other takes
place and what forces govern it, are the other problems of social psychology. The individual will
behave differently with the different individuals and with different social groups. Why are
different behavioural responses shown by different individuals in similar social settings are also
the problems of social psychology.
4. Study of Group Behaviour
There are various types of social groups. Each social group entails different types of
behavioural responses from individuals. To a great extent, the individual’s behaviour will be
different in different social groups. For example, you will behave differently when you are in a
crowd from that when you are in the company of your family members. Thus, the problems
dealing with the various types of groups are also important for a social psychologist.
5. Study of Social Heritage
As the individual inherits certain abilities and capacities. certain impulses and emotions
and certain physical and mental characteristics. so also the group or the society inherits certain
customs and traditions certain ideals and practices and certain institutions and moral norms.
The social inheritance is very important for the integration in society. The society is made
stable as its social inheritance becomes richer. The social inheritance affects the individuals who
are the members of that particular society. Individuals’ behaviours in social situations are very

20. 20
greatly governed by the social heritage of the society. The individuals are bound by the moral
laws of the society. They are motivated for action for up keeping the traditions of the society.
Their behaviour in society is very much governed by its social customs. Hence, a social
psychologist has also to study the various aspects of social heritage. He has to deal with the
problems concerning the formation of the traditions, customs, social norms social ideals and
moral conduct etc. The study of these aspects of the social heritage will help him in tackling the
problems relating to the individuals’ behaviours in the society. The study of social heredity,
therefore, comes within the scope of social psychology.
6. Study of Influence of Culture on Personality
The social situations affect the personality of the individuals. As a matter of fact the
personality of an individual develops in keeping with the social surroundings around him. The
social groups affect the personality of the individual in one way or the other. Through the
interaction of the individual with society, his personality begins to grow in a definite direction.
How the personality grows in different social surrounding is one of the very important problems
of social psychology. .Thus, the study of personality as moulded by social cultural factors in the
individuals’ environment come under the scope of social psychology.
7 Study of Social Change
The society is never static. It is dynamic. It is always changing. The social changes are
brought about by the individuals, and when are introduced in any society they affect the
personalities of all the members of the society. For example, in Indian society the untouchables
were looked down upon. But through the efforts of great reformers like Mahatma Gandhi, the
untouchables were given a better social status. A social change was brought about in the Hindu
society and this change began to influence a number of members of this society. The
untouchables began to command self-respect and the Hindus began to consider them as human
beings who were to be given a status equal to all others. However, it must be remembered that
the process of such type of social change is not very smooth. At each stage of the change there
occur conflicts and it requires great courage on the part of those who initiate the social reforms

21. 21
in the socirty. How does the social changes take place ? What type of conflicts in the members
of the society these changes initiate? How the personalities of the individuals comprising the
society are being affected by the social changes or social reforms ? These are some other
problems which need a careful study by a social psychologist. Hence, we may also include the
study of social change and the effect of cultural pattern, on the personalities of the members of
a society within the scope of social psychology.
8. Experimental Study of Behaviour Problems in Social Situations
The social psychology in not only theoretical. Its greater use lies in its application to the
practical problems concerning the behaviour of the individuals in the social situations. The
problems concerning the leading of the best possible life in the society by its members are the
typical problems of social psychology. We want to have better society and better individual. We
want that the people may live in harmony with each other. We want that the people may lead a
healthy moral life. How these things can be achieved, depends upon the study of the theoretical
and practical aspects of social psychology. A social psychologist will have to study the basis of
different attitudes of different individuals towards the same ideals or principles or things He will
have to make a scientific study of group differences, prejudices and attitude.
9. Study of Social Tension
The task of the social psychologist is to help in reducing the tensions among the people of
the different countries arid different races. He will have to understand the psychology of war
and peace For this purpose. Besides this he will have to find out how the public opinion is
formed, what role propaganda plays in its formation and how the opinions govern the social life
of the people. Hence, in the scope of social psychology we can include the study of attitudes,
prejudices, public opinions, propaganda and psychology of war and peace.
In brief, we may put the following problems under the scope of social psychology:
1. The problems of socialisation.

22. 22
2. The problems concerning the social heritage as it influences the behaviour of individuals in
social situations.
3. The problems concerning the social interaction which influence the individual’s behaviour
in social situations.
4. The problems relating to the group behaviour.
5. The problems related to social heritage.
. The problems relating to the impact of culture upon personality.
7. The problems relating to the social change.
. The problems relating to putting of .the theoretical knowledge of social psychology into practical
use so that better social living may be organised.
9. The problems related to social tensions.
SCOPE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Taking into consideration the above mentioned problem of social psychology we may
consider the following topics under the scope of social psychology.
1 Socialisation of the Child—The study of the process of socialisation is an important
topic of social psychology.
2 Social Motivation—What do we mean by social motivation? What are its influences on
individual behaviour? These are some of the problems which are included in the scope of social
psychology? 3. Attitudes and their Measurement—In the study of social psychology the
attitudes—their definition socia1-attitudes the development and measurement of attitudes are
included.
4 Social Interaction— To understand social behaviour it s essential to understand the
nature of social interactions It is because
of its importance that social interactions fall under the scope of social psychology.
5 Social Perception—Our perceptions are influenced by the perceptions of others. How
and why we are influenced by the other's perceptions? To understand these and similar

23. 23
problems the study of social perceptions is made Along with social perception we also study
person perception.
6 Social Learning—The learning of an individual is very greatly influenced by social
environment Some of the learning takes place on the basis of individuals capabilities and much
of it takes place because of the association of the individual with the society.
7. Culture and Personality—Every society has its own culture. It influences the members
of the society. The study of these influences provide us much information about’ the
developmental process of the
individual.
8 Language and Communication—In the scope of social psychology the topic of language
and communication is also included. We are in contact with others through language. The
language helps us in communication of our thoughts. But communication can also be non-
verbal. Our facial expressions, eye contacts, movements of hands and feet convey many of our
messages to the others. Hence the problems of language and communication need careful and
deep study.
9. Group Structure, Group Morale, Group Decision and Leadership—The
understanding of the formation of groups and the influence of groups on individual behaviour is
essential’ for finding the solutions of social problems. Hence the topics like group structure etc.
come under the scope of social psychology.
10. Public Opinion, Propaganda & Rumour—The formation of public opinion, the influence
of propaganda on individual and social behaviour and the psychological aspects of rumour are
all very important topics of social psychology.
11. Social Change—In every society there is social change do we mean by social change?
When does it take place? What are the factors and dimensions of social change? Why do some
societies strongly resist any reforms or progressive outlook ? These are unique problems on
which social psychologist conduct many of their investigations.
12. Prejudices, Stereotypes and Social Tensions

24. 24
In every society there are some disruptive elements. These create social tension. Some
such elements are prejudices and stereotypes. The study of these elements or factors lead us
towards an understanding of disruptions in the society and the social tensions.
13 Altruism, Aggressiveness, Cooperation and Competition—Altruism means helping an
individual without any hope for reciprocity. Aggressiveness refers to that behavior which harms
or injures the others. Cooperation is working together by two or more individuals. In
competitive behaviour the individuals try to push ahead of others. These four are social
behaviours which have their own specificity and are adopted in special situations. The social
psychologist want to understand the various aspects of such behaviours so that they can know
the importance of these in social behaviour.
14. International Tensions and Industrial Conflicts— Modern social psychologists are
conducting investigations for finding the cause of social tensions. They are concerned with the
problems of war and peace terrorism at national and international levels and the industrial
disputes and disharmony in labour-management relationships. All these are being studied so
that there may be refinement in social life patterns.
15. Applications of Social Psychology in Education Business, Military, National Affairs
etc.—The knowledge of social psychology is now being widely used in various activities. Its
application in Education, Business etc. have benefitted both itself and those branches of
knowledge or the social activities which make use of its knowledge. Hence now under the scope
of social psychology are included its application in various fields.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is an important study. It is important because of the following reasons :
1. Social Psychology touches one of the most fundamental aspect of human living. We know
that man seeks the company of others. He has a desire to live a life of ease in association with

25. 25
other individuals. Social psychology tells him the ways which may help him to lead a useful and
healthy life in the society.
2. The better integrated a society is the less chances of conflicts will be there. The social
psychology points out the ways for the integration in society. It makes a study of different
types of groups. It emphasises that those groups have a better chance of survival which have a
better organisation. Thus, for the stability in the society and for avoiding conflicts among the
various members of the society, the study of social psychology is important.
3. There are certain individuals in the society who indulge in anti-social behaviour. Social
psychology makes a study of such individuals and enlists the reasons for their anti-social
behaviour. This knowledge helps us in dealing effectively with anti-social elements in the
society. Thus, to rid the society of anti-social elements, the study of social psychology is
important.
4. The social psychology also makes a study of the individuals innate endowments. It also
studies the effect of culture on the personalities of the individuals. Both of these knowledge
help us in organising better social situation in which the personality of all the members of the
society will grow in right directions.
5. The importance of social psychology in the present times is very great. To avoid war and
to obtain peace, we have to understand the basis of racial prejudices, the group differences, the
national malaise and the economic and political conditions prevalent in various societies. We get
the knowledge of these things by studying social psychology.
6. Today, the society has become very much industrialized. With the rapid industralization,
the complexion of the society has also changed. The easy going life of a farmer is changed to
the fast moving life of an industrial worker. The result of the change is that old social value
social norms and social ideals have been dispensed with and in their place new values, new
norms and new ideals have been put forward. The social psychology makes a study of social
change and makes us understand the differences between values, norms and ideals in the past

26. 26
and present. This knowledge helps us in our adjustment in a better manner to the changing
social situations.
7. In today's India, social psychology has a very important role to play. This country is at
such a juncture that the old values are changing and the new ones are slowly and gradually
taking their place. This process of change is however, not smooth. The country was very
backward in the pre-independence days. Today, there is an all round progress. But the progress
in industrialization and in technological and scientific developments is much more rapid than:
the progress in, sociological sphere. The result of this is that on our social life such demands are
being made for which we are no prepared. This lead to the emergence of conflicts. For example.
the old customs of marriage in the Hindu society have no place today in the era of rapid
industrialization. The dowry is outdated. The marriage festivities now cannot last for many days
as the people are busy and cannot afford to take long leave from their work. But still some
people especially of older generation, who want to stick to the old customs, find the themselves
misfit in the modern times. The study of social psychology informs us about this disparity
between the pace of social and industrial progress and thus equips us in a better manner for
proper social growth of our people.
8. Besides social developments, the political development can also take place on proper lines
by making a study of social psychology. In our country the form of Government is democratic.
But the people do not understand the significance of their votes. They often choose their
representatives not on the basis of their qualities of head and heart but on the basis of some
other considerations like caste community, religion and personals prejudices. The study of
social psychology informs us how the public opinions are formed, what are the qualities a leader
how propaganda plays an important role in elections and how can the electorate be educated.
9. The social psychology can also help in the removal of international tensions. The
international tensions are often the result of religious, social, political or economic differences
among the people of various nationalities. Students of social psychology can probe into

27. 27
the differences which exist or may exist between the people of different nations. They can
understand the causes of such differences and can help in the solution of the problems,
connected with the international tensions. The people can be taught to tolerate others. They
can be made to see the merits in respecting the national sentiments of the people of the other
nations.
10. The knowledge of social psychology is also helpful in the industrial situations. The social
psychology can tell us how better relations can be promoted between the labourers and
millowners. The millowners can be made to realise the view-point of labourers and also the
labourers can be encouraged to produce more. The social psychology also throws light on the
formation of labour unions and indicates the directions in which these Unions can have better
relationships with the millowners. Besides this, the knowledge of the propaganda techniques
help the salesmen in selling their wares.
11. Social psychology is also important, because it studies the mental processes as they
manifest themselves in social situations. Thus this psychology studies the many mental
processes studied in concrete form. The general psychology studies sensation, perception,
motivation etc. in an abstract manner. The social psychology studies these processes in
concrete form.
12. Many of our abnormalities have social background. For example, it is on account of social
taboo that the individuals are forced to suppress many of their desires, feelings and wishes
These suppressed desires etc. develop in them certain mal -adjustments of personality. Social
psychology throws light on the social conduct, social norms and tries to explain the causes of
certain abnormal behaviour of-individuals. Hence, its study is important from this point of view
also.
In the end, we’ may say that this subject is to be very carefully studied in our country. We
can never attain true democratic living un1ess and until we understand the socialisation
processes, which predominate in different types of communities in our country. We will have to
make a study of the mental conditions prevalent in various types of societies of our country and

28. 28
then only we will be able to attain an integration between the different communities which go to
make out nation.
SOME OBJECTIONS AGAINST SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
There are some people who are opposed to the study of social psychology. They say that social
psychology studies the social behaviour only. It is a sort of descriptive study. This study can
only tell us as to how the individuals behave in society, but it cannot equip us to predict the
future social behaviour of any individual in a particular social setting. This means that this
psychology is not at all helpful in pointing out that under such circumstances the individuals will
behave in such a manner. It is just possible that the individuals may behave entirely in a
reverse manner from what has been observed previously in particular social situations. Thus,
this psychology will not be a help in the formation of a better society and will not promote the
better understanding among the different people.
The above objections though they look to be quite forceful are not correct. Social psychology
has today gained much importance as an experimental science. It studies the social behaviour
in man different situations. Such knowledge will always be helpful in understanding human
nature and human behaviour in society. This may not help perfectly in predicting social
behaviour of individuals in a given situation. But it will definitely point out those directions in
which we can expect the individuals to behave. The study of social psychology will throw light
on prejudices and this knowledge will help us in attaining better relations in society.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Social psychology is a science in the sense that it makes the general assumptions and
adopts the same methods as other empirical sciences make and adopt." Every science has its
major goal as understanding. Social psychology also rays emphasis on understanding. It is true
that when there will be proper understanding then an effective control can be applied Also when

29. 29
there will be an accuracy in prediction there will be an effective check on understanding. Thus
the three main ideals before a scientist are understanding, prediction and control. In the study
of social psychology all these three ideals are applicable. Here to explain what we mean by the
above statement will give one example from an empirical science and one from social
psychology.
Let us take an example from the empirical science namely physics A physicist through
experiments know that when electric current is passed through a narrow wire it is heated up
due to resistance. This understanding of the heating effect of the current on the basis of many
experiments enables him to predict that on any future occasion the electric current will, pass
through a thin wire, it will be heated up. His understanding of the situation, in which the wire
will be heated up to the red-hot position or white-hot position enable him to control the
conditions in which the wire can be heated up to a particular limit. Thus, the understanding of
the heating effect ‘of the current, the control of condition, in which the wire will be heated up to
the white-hot position, and -his ability to predict the limit to which the wire will be heated up in
the particular circumstances has led him to invent the electric bulb. This process of invention
we clearly put in the category of-science.
Now, taking an example from social psychology, we can say that this subject also makes
an effort to adopt the above-mentioned processes of a typical scientific study in order to make
the discoveries regarding the behaviour of the individual in society. A social psychologist
observes that on the roadside a crowd has been formed. He tries to understand why, the crowd
has been formed and how the individuals behave in it. His understanding will help him in the
prediction of the formation of the crowds on the future occasions and this understanding will
also help him to have a control over the conditions which go to form a crowd. Hence, the social
psychologist discovers the behaviour of the individuals in a crowd by adopting, the method of
scientific invention.
However, it must be remembered that unless and until there is a proper understanding,
the control and prediction are not possible. Everyone of u must have seen an electric bulb, but

30. 30
unless we understand clearly how the wire is heated up, we can never be able to predict that in
what conditions the heating up of the wire at future occasions will, take place nor will we be
able to control the conditions so that the wire may be heated up to the white hot position to
give the light. Similarly, when a politician, who does not understand the masses at all, tries to
control the situations of mass behaviour and makes an effort to predict the behaviour of the
public he will fail in his efforts. He may control and predict correctly at one or the other time but
without understanding his knowledge of social psychology will be just like that of a labourer
who works in an electric bulb factory. The main reason for the failure of the politician will be
that his scientific understanding of behaviour will- be very nearer. Hence, we have no,
inhibitions in saying that the study of social psychology can only be successful, in those cases
where it applies the scientific methods in making its discoveries.
Though social psychology is a science yet it is different from the natural sciences.
According to the opinion of Seligman: "that from the very beginning the sciences are divided in
those which deals with the phenomena of physical nature and those sciences which deal with
the phenomena of mind.” This means that the natural sciences are concerned with the physical
nature and the mental or cultural sciences deal with the mental aspects of the man. Thus, the
internal processes of the man which are controlled and initiated by the mind come under the
head of mental sciences. The mental sciences can also be divided into two. The first type of
sciences are those which the study of man in isolation from his companions and the e of
sciences are those, which study man in- his relationship with a group or a society. The second
type of sciences are known as social sciences. Seligman defines social sciences “as those
mental or cultural sciences which deal with the activities of individuals as a member of a
group.” Among all the social sciences only social psychology is such a science which deals
primarily with the whole individual. Social sciences like Economics Political ‘Science, Sociology
etc., make a study, of the structure and function of social organisations. They also study the
institutional behaviour which is displayed by the people when they are within the confines and

31. 31
forms of specific institutions Krech and Crutchfield say that “Social Psychology on the other
hand, is concerned with every aspect of the individual’s behaviour in’ society.”
Today, there is no denying of the fact that social psychology is a science because now it is
based on experimental findings. Today, a social psychologist does not form his opinion on mere
assumptions. He does not believe in anything unless it is tested on the anvil of a number of
investigations. For example, to explain why a leader can would crowd in any way he likes, a
social Psychologist will not his merely on one of his observations. He will study the phenomena
in a number of similar situations. Then he will form hypothesis. He will further test this
hypothesis by analysing it on the bases of the data which will be collected by social survey,
When he the hypothesis to be true in the light of the, data collected he the hypothesis as
proper, This method by which the subject-matter of the social Psychology is collected is the
same as is employed a natural scientist to discover and invent.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
We can understand the problems of social psychology in a much better manner if we
understand its relationship with the other social sciences.
Social Psychology and General Psychology
The social psychology is quite intimately related with the general psychology. General
psychology makes a study of the individual behaviour. It studies the individual without making
any reference to the social environment. On the other hand, social psychology studies the social
behaviour of the individual. But it is perfectly clear that individual behaviour in the society
cannot be studied unless and -- thorough study of the individual’s behaviour in general is made
and so also general behaviour has no meaning unless and until it is study in social context.
Thus, we can say the psychology is not very much different from the general psychology.
We can very easily establish the dependence of one psychology upon the other by taking
into consideration the following points—
. The social psychology has its main purpose the “establishment of universal laws of the social
behaviour of the individual.” This can be achieved only if we can make a study of the

32. 32
individual’s general behaviour in social situation. We must know how from birth to death the
individual’s processes of socialisation progress. We have to find out how he gets sense-stimuli
from his social environment, ho perceives environment and how he reacts to it. The process
sensation, perception, motivation are to be clearly understood understanding the above things.
These processes naturally form of subject-matter of the general psychology. Thus without the
knowledge of general psychology, the knowledge of social psychology cannot be attained.
. Secondly, the identity between general psychology and social psychology is on account of the
fact that both must make a study of the behaviour of an individual as a social being. We cannot
make study of the behaviour of an individual without taking into consider the social setting in
which he is placed. When we study how the is getting perceptions, using intelligence learning
an- activity exploring a new situation, we are actually studying the individuals the situations in
which he is or will be or has been influenced b social surroundings. Thus the study of behaviour
of the man in isolation is not possible. Whether we are studying his behaviour in the light social
psychology or in the light of general psychology, we are study him as a social being. Thus, the
two psychologies look to be more less identical.
. We have defined social psychology as the scientific study the individual's behaviour in the social
situation or the social field our study of general psychology, we do not refer to the social
situation at all. But if we will look deeply into the meaning of the social field, we will find that
for all practical purposes the individual will always be confronted with the social situation or he
will always be in some social arena. For all practical purposes there is no distinction between
social and non-social fields. Whatever is the situation it is in some way social. For example,
even when you are alone and doing something you are aware of the fact that there are others
around you. Even when you have no relations or friends and you are perfectly alone in the
world the satisfaction of your bare needs of subsistence influence the others and also you
socially. Thus, to think of a situation which is entirely devoid of all the social elements may be
theoretically possible but is not prctica1ly feasible. This clearly shows that the fields of social
and general psychology overlap each other.

33. 33
. Social Psychology and Sociology
Social psychology has also very intimate relationship with sociology. Sociology makes a study
of the group. This subject makes a scientific study of social organisation and group behaviour as
distinct from the behaviour of the individuals in the group. It studies how the groups are
organized and what are their structures. Thus, it is more or less concerned with the study of the
group in its various aspects. The social psychology also makes study of the groups with respect
to the behaviour of the individuals in them. Thus, both the sciences study the group but from
different angles. However, it can be said with full confidence that social psychology cannot be
studied properly unless until it fries to understand the organisation and structure of the group
etc. that is, unless it seeks the aid of sociology. On the other hand, the formation of groups,
their developments, the discipline it imposes on its members and demands for compliance it
makes can be understood unless the behaviour of the individuals in group is studied that is the
help of social psychology is sought. We may clarify the point which we have just now made
regarding the dependence of both the sciences on each other by referring to the following
points—
. A sociologist studies how the societies are formed, what type of structure these societies have,
how these societies form larger wholes or larger societies or smaller units or smaller societies.
For example, the sociologist will make a study of the urban or rural society of their composition:
and the patterns of behaviour of the members of the society. The social psychologist also
studies the human nature and behaviour in these type of societies. Thus, there is not a very
great difference between these sciences. It is clear that a social psychologist will not be able to
understand the human nature and behaviour unless he studies the structure, organisation and
culture of societies.
. When any social science after studying the problems of societies proceeds further then it
becomes sociology. In sociology, all those aspects of individual’s behaviour are studied which
create problems for the group. In social psychology, the individual behaviour is studied as it is
depicted in group. Thus, we may clearly see that there is a clear overlapping between the

34. 34
subject-matter of psychology and sociology. This overlapping is sometimes so much in quantity
that we consider social psychology and sociology as two aspects of one science. But here we
must note that both the sciences overlap to a certain limit only. Beyond that limit both the
sciences begin to differ from each other. The sociology studies the individual to the limit that it
helps in the understanding of the society. In the field of social psychology, we study, all the
aspects of behaviour of the individual in society. We are not much concerned in the study of
social psychology with a direct understanding of the nature, structure, functions, objectives etc.
bf various social groups. Thus, more or less the viewpoint of sociology is social, while that of
social psychology is individualistic.
The sociology is also related to social psychology in another way. The sociology after making a
study of social groups tries to understand the different type of social behviours of- different
individuals in same, or different groups. But this then becomes the problem of social
psychology. The internal reasons of the individual behaviour in society are studied by social
psychology.
. Social Psychology and Cultural Anthropology
The social psychology is also quite closely related with anthropology. According to Wissler, the
psychology studies the behaviour of the individual while cultural anthropology studies group
behaviour. According to this view it may be said that tultural anthropology is not concerned
with the individuals. But sometimes, it so happens that cultural anthropology has also to make
a study of individuals and then this study becomes a part of general psychology. Many studies
which have been conducted for the investigations in different pattern of cultures have also
contributed to the development of social psychology. In this connection, we may mention the
studies conducted by Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, etc. In these studies man primitive
cultures were thoroughly studied. The details of the folk ways, moral notions, customs, family
relationship, ways of educating young children, religious beliefs, ideals, values etc. were
thoroughly enquired into. On the basis of these investigations, it has been established that the
human motives, leaving only a few like hunger thirst, sex, protection etc. are different in

35. 35
different cultures. Thus, from anthropological studies our attention is directed towards many of
those problems which the social psychology has to face.
The cultural anthropology when it makes a study of different cultures clearly informs us that
human beings differ in their outlooks in different cultures. For example, the values and ideals
which one considers precious in Hindu culture and which motivate most of the actions of a
Hindu may not at all appeal to’ a Muslim or Christian individual. Hindus consider widow
remarriage as sin and widows are usually looked down upon while in other cultures widow
remarriages are accepted as a matter of fact and so the people of those cultures are motivated
in a different way in their relations with widows than the Hindus. All these details of motivating
forces in varying cultures e get through the study of cultural we get through the study of
culture anthropology and when we extend this understanding further to the understanding of
the individual bahviour as a whole in different cultures we easily enter from the field of cultural
anthropology to the field of social psychology.
. Biology, Physiology and Social Psychology
Biology and Physiology are also related to Social Psychology. Biology studies heredity It
also tells us how an organism develops from a tiny embryo to a full grown up individual. It
gives us the details of the beginning of life. In this way it is more of less concerned with the
individual in the process of his development but it is to be remembered that as soon as the
conception takes a child is in the making his social environment is ready made around him. 0n
the other hand, as soon the conception takes place the purely biological phenomena begins of
effect the social life of the parents. The parents begin to prepare themselves to receive the child
in the world It may also be noted that the pregnant mother is given extra care by the other
members in her xial group She all the time feels that something new is going to open to her
and this feeling definitely affects her social behaviour it is in this respect that the study of
biology is linked with the study of social psychology.
After the birth of the child two forces govern his social behaviour the heredity and the
environment. The details of with what endowments the child is born are provided by the study

36. 36
of biology. On the other hand, his behaviour in the environment is studied by social psychology.
But the social behaviour in the environment is based to a great extent on the innate forces with
which the child is born.
Thus, to understand the basis, of the social behaviour of the child the study of biology is
also essential.
Just as the biology is, important in the understanding of the sod behaviour of the
individual so also is physiology. The famous physioIog Bard has come to the conclusion that
emotional activity is mediated Hypothalamus. Similar are the conclusions of many other
physiologist who have tried to search out the physiological reasons of emotions. The emotions
govern to a great extent the behaviour of the individuals in the society. Thus, social psychology
in its study will have to understand the physiology of emotions etc. Arid then only it will be in a
position understand the individual behaviour.
. Social Psychology and Abnormal Psychology
The social psychology depends to a very great extent on abnormal psychology for
understanding the abnormal or anti-social behaviour individuals. The abnormal behaviour of the
individual, many a times, is a consequence of brain injury, alcoholism, syphilis and diseases
Thus, if one individual behaves in an abnormal or anti-social manner then the real cause of his
such behaviour can be found with the help of abnormal psychology. .
The study of social psychology is also helpful in the ‘study d abnormal psychology. Many
of the abnormalities of the behaviour mal have social origin. They may be ‘dependent on the
culture which prevalent in the society of which the individual is a member’. For example, in a
culture ridden with wealth phobia the neurotics will be found to be suffering from over ambition
towards the money. In a culture where celibacy is overemphasised ‘the individual might be
found to be suffering from sex-phobia.
. Social Psychology and Ethics
Ethics is a normative science. It is a science which deals with the order and control of the
individual behaviour. Psychology is on the other hand, a science which studies the behaviour as

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it is. The ethics forms the norms pertaining to good or bad behaviour. How these norms affect
the individual behaviour in society is the subject-matter of social psychology Thus, we can
clearly see the dependence of one on the other.
The ethical norms are formed in relation to the society. The different societies have
different codes of conduct or norms. of behaviour. The social organisation, customs and
traditions etc. of a society influence they formation of norms in that society; How these norms
are formed and how the individual behaves in the light of these norms in social situations are
the problems of social psychology. On the other hand, the prob1ems of ethics are pertaining to
the prevalence of different types of norms in different societies.
7. Social Psychology and Economics
Economics deals with earning and spending of money. This science makes a study of
productivity, trade, distribution of money etc. All e subject-matters of Economics, are
dependent on the co-operation of the people. The productivity, the trade, the home economics,
the expenditure, the currency, the inflation and the deflation are all dependent on the
individual’s behaviour. When men labour hard and work in co-operation then the productivity is
higher, on the other productivity diminishes when there is discontent. If you do not pay
attention to the individuals then all the laws of economics are of no value. As a matter of fact,
laws of economics are framed with reference to the individual’s living in the society. The social
psychology also deals with the individual’s living in the society. Thus, each of these sciences
influence each other.
If we look deeply into the economic principles we will find that the important one’s are
based on psychological principles. When will and Bentham propagated their economic policy of
individualism then its, basis was the famous psychological principle of Hedonism. Hedonism
tells us that man always makes an effort to get pleasure d’ he always, tries to avoid pain. This
principle is also applicable in economics. Man follows those aspects of individual economics
which him maximum pleasure and try to avoid those which give him’-- Similarly, we can say
that Karl Marx has based his theory of Marxism on the psychological principle that man first of

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all tries to fill its stomach and whole of his life pattern is motivated by the. satisfaction of his
economic needs.
Many of the economic problems are also the problems of social psychology. For example,
if we want to know why there are strikes in he mills, why the sales of a particular thing are low,
how the advertisement can be effective, how the labour can be satisfied, how he things can be
stopped from becoming dear, we will have to understand the group behaviour of the individuals
and the nature and he aspiration of those individuals who are responsible for creating these
problems.
In many respects the understanding of many problems of social psychology is facilitated
by studying the economic conditions of the people and the economic principles applicable in the
group. For example, it is a common law of economics that if there is employment and poverty
in any society the crimes will increase in it. Now if a social psychologist finds in a group an
increase in crime he will first of all make a study of economic conditions of the member of that
group. Most often find that the abnormal behaviour of the criminal behaviour of the individuals
is a direct result of the economic conditions Hence, we can very easily say that soon psychology
and economics are interrelated.
8. Social Psychology and Political Science
Political science is mainly concerned with the Administration and Government of different
nations. It studies the constitutions of countries. It probes into the nature of the Government. It
deals with the rights and duties of the citizens. But the constitutions are n the people the
governments are run by individuals and the right duties. are taken into consideration with
respect to the people a particular nation. This clearly shows that the study of the nature is of
great importance in understanding political, science. means that the social psychology is of
great help in understand political, principles.
Many of the problems of social psychology and political science are common. For example,
both of these sciences study how the opinions are formed how the electorate is guided by

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propagate what are the traits, of leadership, how the group leaders control. Emotions and
passions of the people how the group mind is fon and why the wars are fought.
However it must be remembered that these sciences also d from one another in many
respects The political science studies those group ‘activities which deal with, the formation of
laws organisation of Government while the social psychology studies aspect of the individual
behaviour in the society. The social psycho is much more concerned with the mental processes
and in conditions. The political science is concerned with the’ ext obedience of ‘these laws of a
group ‘or nation by the members of’ group or nation. The political laws may be many a times in
op - to the public opinion. In such conditions social psychology will light on the law-breaking
behaviour of the individuals. The pc science will merely refer that the laws are against public
opink will not try to answer these questions’: why the people do no them ? What are the bases
on which they are opposed by the p and similar other question. These questions will .be
answered by psychology.
9. Social Psychology, Radio Technology, Press and Films
Today radio, film and press play important roles in inculcate social virtues ideals among
the people. Trough the Broad people are kept informed. They get news from whole of the world.
They get the information about the government's achievements and failure. They, hear
different points of views and are guided in the nation of their opinion. The radio, in fact, serves
the purpose of bringing people together even though there is no face to face contact it is a
powerful force of bringing cohesion and integration in the society.
As the radio is important in bringing the people together, so also are the press and the
films. Through the press, the public opinions helped to be formed. The people at the different
places read the newspapers and thus are guided by the opinions expressed in papers they have
read. Thus, they form a public opinion based the views expressed in the press.
The films depict various types of social ‘living. In them the social of the people is shown.
The defects of society are pointedly brought the notice of the people and ‘public opinion is
formed against them example, films depicting the evil effect of dowry help in developing hatred

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in the people against dowry system. Thus the films, press and help in the formation of public
opinions and are handy tools of propaganda of any sort. They are the media of social
intercourse in society and in fact they, are related to social psychology in that they are
convenient for making the society better in controlling the individual behaviour.
10. Social Psychology, Television and other Electronic Media
The electronic revolution of late twentieth century has thrown a very serious challenge to
the stability of various societies. Particular developing societies are finding it very difficult to
adhere to any particular value system or ideology. The advent of satellite telecasting and the
cable television has brought the good or the evil of various culture of the world inside the
homes of a large number of people in all the countries of the world. As may be evident the good
points of various cultures projected on the television screens have a beneficial effect on the
emergence of a new cultural pattern based on inter-culture transmissions but the evils are also
influencing the young generation of various nations resulting in a degenerative social order of
them.
The social psychology is concerned with the good-bad effects of across the nations. The
links between social psychology and ‘are very close. The social psychologists are conducting
investigations on the role of television and other electronic media in shaping the life style and
culture of people in different societies.
The internet, the web site and the E-Mail etc. have brought the people of the world closer.
There is now the explosion of information. In minutes one can get such a bulk of information for
which years were being spent earlier. This glut of information is effecting the social life of the
people. The impact is clearly in two directions:
(1) People are learning much about the politics economics and; psychology of other people
and are being influences by such learning in their individual or social life.
(2) People are now glued to the television sets or computers for hours together leaving for
themselves very little time for social interactions.

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Social psychology is now concerned with a scientific study of the extent, direction and
consequences of the impact of electronic media on the social development of the people.
METHODS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
In the development of social psychology, the psychologists have employed various
methods from time to time. Some of them are now no more used. There are some others which
have been perfected in recent times. In this chapter our aim is to throw light on all the
important methods of social psychology.
INTROSPECTION
Introspection is the oldest method for the collection of the data of social psychology. This
method is now no more considered as important as it was considered in the eighteenth century.
However, this method has not been totally discarded. In certain problems, the need of this
method of this method is still felt.
Introspection is Looking Within
During introspection, one concentrates his ideals towards his own inner mental processes.
He then makes a report on his own present and past experiences.
Introspection can be profitably in many situations dealing with social behavior. For
example, if an individual shows a particular type of attitude towards the people of a particular
group or class he may be asked to introspect and give a reply to the question: why does he
show such an attitude? Similarly, we can understand the psychology of fashion if we ask those
who invent fashion and those who follow them to introspect and to make a report as to what
prompts them to do so.
Introspection is also of great help in verifying the results of observation. If one observes
that the individuals show more activity when they are in a group then when they are alone he
can ask the subjects who are more active in a group to introspect and to answer the question
that what factors motivate them to be more active.
In experimental situation, introspection has its own place. After the performance of the
experiment the experimenter asks the subject to report what mental processes he has

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experienced during the experiment. The subject answers this question on the basis of
introspection. Thus, we cannot avoid introspection in the field of social psychology. The rating
scales and public opinion polls are based on introspection. In these techniques, the respondents
are asked to describe their private views.
Advantages of Introspection
Through introspection we can study those mental processes of individuals which are
peculiarly private to them and cannot be studied by any other method. For example, the
individuals hopes, wishes, attitudes etc. can be studied only through introspections.
Introspection is also of great use in supplementing the data collected by experimental
observations. It helps in the verification of the observed hypotheses made on the basis of
observations.
The introspection is of great value when one who is introspecting gives his replies
truthfully and whatever happens in his mind, reports correctly and without inhibitions.
Limitations of Introspection
Introspection also suffers from many limitations. We can put them as follows:
1. Introspection reports are quite often inaccurate, if the respondent is careless or
ignorant.
2. In controversial situations introspection is not very valid. In such situations and
also in complicated situations the introspectionist may not truthfully express his opinions and
may allow his subjective bias to weigh on heavily upon his judgment of the present situation.
3. From the primitives and young children who do not know language we cannot
obtain the reports of introspection.
4. Many a times the introspectionist’s consicious mind prompts him to distort the facts
and give a wrong report of introspection. The introspectionist himself does not understand his

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unconscious wishes desires and motivations and thus gives a report which he himself feels to be
true but in fact which does not tell clearly of his actual mental conditions.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
In second chapter we have explained that the nature of social psychology is scientific. It is
scientific because in its study the scientific methods are used.
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
The following are the characteristics of scientific method:
(1) The scientific method is based on determinism. It means that science assumes that
the nature is systematic and follow certain laws. The events are the result of certain causes.
They do not occur randomly without any reason.
(2) The scientific method follow empirical approach. It means that scientific method
involves the collection of data by following well defined techniques so that hypotheses are
accepted or rejected.
(3) In scientific method the operational definitions of those concepts are given which
are under study. These definitions are given in such a manner that the processes or the
techniques which are to be employed for investigation become explicit. For example, if we are
to study class discipline then we will define discipline in such a manner that the record or data
regarding class discipline can be easily obtained. We may define class discipline as “Obedience
to the teacher”. We can now enumerate the times the students obey the teacher and this type
of measurement will lead us to draw conclusions regarding class discipline.
(4) The scientific method is objective. It means that a number of observers or
experimenters reach to similar conclusions. The results or conclusions are not based on the
subjective opinion of any one observer.
Goals of Scientific Research
Five goals of scientific research can be identified. We are mentioning them in hierarchical
order as follows:

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1. Description:- It is the first stage of scientific method at which the information
regarding facts is obtained and classified.
2. Discovery of Relationship:- At this stage the relationship between social situations
and human behavior are discovered. For example the relationship between teacher and taught
in the classroom become the subject of inquiry.
3. Explanation or Understanding:- The scientists establish principles regarding
relationships. When these principle lead to the truthfulness of hypotheses then we are able to
find out the causes of those relationships. For example, when we hypothesize that caste
disparities lead to atrocities on Harijans then we test this hypothesis by studying the caste
discriminations.
4. Prediction of Events:- The scientific prediction can be of two types Empirical and
Rational. Empirical predictions are based on established relationships. For example, our
experience is that most of the members of minority community vote for the Congress then we
can predict that in future elections the Congress will get the majority of minorities’ votes.
The rational predictions are at a higher level. In this prediction causal theory is taken as the
basis of prediction. For example, we may find that the minorities are so far voting for the
Congress because this party is more concerned with their welfare hence we may predict that
because the minorities consider Congress party as that party which is concerned with their
welfare, therefore, minorities will vote for it in any future election.
5. Control or influence over Events:- An important goal of science is control. The man
reached the moon by controlling the fuel for Rocket Engines. In social psychology also the
control over the behavior of the individual can be obtained. For example, by applying
propaganda in the controlled manner we can bring changes in the attitudes of people.
THE OBSERVATION METHOD