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- 1. Research Methods Learning Objectives You will learn how psychological research is conducted You will learn about ethics in research You will learn the strengths and weaknesses of different research methods Scientific Method Theories and hypotheses Theories come from lots of data A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on a theory Theory: Fear is learned Hypothesis: Repeated pairings of a loud noise and a white rat will result in a fear response when the rat is presented alone Generate a hypothesis to test this theory Theory: Dysfunctional thoughts lead to dysfunctional behavior Hypothesis:?????? How we collect data Naturalistic observation
- 2. Sort of like spying No interference Provides qualitative and quantitative descriptions Relationship between hand-raising and grade in class? Demographics of a population Can’t draw causal inferences How we collect data Ethnography, or participant observer Qualitative descriptions Individual participates in a culture or group Can’t draw causal inferences Case Studies Interviews, clinical examples, usually one or two people Qualitative- cannot draw causal inferences Survey Research- Self Report Small sample represents a population How we collect data Psychophysiological data Skin conductance Blood pressure Heart rate Electroencephalogram (EEG)- electrical activity in the brain Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan- structure of brain Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- 3D image of brain and active areas Validity External Can we generalize outside of our sample? Are measures of anxiety similar to other measures Internal
- 3. Are we measuring the thing we think we are measuring? Do all these questions relate to anxiety? Discriminant Are our measurements inconsistent with measures of different things? Is our measure of anxiety different from measures of depression Reliability Reliability- Does it always measure the same thing? Test-Retest Reliability Is this measure consistent over time? Is it supposed to be? Two major types of research Correlational Research Examines relationships between factors (-1 to +1) Ask only if the relationship exists CORRELATION DOES NOT INDICATE CAUSATION Experimental Situations controlled carefully Uncovers causal relationships by isolating variables Correlations
- 4. Correlations Used in psychometrics- evaluating psychological measures Validity and Reliability are evaluated with correlations Correlations Useful in telling us how to do an experiment, especially when the correlation is surprising Experiments Experiments Involve two or more controlled conditions, comparing the outcomes Control /comparison group- default, not exposed to variable being studied Experimental/ criterion group- control + new variable Different outcome = New Variable is responsible Variables Independent (IV)- manipulated Dependent (DV)- measured, how you know stuff happened Random Assignment To make sure experimental and control groups are the same before the experiment, participants are randomly assigned to groups Balances out individual differences
- 5. Can you think of a situation in which random assignment wouldn’t work? Lets make an experiment Question: We’ve noticed a correlation in children between eating vegetables and test scores (.75 ) Hypothesis? IV (what’s manipulated):? DV (what’s measured):? Control Group:? Experimental Group;? HEY THIS MIGHT BE A GOOD QUIZ QUESTION The Where and How Field Study Less controlled More representative Laboratory study More controlled Less representative The where and how Longitudinal Studies- take place over a long period of time, repeated measures Everyone starts at the same point Cross-sectional- faster than longitudinal, compares across age groups Everyone tested at present, but categorized by age Sequential- Combo of the two, participants start at different ages, followed over time
- 6. You try Identifying A study that follows students from 1st to 12th grade? A study started in 2005 that follows Vietnam, Iraq and Afghanistan veterans over 20 years. A study that asks freshman, sophomores, juniors, and seniors about voting behavior? A study that follows 2016 graduates for 10 years Ethics Protect participants from physical and psychological harm Obtain informed consent from participants before their involvement in the study Deception must be justified and cause no harm Participant’s information must be kept private Prenatal Development Learning Objectives You will learn about how we inherit genes You will learn about the combined influence of environment and genetics on development You will learn the stages of prenatal development You will learn about common teratogens Building Blocks Gametes- reproductive cells (sperm and ovum) Zygotes- fertilized ovum (genetic material of both gametes)
- 7. Building Blocks Genes- 25,000 of them, our code Dna (deoxyribonucleic acid)- makes up genes, huge molecules 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs Gametes hold one chromosome from each pair (23 in each) Zygote has a unique set of 46 chromosomes Twins Monozygotic Dizygotic Twins Monozygotic- one zygote, identical twins Dizygotic- Two zygotes, Fraternal Twins Triplets and quadruplets can be a combination of mono and dizygotic How do you get your sex? In pair #23 Chromosomes are not always the same Xx- female Xy- male Each ova carries an x, each sperm carries an x or y How do you get everything else? Lets talk about gregor mendel and his Peas
- 8. Green Peas and yellow Peas GG+YY = yG and GY- seemed like G trait disappeared YG +YG= YY, YG, GY, and GG- ¼ were green What’s the deal greg? The gene for yellow peas was dominant The gene fore green peas was recessive Phenotype- what you see Genotype- what your genetic material contains Homozygous- when both inherited genes are the same Heterozygous- when one gene is dominant, one recessive Common genetic disorders Down Syndrome- extra chromosome on 21st pair Most common cause of mental retardation Fragile X Syndrome- caused by injured gene on x chromosome Results in mild to moderate MR Sickle-Cell Anemia- blood disorder common in people of African descent (also provides resistance to malaria) Results in poor apetite, stunted growth, yellowish eyes, swollen stomach Severe cases result in death in childhood Common genetic disorders Tay-sachs disease- causes blindness and muscle degeneration, leads to death in childhood Most common among those of eastern European Jewish descent and French Canadians Klinefelter’s syndrome- XXY males, underdeveloped genitals, very tall, large breasts
- 9. Heredity and environment We inherit characteristics, but our parents also have those characteristics, so in a way, our genes influence our environment Multifactorial transmission- both genetic and environmental factors determine a trait Why can’t my family stop eating pasta? Appearance and predisposition for diseases from parents Pick up on behavior patterns from caregivers So we are all socialized to eat all the time Culture of carbs Everyone has diabetes, high blood pressure, bad cholesterol, etc. Intelligence There is a genetic link Identical twins score more similar than fraternal twins There is an environmental link twins raised together score more similar than twins raised apart Identical twins raised apart still score more similar than siblings raised together I’m going to stop harping on this point Look in your book for lots of examples of environment + genetics Stages of prenatal development How to make a zygote Step 1: sperm enters vagina Step 2: sperm pass through cervix into the uterus Step 3: sperm meets ovum in fallopian tube
- 10. Step 4: fertilization- one sperm enters the ovum Germinal stage Fertilization – 2 weeks Zygote divides rapidly and travels to the uterus Now we call it a blastocyst It implants into the uterine wall Cells begin to specialize Embryonic stage 2 weeks – 8 weeks Firmly attached to wall- embryo Ectoderm- outer layer that will become hair and skin, teeth, nerves, brain, spinal cord Mesoderm- middle layer that will become muscles, bones, blood, veins, arteries, hearth Endoderm- inner layer which will become the digestive system, liver, pancreas, respiratory system Head and brain rapidly growing Fetal stage 8 weeks – birth Sexual differentiation begins Starts when major organs are differentiated Limbs fully develop, kicking starts ~6 months Brain divides into hemispheres- they can hear, sleep Rapid changes, grows from 1 inch to a full sized baby Teratogens External agents (e.g. drugs, chemicals, viruses, etc.) that
- 11. produce birth defects Placenta can’t keep everything out Remember critical periods/sensitive periods? Teratogens Diet- more varied diet=less complications Avoid- fish high in mercury, raw Meat and fish, Raw Egg, soft cheese and unpasteurized dairy, Caffeine, herbal tea, alcohol, unwashed fruits and vegetables Drug Teratogens Cigarettes- risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, low weight, premature birth, cleft palate, SIDS, can be multigenerational Accutane- risk for hydrocephalus, brain defects, MR, ear/face/heart/limb abnormalities, skin lesions, miscarriage Tetracycline and Doxycycline- yellow teeth and weak bones Drug Teratogens Antidepressants- risk of learning difficulties, maybe withdrawal symptoms, irritability, benefits to mother may outweigh risks Cocaine- risk of miscarriage, premature birth, detachment of placenta, low birth weight, brain damage, head and limb abnormalities, gastro-urinary abnormalities, heart defects, withdrawal in infancy Other risks and complications Age- risks increase with age for miscarriage, down syndrome, ectopic pregnancy,
- 12. Prenatal care/health- stress, poor care increase risks Rubella, chicken pox, mumps- cause birth defects Syphilis and gonorrhea can be transmitted to fetus Aids can be passed to children if AZT isn’t taken Other risks and complications Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)- below-average intelligence/MR, growth delays, facial deformities, due to alcohol use during pregnancy Father’s smoking during pregnancy and drug use before conception can impact health of the fetus, same with teratogens like mercury, lead, which bind to sperm Mother’s stress as a result of father’s behavior LA 255-Life Span Psychology What are we talking about? Lifespan development is a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life In what ways do we develop? What are we talking about? Lifespan development is a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life In what ways do we develop? Physical
- 13. What are we talking about? Lifespan development is a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life In what ways do we develop? Physical Cognitive What are we talking about? Lifespan development is a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life In what ways do we develop? Physical Cognitive Social What are we talking about? Lifespan development is a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life In what ways do we develop? Physical Cognitive Social Personality The SCIENTIFIC part Scientific Method?
- 14. Scientific Method Question Preliminary Research Hypothesis Test Hypothesis Analyze Developmental Ranges Prenatal- before birth Infancy and Toddlerhood- 0 to 3 years Preschool- 3 to 6 years Middle Childhood- 6 to 12 Adolescence- 12 to 20 Young adulthood- 20 to 40 Middle Adulthood- 40 to 65 Late Adulthood- 65 to death Developmental Ranges Prenatal- before birth Infancy and Toddlerhood- 0 to 3 years Preschool- 3 to 6 years Middle Childhood- 6 to 12 Adolescence- 12 to 20 Young adulthood- 20 to 40
- 15. Middle Adulthood- 40 to 65 Late Adulthood- 65 to death Some stages are marked by a biological event, like puberty, some are social constructions Cohort People born around the same time and place Similar influences on their development Historical events Age Sociocultural factors (class, ethnicity, subculture) Non-normative life events Question for the class What are some cohort effects on your life? Unique effects on your generation Change Over Time Continuous Gradual over time Same behaviors in each stage, different abilities Discontinuous Change occurs in stages Behaviors are different in each stage Critical and Sensitive Periods Critical Period- a time during development when a particular
- 16. event has a severe consequence Sensitive Period- a time when an organism is particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in the environment The optimal period for particular capacities to emerge Hippocrates and his humors Imbalance of humors (bodily fluids) leads to dysfunctional behavior Blood- upbeat, positive Phlegm- apathy Yellow Bile- aggression, irritability Black Bile- melancholy, sadness Nature v Nurture It’s not a debate anymore your textbook is a liar It’s both Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Psychodynamic Freud Erikson Behavioral Watson Skinner Cognitive Piaget Humanistic Rogers Maslow Contextual Bronfenbrenner
- 17. Vygotsky Evolutionary Darwin Sigmund Freud Inner forces, intrapsychic events, guide motivation and behavior Id Pleasure Principle Ego Reality principle Superego Conscience Freud’s Psychosexual Development Oral 0 to 12 months Oral 0 to 12 months Anal 12 to 18 months-3 years Freud’s Psychosexual Development Oral 0 to 12 months Anal 12 to 18 months-3 years Phallic 3 to 5 or 6 years Freud’s Psychosexual Development
- 18. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Oral 0 to 12 months Anal 12 to 18 months-3 years Phallic 3 to 5 or 6 years Latent 6 to adolescence Freud’s Psychosexual Development Oral 0 to 12 months Anal 12 to 18 months-3 years Phallic 3 to 5 or 6 years Latent 6 to adolescence Genital Adolescence to adulthood Erik Erikson Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority
- 19. Identity vs. Role confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Trust vs. Mistrust 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-6 years 6-11 years Adolescence Young adulthood Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood Behavioral Perspective Classical Conditioning- John Watson Operant Conditioning- B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Rewards and Punishments Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Operant Conditioning
- 20. Positive = add something Negative = take something away Reinforcement = increases chances behavior will be repeated Punishment = decreases the chances behavior will be repeated Social-Cognitive Learning Theory Albert Bandura Observe behavior of another Recall behavior accurately Mimic behavior accurately Must be motivated for the reward Cognitive Perspective Jean Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development Schemas Assimilation vs. Accommodation Stages Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs) Preoperational (2-7 yrs) Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) Formal Operational (Adolescence – Adulthood) Humanistic Perspective People are in control of their lives and decision making process Emphasis on Free Will Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers
- 21. Unconditional Positive Regard- we need it Self-worth is dependent on how others treat us Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs Contextual Perspective Individuals don’t exist in a vacuum Urie Bronfenbrenner Lev Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model Vygotsky Theory of Sociocultural Development Evolutionary Perspective Darwin’s Origin of Species We develop for survival