Genetic and Environmental FoundationsChapter 2.docx

Genetic and Environmental Foundations
Chapter 2
Where do we start? What is inherited from our parents and
their ancestors and what role does environment contribute?
These are but a few of the questions that this chapter will
explore.
1
Heredity
DNA
Chromosomes
Genes
Meiosis
Mitosis
Heredity defines one’s nature – which based on the biological
transmission of traits and characteristics from one generation to
another. The structures we inherit both make our behaviors
possible and places limits on them.

Genetic (inherited) influences are fundamental in the
transmission of physical traits, such as height, hair texture, and
eye color. Genetics also appears to be a factor in intelligence
and in the origins of personality traits such as activity level,
sociability, shyness, fearfulness etc. Genetic influences are
also implicated in psychological problems and disorders such as
anxiety and depression, dependence on nicotine and alcohol etc.
Chromosomes and genes – rod shaped structures found in cells.
A normal human cell contains 46 chromosomes organized into
23 pairs. Each chromosome contains thousands of segments
called genes. Genes carry the biochemical materials that
regulate the development of traits. Polygenic – some traits are
determined by the combination of pairs of genes.
We begin life as a single cell or zygote. There are 2 types of
cell division.
Mitosis – cell division process by which growth occurs and
tissues are replaced. Through mitosis, genetic code is carried
into new cells in our bodies.
Sperm and ova are produced through meiosis, or reduction
division. In meiosis the 46 chromosomes within the cell first
line up into 23 pairs. The DNA ladders then unzip, leaving
unpaired chromosome halves. As a consequence each new cell
only contains 23 chromosomes.
2
Fertilization
Union of egg and sperm
Zygote

Union of egg and sperm - please note sperm with y sex
chromosomes seem to swim faster then x one of the reason more
boys are conceived then girls. Male fetuses suffer higher rate
of spontaneous abortion usually during the first month of
pregnancy. Boys also higher rate of infant mortality
The resulting fertilized egg is called a zygote.
3
Male or Female
Autosomes
Twenty-third pair (sex chromosomes)
XX
XY
When a sperm cell fertilizes an ovum we receive 23 from each
which combine for the 23 pairs. Twenty-two of the pairs are
autosomes – pair that look alike and possess genetic information
concerning the same set of traits.
The 23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes which look
different and determine our sex. Males are XY and females are

XX
4
Multiple Births
How they occur
Dizygotic twins
Monozygotic twins
Monozygotic or identical twins – one egg fertilized and then the
zygote divides into 2.
Dizygotic twins – two eggs fertilized by different sperm.
MZ twins occur with equal frequency in all ethnic groups – but
for DZ incidence does vary. European Americans 1in 90
chance; African American 1 in 70 and Asian American 1 in 150.
DZ twins run in families if a woman is a twin, if her mother was
a twin or if she has previously borne twin chances rise. Also
women who have borne several children have an increased
likelihood. Also increases with age – as ovulation becomes less
regular will release more then one ovum. Also fertility drugs
increases likelihood.

5
Patterns of Genetic Inheritance
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Dominant vs. Recessive Inheritance
Modifier genes
Polygenic Inheritance
Phenotype vs. Genotype
Genomic Imprinting
Mutation
Homozygous – two forms of each gene occur at the same place
on the chromosome (one from mom and one from dad). Each
form is called an allele. If all alleles are the same the child is
homozygous.
Heterozygous – when alleles are not the same.
Dominant vs. recessive inheritance – when only 1 allele affect
development is it dominant. With heterozygous individuals
with one recessive allele they are know as carriers. Modifier
genes – enhance or dilute the effects of other genes. Also in
some heterozygous circumstances the dominant-recessive
relationship does not hold completely. Instead will have
incomplete dominance – a pattern of inheritance in which both
alleles are expressed in the phenotypes, resulting in a combined
trait or one that is intermediate between the two.
Polygenic Inheritance – recognize that many characteristics are
made up of a variety of genes
Phenotype is observable characteristics and genotype is the

actual genetic pattern
Genomic Imprinting – alleles are imprinted, or chemically
marked, in such a way that one pair member ( either the mom’s
or the dad’s) is activated regardless of its makeup.
Mutation – is a sudden but permanent change in a segment of
DNA. Some occur spontaneously by chance and others are
caused by hazardous environmental agents.
6
Dominant vs. Recessive Diseases
Ex. PKU (Autosomal)
X-linked inheritance (X-chromosome)
hemophilia
Autosomal- caused by genes locates on the autosomes (PKU).
PKU – recessive gene – can not metabolize an amino acid call
phenylaline. As a consequence builds up in system and impairs
the functioning of the CNS. Results can be mental retardation,
psychological disorders, and physical problems. Can be
controlled with diet (devoid of meat, poultry, fish, dairy, beans
and nuts) Stay on diet at least until teen years.
Others may be sex-linked located on the 23rd pair (Hemophilia
– a blood clotting disorder)
7

Chromosomal Abnormalities
Ex. Down Syndrome
People normally have 46 but sometimes may have more or
fewer. Children with more or fewer experience health problems
or behavioral abnormalities. Risk rises with age of parents.
Common – Down’s Syndrome – extra chromosome on the 21st
pair. Have characteristic facial features. Shows deficits in
cognitive development, encounter frequent disorders of the ear,
nose, and throat, which also contribute to academic problems.
8
Prenatal Diagnosis
Amniocentesis
Ultrasound
See page 64
Please read on your own about prenatal diagnostic procedures.
9

Environmental Contexts
Family
Direct vs. Indirect influences
Socioeconomic Status
Affluence vs. Poverty
Neighborhoods
Schools
Culture
Public Policy
Family – isolation or alienation from the family is often
associated with developmental problems.
Direct vs. Indirect influences – one to one interactions vs. third
party interactions. Third parties can serve as support for or
barriers to development. Example of indirect (and also a
potential barrier) is marital conflict.
SES has 3 related variables – years of education, prestige of
one’s job and the skill it requires and income. SES is linked to
timing of parenthood and to family size. Example people in
professional fields tend to marry later and have fewer children.
Also parents in higher SES talk to, read to and tend to stimulate
their infants and toddlers more. Education also contributes to
this!
Affluence – may see too often fail to engage in family
interaction and parenting that promotes favorable development.
Poverty – children of poverty more likely to suffer from
lifelong poor physical health, persistent deficits in cognitive
development and academic achievement, high school dropout,
mental illness, impulsivity, aggression, and antisocial behavior.
Neighborhoods offer resources and social ties. With regard to

social support – neighborhoods can provide access to valuable
information and services, child-rearing controls and role
models.
Schools – formal institution designed to transmit knowledge and
skills that children need to become productive members of
society. Regular parent-school contact supports development at
all ages.
Culture – shapes family interactions, school experiences, and
community settings.
10
Heredity vs. Environment
Range of Reaction
Passive and Evocative Correlation
Active Correlation
Please read on own pages 82-88.
11
ENG122: Composition II
An Introduction to Argument
P a g e | 1

English 122: Composition II
Argument and Rhetoric
An argument can take many forms. It is, at its root, a method
for communicating a singular
position with evidence, logic, and persuasion. There are
essential elements to all valid
arguments, though they may take different forms.
1. Claim
2. Evidence
3. Counterargument
4. Rebuttal
A successful argument depends upon the delicate balance
between these elements. Imagine a teeter-totter at the
playground. The claim is the basis of the argument, much
like the base of the teeter-totter. A big opposing viewpoint,
called the counterargument, is constantly pushing down on
one side or the other. Balance can only be achieved by

providing enough evidence to support the claim along with
rebuttal of the counterargument.
Essentially, an argument depends on research (evidence) and
finding flaws in opposing
viewpoints (rebuttal). Each claim made in an argument needs
this support to be valid.
Any time you begin to write, you must analyze the rhetorical
situation. This means identifying
the writer (Ethos), Audience (Pathos), and Topic (Logos). These
three items form a triangle
that will frame your project. Let’s take each item and apply it to
an argument.
First, we will consider the writer. It seems obvious that you are
the writer. However, who are
you? Are you a student at a university or are you something
else? When writing academic
papers, try to set your other interests and behaviors aside and
write as a scholar. This will make
you a credible writer. Aristotle referred to the credibility
of a speaker or writer as ethos. Ethos is very important
when presenting an argument. To persuade readers to
agree with you, writing must be credible.

Next, let’s think about the audience. For most papers, the
audience will be Ashford University. How can you
appeal to this audience? University students, faculty, and
staff are educated, detail-oriented, smart, and play a big
role in your success at school. You must find a way to
reach this audience and impress them with your ability to
use shared values and culture to persuade the reader.
Aristotle used the term pathos to describe the humanistic appeal
to emotion and values of your
audience.
P a g e | 2
A research-based paper will rely heavily upon logos, Aristotle’s
term for an appeal to reason
and logic. An argument will also require attention to reason and
logic to be credible. A simple

formula for logos in an argument is claim + evidence = credible
argument. Other factors, such
as counterarguments and rebuttals, can also play a role in this
equation. All factors should be
analyzed in a logical manner to add credibility to an academic
argument.
Two common types of argument are Classic and Rogerian. How
do the four elements of an
argument fit into these two styles? How do the three points of
the rhetorical triangle fit into
each style?
Classic and Rogerian Arguments
Classic (Aristotelian) Argument
Classic or traditional argument is rooted in Greek philosophy
and rhetoric. Aristotle believed
that every valid argument contained a syllogism. At its roots, a
syllogism is nothing more than a
statement with evidence to support it. The key to understanding
how a syllogism works is the
ability to evaluate or generate proper evidence. In the classical

form, this evidence should work
to convince an audience of the author’s contentions in a fashion
that not only supports their
argument’s major claim, but rebuts all alternative arguments in
a way that is both logical and
decorous. Remember, it is crucial to win your audience over
with logic and credibility, but one
can only accomplish that feat by courting the audience with
rhetoric: “The art of using language
so as to persuade or influence others; the body of rules to be
observed by a speaker or writer in
order that he may express himself with eloquence” (Oxford
English Dictionary, 1910). The
structure below is a basic outline of how a classic argument is
constructed. The sections do not
represent paragraphs; they represent distinct segments of an
argumentative essay and, with the
exception of the introduction and thesis statement, the body of
an essay can be situated in any
fashion that is most effective at convincing a given audience.
Section One: Introduction and Thesis—Your introduction
should describe the rhetorical
situation and give a clear forecast of the material you will cover

in your essay. Your thesis
statement should make a clear, limited, descriptive assertion
and explain why your stance
matters. Example: Failure to pass the recent gun law is a bad
move for public safety because
inexperienced, mentally ill, and unethical people will continue
to have access to firearms.
Section Two: Present the position that you most agree with.
Then, give ample evidence to
support why you hold this view. (Do not use first-person. Use
third-person narrative).
Section Three: Present the position that you most disagree with.
Then, validate the perspective
with a circumstance or situation in which that viewpoint could
or might be correct.
Section Four: While remaining non-offensive in language and
style, provide a rebuttal of the
opposition’s stance by pointing out its fallacies or lack of logos
and ethos.
Section Five: Conclusion—Provide a sound but brief
explanation of your argument and further

direction for your reader.
P a g e | 3
Consensual (Rogerian) Argument
The consensual or Rogerian method is based on the notion that
many contentious issues,
subjects, problems, etc. can be solved by identifying the
“common ground” of all parties
involved and working together toward a common goal. Common
ground is the shared values,
concerns, and constraints of each party. There are no clear
winners or losers in this type of
argument style. The key is that both (or various) parties profit
in some defined fashion while
making concessions or changes that benefit the traditionally
labeled opposition. The structure
below is a basic outline of how a consensual (common ground)
argument is constructed. The

sections do not represent paragraphs; they represent distinct
segments of an argumentative essay
and, with the exception of the introduction and thesis statement,
the body of an essay can be
situated in any fashion that is most effective at convincing a
given audience.
Section One: Introduction and Thesis—Your introduction
should describe the rhetorical
situation and give the audience a clear forecast of the material
you will cover in your essay.
Your thesis statement should make a clear, limited, descriptive
assertion and explain why
your stance matters. However, you need to remember to argue
for a solution that is
acceptable to both perspectives. Your thesis should clearly state
a type of compromise. You
should then be able to expand on that compromise in Section
Three. Example: Though video
games often have positive educational value, children should
not be allowed to play video
games until they are 13 years old.
Section Two: Present the perspective that you disagree with the
most. Make sure you do so with

fair language, and fully develop the perspective from the
constraints in which the stance
might be most valid—i.e. no one is wrong all the time. In what
circumstance might this
perspective be the most correct to select?
Section Three: Present the most valid perspective using logic,
credibility, and ample evidence.
Your research should guide you in the creation of this section.
Section Four: Create common ground/ a Rogerian solution. This
section should convince your
audience that the opposing perspective will benefit from your
stance. The key here is not to
point out why the opposing perspective is faulty, but to explain
why your perspective serves
the greater good or is more logical in the given constraints and
how it benefits the opposing
perspective.
Conclusion: Provide a wrap up and continuation of your
Rogerian solution. It should also
include direction for your audience (i.e., no subject can be
completely solved). Therefore,

you should work toward plausible solutions rather than absolute
remedies.
1
Running head: FLAG BURNING
To Burn or Not to Burn:
Should Flag Burning be Legal?
Ashford Student
ENG 122
Dr. St. Clare
August 17, 2010

2
FLAG BURNING
To Burn or Not to Burn:
Should Flag Burning be Legal?
Freedom of speech and expression is a right given to all
Americans in the First
Amendment of the Constitution. It is a difficult concept to
embrace when individuals are faced
with ideas they oppose. In this kind of situation, the protection
guaranteed to American citizens
becomes even more important. The First Amendment was
designed not only to protect the
freedom to express ideas and sentiments with which one agrees
but also the ideas and sentiments
with which one disagrees. It is for precisely this reason that the
government should maintain the
right of individuals to express their dissatisfaction with the
policies of the government through
the act of flag burning and not amend the Constitution to make
such an act illegal.

The first reason why the government should not ban flag
burning is that it is a form of
expression that is covered by the right to free speech. The First
Amendment to the US
Constitution states: “Congress shall make no law … abridging
the freedom of speech, or of the
press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to
petition the government for a
redress of grievances” (Legal Information Institute, 1992a).
This amendment guarantees
American citizens the right to express their dissatisfaction with
the policies of the government
without fear of consequences, including arrest, so long as the
demonstration does not violate
laws. The act of flag burning is a means to express this kind of
dissatisfaction. To make a law
prohibiting this means of expressing grievances would not only
inhibit free speech but take away
a means of petitioning the government to address grievances.
Another reason why flag burning should be allowed is that the
counter-argument that flag
burning somehow constitutes treason is groundless. Some may
argue that flag burning should not
be protected speech, that such an offense should be considered

treasonous. They feel that the
3
FLAG BURNING
American flag is a symbol of this country that should be
maintained and protected. It is true that
the flag is a symbol of this nation; it is because of its status as a
national symbol that the burning
of the flag holds so much power in representing dissatisfaction
with the nation’s policies.
However, should such an act be considered treason? According
to the Constitution, treason is
defined as consisting “only in levying war against them, or in
adhering to their enemies, giving
them aid or comfort” (Legal Information Institute, 1992b).
Simply by applying this definition of
treason to the act of flag burning, unless an amendment were
added to the Constitution to
redefine treason, flag burning would not qualify as a treasonous
act and should therefore remain
a legal means of expressing dissatisfaction with the government.
A final reason why flag burning should not be banned is that it
is an act that allows

marginalized or minority groups a means of expression—and the
right for even those in the
minority to be heard is a fundamental American principle.
Freedom of speech is an important
right guaranteed to all Americans. The difficulty in protecting
freedom of speech is not in
protecting the speech with which one agrees but protecting the
speech with which one does not.
This is why it is vital that freedom of speech is protected for all
speech. The dissident voice can
help maintain the balance of power by expressing the sentiments
of the minority. Critics claim
that expressing sentiments in this way is somehow unpatriotic.
This is an unfair statement. It
has been argued by some, including those in Congress, that
protecting the right of Americans to
burn the flag is in fact an act of patriotism (Paul, 2003).
Patriotism is defined as the love of or
devotion to one’s country. What is more patriotic than
protecting the rights of all American
citizens to express their own point of view on the direction of
this nation’s policies in any
peaceful means necessary? It is clear that protecting all forms
of speech is an act of expressing

one’s patriotism no matter how difficult this may be.
4
FLAG BURNING
In conclusion, the right of Americans to express dissent with the
government through the
act of flag burning should be protected. It is a fundamental
right guaranteed by the First
Amendment of the Constitution. Any arguments that such an
act is somehow treasonous or
unpatriotic are not only unfair but untrue. It is for this reason
that Congress should not add an
amendment to the Constitution to outlaw flag burning.

5
FLAG BURNING
References
Legal Information Institute. (1992a). Bill of Rights. Retrieved
from Legal Information Institute
website: http://topics.law.cornell.edu/constitution/billofrights
Legal Information Institute. (1992b). United States Constitution
Article III. Retrieved from
Legal Information Institute website:
http://topics.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleiii
Paul, R. (2003). The Flag Burning Amendment. Retrieved from
Lew Rockwell website:
http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul99.html

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