The document discusses two primary approaches to reasoning in research: deductive and inductive. Deductive reasoning works from general principles to specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning draws generalizations from specific observations. The document contrasts these approaches, outlines their methodologies, and describes the importance of each in constructing and validating theories.

1. Inductive Approach
Deductive: Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the
concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is
sometimes referred to as top–down logic. Its counterpart, inductive reasoning, is sometimes referred
to as bottom–up logic. Difference: The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches
to research is that whilst a deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is
concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data. Inductive or Deductive? Two
Different Approaches Learning Objectives 1.Describe the inductive approach to research, and
provide examples of inductive research. 2.Describe the deductive approach...show more content...
Specifically, no hypotheses can be found at the initial stages of the research and the researcher is
not sure about the type and nature of the research findings until the study is completed. In inductive
approach there is no theory at the beginning point of the research, and theories may evolve as a
result of the research: It is noted that "inductive reasoning is often referred to as a "bottom–up"
approach to knowing, in which the researcher uses observations to build an abstraction or to
describe a picture of the phenomenon that is being studied" (Lodico et al, 2010, p.10). In other
words, in inductive studies no known theories or patterns need to be tested during the research
process. Inductive reasoning is based on learning from experience. Patterns, resemblances and
regularities in experience (premises) are observed in order to reach conclusions (or to generate
theory). Here is an example: My nephew borrowed $100 last June but he did not pay back until
September as he had promised (PREMISE). Then he assured me that he will pay back until
Christmas but he didn't (PREMISE). He also failed in to keep his promise to pay back in March
(PREMISE). I reckon I have to face the facts. My nephew is never going to pay me back
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2. Mills Inductive Reasoning Essay
Mill's Inductive reasoning
Mill's method of agreement identifies a cause of an event in terms of its sufficient condition. When
using this method, one searches for a single factor that is common to multiple situations in which the
same event occurred.
Mill says that, when two or more occurrences of the event under investigation have only one
condition in common, then that condition is the cause of the event. (Mill, 2002)
More simply stated, Mill's method of agreement eliminates all but one common precursor. Mill's
method of agreement requires that in all cases where a consequence has occurred, the antecedent
condition must be present. This method isolates the supposed origin by listing all of the possible
factors that can be...show more content...
Method of Difference
According to Mill, if an occurrence in which the event being investigated occurs, and an instance in
which it does not occur, have every condition in common except one, then that one circumstance in
which alone the two instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause,
of the occurrence. The method of difference necessitates a comparison of at least one case in which
the occurrence appeared and at least one in which it did not, (Kemerling, 2001).
Simply stated, Mill's method of difference is the exclusion of all differences between the cases
being studied except one between instances in which the effect occurred and those in which it did
not. For example, in the case above: Suppose our four co–workers all ordered the same meal –
Hamburger, Fries and a Diet Pepsi. However, one decided to add a slice of cherry pie. It would be
reasonable for that one person to say, "I shouldn't have had the pie. It made me sick."
The pie may have been spoiled or perhaps the sickness was from over eating – we're not sure.
However, it would be reasonable to conclude that we have isolated the pie as a factor that caused
that one person's nausea, (Kemerling, 2001).
The major difference between the indirect method of difference and the method of agreement is that
the indirect method uses negative cases to strengthen conclusions drawn
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3. Essay On Induction
Induction
The problem and its solution
Introduction
In this paper the question "What are the possible solutions and alternatives for the problem of
induction?" will be answered. To answer this question, induction will be explained. After that the
problem of induction will be pointed out. Then possible solutions and alternatives will be discussed.
What is induction?
First of all: what is induction? Induction is a reasoning technique which is used to prove statements.
It uses general statements about observations, turned into premises, and uses these to form an
overall statement. There are three conditions which need to be followed for a proper proof by
induction. REFERENTIE INDUCTION
1)The number of observations must be large.
2)The observations should be repeated under a large amount of conditions
3)Not a single observation should be in conflict with the argument.
Induction uses two steps. The first one is to observe and make premises. The...show more content...
He does that by providing the theory that it actually is not a way to proof things, but to make
induction a way of creating a statement, which can be proven wrong by using conjecture and
criticism (Popper, 1963). Instead of looking for theories that are probably true, science should look
for theories that are probably false. Instead of finding justification, there should be looked for errors
in existing theories to correct (Popper, 1963).
According to Immanuel Kant our fundamental convictions about the natural world are derived from
twelve a priori –principles which he had classified into four categories: Quantity, Quality, Relation
and Modality. He believed that we have obtained these a priori–principles in the process of natural
selection. Because of these principles, we were able to judge induction quite accurate (Kant, 1781).
Even though this gives an explanation for our trust in the principle of induction, it does not give any
justification for our
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4. Induction Reasoning
The problem of induction is based on induction reasoning which focuses on creating board
generalizations from specific observations. We make an observation, discover that there's a pattern
linked to the observation and then we build on a generalization/assumption on that observation.
The problem with induction reasoning is that many people rely on the perception that whatever
has happened in the past, will be resembled in the future; therefore since it has happened before, it
will happen again. For example, how do I know that the sun will rise tomorrow? My answer would
be based on my knowledge through induction: I know the sun will rise tomorrow, because it has
risen every day in the past. The reason why this is an unreliable source of thinking
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5. Inductive Argument Paper
Logic is a science originating from Aristotle, which comprises the ideologies of validity of inference
and demonstration (Merriam–Webster, n.d.). Therefore, it is a tool to interrogate and understand the
world around us, by separating the valid properties from invalid properties (Sayle, 2013). However,
it is merely a tool, and may not be the best tool for a particular situation to analyze. At its base, logic
reduces to deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning derives a conclusion from the
necessary consequence of a couple of true premises (Sayle, 2013). Moreover, inductive reasoning
comprises multiple true premises to form a valid conclusion (Sayle, 2013). Deductive reasoning
may be useful when solving simple problems with only two premises. For instance, if a car is a
vehicle and a vehicle has wheels, then a car has wheels. The benefit to this is that an invalid form of
the argument is easy to identify, when two true premises lead to a false conclusion (Sayle,...show
more content...
The format for this has multiple premises that tend to logically lead to a universal catchall. However,
it is impossible to properly determine if the inductive argument is truly valid, since the premises and
conclusion are a relation of patterns. For example, the sky is typically blue in the daytime, and since
it is daytime, the sky must be blue without having to physically look. In fact, this is incorrect, since it
can be raining, or cloudy during the day. Although the form follows inductive reasoning, it is hard to
prove the previous statement incorrect, without prior knowledge of the situation. As a result,
inductive reasoning is not entirely valuable, since the validity of the conclusion is unreliable.
Additionally, with Aristotelian logic, thetruth of the premise implies the truthful conclusion, which
the Russell Paradox contradicts to an extent (Sayle,
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6. Inductive & Deductive Research
INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH APPROACH
Meritorious Prof. Dr. S. M. Aqil Burney
Director UBIT Chairman
Department of Computer Science University of Karachi
burney@computer.org www.drburney.net
Designed and Assisted by
Hussain Saleem hussainsaleem@uok.edu.pk 06th March 2008
"Well begun is half done"
––Aristotle, quoting an old proverb
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Research Methods
In research, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive
approaches.
Research Types
Deductive Approach
Inductive Approach
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Deductive Research Approach
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
OBSERVATION
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally
called a "top–down"...show more content...
PP 61–75 61 CS/IT"
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7. Reasoning methods and Argumentation
The main division between forms of reasoning that is made in philosophy is between deductive
reasoning and inductive reasoning. Formal logic has been described as 'the science of deduction '.
The study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as informal logic or
critical thinking.
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http://www.phac–aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cdic–mcc/18–3/d_e.html 11
Automated Reasoning
Logic lends itself to automation. A variety of problems can be attacked by representing the problem
description and relevant background information as logical axioms and treating problem instances as
theorems to be proved.
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72/98
Logic and Reasoning
Reasoning
Using given knowledge and truth value help us to solve, understand real life problems.
Logical Reasoning
Probabilistic Reasoning
Bayesian Networks
Subjective
Objective
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EXAMPLE
p: All mathematicians wear glasses q: Anyone who wears glasses is an algebraist r: All
mathematicians are algebraist
p∧q в†’ r в‰
Ў ( в€
ј( p∧q) в€Ё r)
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TRUTH TABLE
Truth Table for the formulae built with the Logical Operators

8. p T T T T F F F F
q T T F F T T F F
r T F T F T F T F
pО›q ~(pО›q) ~(pО›q)Vr О› О› О› T F T T F F F T T F T T F T T F T T F T T F T T
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If r is the conclusion, and we know that p and q are true simultaneously then r is valid statement. In
real life, the
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9. Inductive Argument
C.This article is an inductive argument. We can prove with a reasonable level of certainty, with
statistics, that racial or religious profiling is helpful in the prevention and or identification of
crimes and catastrophic events. However, we cannot prove indefinitely that all crimes and
catastrophes are directly correlated with specific races or religious beliefs as a basis to commit.
Therefore, this argument is inductive since it is based largely on probability. D.This argument is
good. The premises are unbiased and the argument starts out with quickly clarifying that everyone is
profiled irrespective of backgrounds or beliefs. Premise 3 could be debated but the others gives
sound reasoning to permit it. The article gives many factual
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