Vertigo And Falls Case Study

Vertigo And Falls Case Study
Complaint Vertigo and falls. History Patient is an 81–year–old right–handed white male who
presents with his wife for evaluation of "dizziness". He states that he has had this for two years, at
least. He notes that it occurs mostly when he stands up, at which point he will feel like he is going to
fall. He describes this as an actual head spinning, so it is a true vertigo. It is not merely
lightheadedness. He does note that if he lies flat on his back in bed, he does not have the vertigo, but
if he rolls over onto either side, he will develop a spinning sensation. It is aborted by rolling back
onto his back. He notes that if he gets up quickly at night to go to the bathroom, he will have marked
problems with balance. He usually sits on the edge of the bed and moves his arms and legs until he
feels that the vertigo has gone away, at which point, he can ... Show more content on
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He has had two falls recently. They both occurred when he first got out of bed in the morning and
started to walk without taking those few seconds to orient himself. One of them resulted in him
hitting the bureau. The other one did not result in any injury. He has not had any closed head trauma
with the falls and the falls have not worsened in the vertigo. He does have a history of skull fracture
60 years ago due to a motor vehicle accident, at which point, he was in a coma for 18 days. He has
amnesia for most of that time. He is unable to tell me if there were any cognitive or movement
sequela from that. He does have cervical stenosis with an MRI of the neck over four years ago at
Holy Family. He denies any previous brain imaging other than the recent MRI. He does not have a
magnetic gait. His gait is not wide based. There is no truncal instability. There is no hesitancy in his
gait. There is no
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Cerebral Circulation Of The Body
Cerebral circulation
Cerebral circulation is the movement of blood through the blood vessels to supply the brain.As brain
is the most complicated structure of our body,it needs lots of energy,and then it needs lots of blood
supply.Almost 20 percent blood of the body is used by the brain.And the rate of the cerebral blood
flow is 750ml per minute for an adult,representing 15 percent of the cardiac output.The arteries
deliver oxygenated blood,glucose,and some other nutrients to the brain to make it function properly.
Blood supply to the brain
The cerebral circulation includes two systems:the anterior cerebral circulation system and the
posterior cerebral circulation system.The anterior circulation system supplies blood primarily to the
middle and front portion of the brain and consists of the left and right carotid arteries.The anterior
blood supply system originated from the carotid arteries.The carotid artery is from the heart and
goes up to the head through the neck.The carotid artery bifurcates into internal carotid artery and
external carotid artery,and the internal carotid artery will go inside the skull to supply blood to the
brain hemisphere,the external carotid artery goes outside of the skull to supply blood to the face.In
the anterior system,there are another two important arteries––––the anterior cerebral artery and the
middle cerebral artery.The anterior cerebral artery originate from the internal carotid artery,stays in
the midline of the brain and supplies blood

Essay On Motor Impairments In Individuals With Attention...
Research Question: Because it has been hypothesized that motor impairments in individuals with
attention–deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) could be related to cerebellar deficits, this study
aims to determine if individuals diagnosed with ADHD have motor impairments when completing
tasks involving the cerebellum. The researchers hypothesized that the cerebellar function will
negatively impact the motor performances of adults diagnosed with ADHD, or adults with ADHD–
like symptoms, when compared to controls. Method: In this study, there were 91 participants, 49 of
which were female and 42 were male, aged 18 to 30 years old. Part A of the ASRS, which is an
ADHD self–report scale, was the diagnostic measure used to determine if an ... Show more content
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This phase determined if the participant continued to compensate for the rotation when it was
removed. In each phase, reaction time, movement time, and angle at maximum velocity were
recorded. Reaction time was the time it took the participant to begin moving the cursor when the
trial began. Movement time was the time it took for the cursor to move from the starting circle to the
target circle, and angle at maximum velocity was measured because, according to Kurdziel et al.
(2014), "the point of maximum velocity represents a point in each trial when the participant
corrected for their error" (p. 1148). Results: Baseline did not show significant differences for any of
the 3 measures. In the adaption phase, reaction time also did not show a significant effect when
comparing the ADHD and control groups. When considering movement time during the adaption
phase, results indicate that movement time gradually decreased throughout phases. Also, results
showed that individuals with ADHD symptoms had slower correction rates. Regarding the angle at
maximum velocity for ADHD and control groups, data showed that participants did adapt to the 30–
degree rotation; however, the ADHD group was significantly slower when adapting. Post–adaption
phase results show that reaction time did not show significant differences. Also, in this phase, results
for movement time and angle at maximum velocity for ADHD and control groups did not differ.
Overall,

Uner Tan Syndrome Essay
In 2005, a Turkish neuroscientist and evolutionary biologist named Dr. Uner Tan discovered a
family with a very unique condition: five of them walk on all fours with a quadrupedal gait. In
addition to quadrupedalism, affected individuals showed severe mental retardation and what he
described as "primitive speech." The presence of these three characteristic symptoms became known
as Uner Tan Syndrome. The Ulas family was discovered in a small village near Iskenderun in
southern Turkey. At the time of their identification, there were 12 normal children and 7 disabled
children, one of whom died. Of the 6 remaining affected children, 5 of them displayed habitual
quadrupedal walking. The Ulas family is highly consanguineous (second ... Show more content on
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Humans, due to a highly developed cerebellum, have an unparalleled sense of balance that is
specially adapted to bipedalism. MRI scans of all members of the Ulas family showed that the
individuals with Uner Tan Syndrome had grossly underdeveloped cerebellar vermis, which is
responsible for balance and locomotion (See figure 1).
Since the discovery of the Ulas family, three additional consanguineous families in Turkey have
shown segregation for Uner Tan Syndrome to varying degrees. All together, these families were
labeled A, B, C, and D. Families A and D had regular access to medical attention, and both sought
treatment for the quadrupedal locomotion. In fact, family A actively discouraged quadrupedal
walking. Attempts in both families were unsuccessful, which led researchers to conclude that social
factors did not contribute to this behavior (Ozcelik et al. 4234).
Although Uner Tan Syndrome is described as a collection of symptoms, the implications of the
quadrupedal locomotion has caused it to receive the greatest amount of attention since its discovery.
In 2008, Turkish scientists claimed to have found one of the genes responsible, at least in part, to
this particular phenotype. Affected individuals in families A and D were homozygous for either
deletions or nonsense mutations in the VLDLR gene on chromosome 9. This gene transcribes a very
low–density

Lentigo Maligna Melanoma Case Study
A 70–year–old Caucasian female with a history of a resected lentigo maligna melanoma 5 years
earlier was admitted with cerebellar features. A Cerebellar vermis metastasis had been confirmed
radiologically .Fig 1. She had been treated with whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT) for presumed
metastatic melanoma. Her baseline staging CT was entirely normal apart from tiny non–specific
liver lesion. Furthermore, WBRT, positron–emission computed tomography (PET–CT) showed
multiple suspicious lesions in both lungs as well as in spleen. In the liver solitary FDG avid lesion
highly suspicious of metastatic foci was visible. Fig 2. Histopathological examination of an
ultrasound–guided biopsy confirmed liver metastasis from a melanoma .Fig 3. Additional mutation

The Relationship Between Cerebellum And Basal Ganglia
Although the brain can be viewed as different brain regions, these regions couldn't work
independently. Each brain region can affect and effect on the other regions either directly or
indirectly. While the decreased dopamine level in the basal ganglia represents the major target for
clinical and experimental research (Hornykiewicz, 2006), much evidence suggests the involvement
of cerebellum dysfunction in addition to basal ganglia in mediating many of Parkinsonian symptoms
(Wu and Hallett, 2013).
The two subcortical areas; cerebellum and basal ganglia have been found to affect multiple motor,
cognitive and afferent behaviors (Alexander et al., 1986; Strick et al., 2009). The anatomical two
way connection between the cerebellum and basal ganglia emphasizes the role of the cerebellum in
Parkinson's disease (Bostan et al., 2010).
The effects of cerebellum in many motor and cognitive functions could be mediated by the
cerebello–thalamo–cortical circuit (Prevosto and Sommer, 2013). This pathway starts from the
Purkinje cells and establishes inhibitory connections with the deep cerebeller nuclei which in turn
have a disynaptic excitatory pathway through the ventral thalamus to motor cortex (Allen and
Tsukara, , 1974; Kelly and Strick, 2003), in addition to the elucidated disynaptic connection between
the cerebellum and striatum in rats (Hoshi et al., 2005).
It has been indicated that the basal ganglia and cerebellum are putative structures mediating
internally and externally

Retinal Tumorigenesis Von Hippel Lindau Disease : A Review
Retinal Tumorigenesis in von Hippel Lindau Disease – A Review
ABSTRACT
Highly vascularized tumors in the retina, cerebellum, and spinal cord are a hallmark of von Hippel
Lindau (VHL) disease. Tumors in the central nervous system and spinal cord have been recognized
as clear cell tumors with abundant reactive vascularization, most frequently referred to as
"hemangioblastomas"; in contrast, retinal tumors are considered tumors of vascular origin, referred
to as "hemangiomas." We here demonstrate that retinal tumors in VHL disease are not
hemangiomas. We furthermore demonstrate that tumorigenesis in the retina has identical features as
tumorigenesis in the cerebellum and spinal cord.
INTRODUCTION
Von Hippel Lindau (VHL) disease has characteristic tumors that result from germ mutations in the
VHL tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 3p25.13 One of these tumors is the hemangioblastoma.
These tumors consistently occur in "the retina, cerebellum, brainstem and dorsal spinal cord."13
Hemangioblastomas are benign neoplasms with no potential to metastasize. They are space
occupying lesions that can cause neurological deficit and can have a high mortality rate due to
tonsillar herniation, compression of the brainstem, and hydrocephalus if left untreated.
Hemangioblastomas may have a syrinx or pseudocyst evident with magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). Also on MRI, they can have the typical appearance of a "densely contrast–enhancing solid
mass with smooth margins."13 Central nervous

The Muscular System Of The Human
Introduction The muscular system of the human is a vital part in one's everyday life. There are three
types of muscles. Skeletal muscles help people carry out locomotor skills like walking and skipping
as well as skills related to sports like kicking a soccer ball. Smooth muscles are located in the
digestive, excretory, respiratory, reproductive, and other body systems. The purpose of smooth
muscles is to contract and move food or carry blood through the body. The cardiac muscle is
responsible for pumping the heart so blood can circulate throughout the body (Allen and Harper
2013). Skeletal muscles are composed of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are made from filaments that are
think and thin. Actin is molecules that make the thin filament. Intertwined in the thin filament, is a
strand called tropomyosin. In between the tropomyosin is troponin, molecules that are placed within
the tropomyosin at specific points of the strand. The think filaments are made of molecules of
myosin. At the ends of the filament strands, there are teardrop–shaped ends known as myosin heads.
With the help of ATP, the myosin heads attach to the thin filament's binding sites and form
crossbridges. The attachment aids in the contraction of human muscles (Allen and Harper 2013).
There are instances when human muscles do not function properly and limit human motion. For
instance, Ataxia is a disease that affects one's movement and coordination. Cerebellar ataxia is when
the part of the brain that controls

Personal Narrative: My Experience At C. U
First of all, I would like to tell you a little bit about me and why I chose to attend C.C.U. I am a 57
year old male. I have been married to my lovely wife, for 37 years. We have 4 children and 10
grandchildren. I was working from the time I was 16 years of age until about 3 years ago. The
doctors told me I had Cerebellar Ataxia. The Cerebellar is located on the back of the brain. It
controls your balance and it also controls your limbs. There is no cure for this disease, and there is
no medicine for this. So that is why, I have been out of work for the last 3 years. I now live on
Social Security Disability Insurance(SSDI). I received my GED back in 1985, and there shortly after
I attended a community college for 1 year. That was quite a time back, I ... Show more content on
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I made very good grades, and I worked awfully hard. I plan to do the same thing for C.C.U. I love
the Lord, and love reading the Bible. I set aside a Bible studying time every day. I have read the
Bible through, and if it is the Lord's will I will read it several more times. The more I read, the more
I study and the more I learn, the more I get excited about reading studying the Bible. And the Bible
is the best book ever written. I study out of the Jimmy swaggart Expositor's Study Bible, and it is a
great book to study from. Jimmy Swaggart also wrote and had published, The Jimmy Swaggart
Bible Commentaries. He wrote a commentary for each of the 66 books in the Bible. These
commentaries are also very good books to study from. He really explains the Bible in detail, almost
everyone could read and understand it. Even a lay person, such as myself. He also wrote and had
published many more books concerning the Bible. He uses his walk with the Lord, and his christian
life to help you better understand the Bible better. I also, have been praying and wanting to receive
the Holy

The Presence Of Rat Model Of Parkinson 's Disease Induced...
The present study revealed the presence of neurochemical and histopathological changes in the
cerebellum of rat model of Parkinson's disease induced by the intrastriatal injection of rotenone.
This may change the strategy of the disease treatment that depends mainly on the restoration of
dopamine levels in the basal ganglia.
The present findings showed the development of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum of rat model of
PD induced by intrastriatal injection of rotenone. This was indicated from the significant increase in
the excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters; glutamate and aspartate and the significant decrease in
the inhibitory amino acids; GABA, glycine and taurine. These neurotransmitters are involved in
many functions such as motor behavior, cognition, and emotion (Ottersen and Storm–Mathisen,
1986, Schmidt et al., 1992)1,2. The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is
important for brain to sustain proper neuronal function (Mel et al., 2004)[1]. Perturbation in
glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission is associated with several neurological and
psychiatric disorders (Sanacora et al., 2004) (3) [glutamate gaba balance 1].
Functional neuroimaging study using PET or blood oxygen level–dependent functional MRI
frequently demonstrated increased activation in the cerebellum in patients with PD during
performance of various upper limb movements (Rascol et al., 1997; Catalan et al., 1999; Wu and
Hallett, 2005; Yu et al., 2007; Wu et al.,

Essay about The Research on Bipolar Disorder
The human brain is a very complex system, much like a city it strives for order and efficiency.
However a patient with Bipolar Disorder has a very chaotic type of brain function; causing changes
in mood and sometimes suicidal thoughts Bipolar Disorder is a common psychiatric mood disorder
that is defined by recurrent episodes of abnormally elevated mood and depression, changes in
energy and, the ability to carry out day to day tasks. (Joel, Jakosson and colleges) "Bipolar Disorder
(BD) is a chronic disease with high risk of relapse. This disease also results in a high rate of suicidal
mortality." (Sabrina, Paterniti and Jean–Claude Bisserbe) Many studies show that this disorder is
genetic therefore it runs in families, passing down ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They also check through the patient's medical history, and finally have them take a physiological
test. "Psychiatrists require the person to answer multiple–choice questions or explain the meanings
of drawings and pictures. Responses to test items may reveal a lot about the person's behavior and
moods. "(Peacock, Judith) When diagnosing BD a psychiatrist also has to go off of experience and
training, which is why many patients can go several years before being properly diagnosed.
(Peacock, Judith) Doctors don't completely understand what causes BD, but experts believe that it is
caused by unbalanced Neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals produced by the brain
and they work in conjunction with hormones to carry out all of the body's essential functions.
"Noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine are the three main chemicals that are thought to be
responsible for BD. (WebMD) Noradrenaline, also known as norepinephrine, is a neurotransmitter
and a hormone. Noradrenaline is used in the brain to regulate attention, sleep, learning, and
emotions. It also plays an important role in regulating the body's stress response, regulating normal
functions such as heart rate and regulating the bodies fight or flight response. It is "secreted by the
adrenal medualla glands, and is produced by the nerve endings in the

The Evolution Of Prefrontal Inputs From Macaque Monkeys...
References:
Ramnani. N, Behrens, T, Johansen–Berg, Richeter, MC, Pinsk, MS, Andersson, JLR, et al. 2006.
The evolution of prefrontal inputs to the cortico–pontine system: Diffusion imaging evidence from
macaque monkeys and humans. Cerebral Cortex, 16: 811–818
Behrens, TEJ, Johansen–Berg, H, Woolrich, MW, Smith, SM, Wheeler–Kingshott, CAM, Boulby,
PA, Barker GJ, Sillery, EL, Sheehan, K, Ciccarelli, O, 3, Thompson, AJ, Brady, JM and Matthews,
PM. 2003. Non–invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using
diffusion imaging. Nature Neuroscience, 6: 750–758.
Middleton FA, Strick PL. 2000. Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits.
Brain Research Reviews, 31:236––250.
Introductory Article Summaries:
Non–invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion
imaging: This article details a study that was performed using diffusion imaging characteristics to
determine how pathways connect different parts of the brain. The study concluded that the pathway
that is generated is based on the start point and the researchers developed and algorithm that could
help them generate pathway within sections of the brain. Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor
and cognitive circuits: The basal ganglia and cerebellum are the major motor structures of the brain.
In this study, several cortical areas were examined as the targets of the signals sent by the basal
ganglia and the cerebellar output. This article examined

Case Study: Vertebral Dissection And Stroke
Chief Complaint
Vertebral dissection and stroke.
History
Patient is a 26–year–old right–handed white female who presents with her husband for followup
after a vertebral dissection and stroke. This is an individual who has a long history of migraines.
They went away during her pregnancy. Her child is six months old. After pregnancy, they started to
recur again. She had a migraine on August 1, 2015 that was very severe and included intractable
nausea and vomiting. For this she went to Wentworth Douglass Hospital Express care, where she
was treated with medication for the symptoms. She went home, but later that night noted that the
symptoms worsened, and she started having some visual field problem. At the time, she was lying
on the sofa ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was felt that these represent prior dissections or vasculopathy. The MRI of the brain did show the
acute infarct involving the left medial occipital lobe with mild associated edema, but it did show that
the small bilateral cerebellar hemisphere infarcts seemed more chronic. She had a cardiac
echocardiogram, which was negative. She had ultrasound of the renal arteries, which was negative.
She did have a PFO on cardiac echocardiogram. They thought that most likely she got a vertebral
dissection during labor and delivery. Because of the size of the stroke, anticoagulation was not
given. She was put on aspirin 325 mg and discharged for follow up with her primary care and
neurology. They recommended a three month follow up CT angiogram of head. They continued her
on her Topamax 50 mg for her headaches. Currently, she is compliant with these medications. She
does state that she still has some neck pain and a visual field cut. On the day she arrived home from
the hospital, she had a severe headache with a scintillating scotoma. This is the first time she ever
had a scintillating scotoma. She has had migraines her whole life. She was seen by Coastal
Neurology for a while and was doing great on Topamax 75 mg. She got off this to

To what extent can developmental dyslexia be explained by...
Dyslexia – literally translated from Greek as 'inadequate words or language' – is a learning disability
characterised by problems with reading, writing, spelling and speaking. The most common
definition of dyslexia is the discrepancy definition, which suggests that dyslexics are those whose
reading ability is below average for their age group, or IQ. The first case of dyslexia was reported in
1896 by Dr. Pringle–Morgan, who described an intelligent 14 year old boy who had an inability to
read, as suffering from – as Pringle–Morgan believed – "word blindness" resulting from deficiencies
in visual processing. Since Pringle–Morgan's initial report, there have been many other explanations
of dyslexia. This essay will attempt to evaluate ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gallagher, Frith and Snowling (submitted) demonstrated that 4 year old children from families with
a first degree relative suffering from dyslexia performed worse on tests of language and speech
processing, compared to children from non–dyslexic families. This study supports the phonological
deficit hypothesis as it suggests that dyslexic children show early deficiencies in speech production.
Although the role of heritability is important to consider, due to the real world implications it has of
helping to identify 'at–risk' children who are more likely to develop dyslexia, it cannot explain why
there is only a 50 per cent rate of heritability for dyslexia. There has also been very little research
into the heritability of either deficits in visual processing, or cerebellar abnormality.
Despite the support for the phonological deficit hypothesis, one of the main criticisms of the theory
is that it fails to acknowledge possible deficits in visual processing which may cause dyslexia. The
visual magnocellular deficit hypothesis (Stein, 2000) suggests that dyslexia may be caused by
deficiencies within visual processing; specifically within the magnocellular system, which is
responsible – among other things – for "timing visual events when reading" (Stein, 2001).
Therefore, if our eyes wander whilst reading, the magnocellular is responsible for bringing our focus
back on target. In dyslexics, it is suggested that

The Reflex-Hierarchical Model
1) How do the reflex–hierarchical and systems model of motor control differ?
The reflex–hierarchical model assumes that the central nervous system (CNS) is organized
hierarchically, with higher centers controlling lower centers. According to this model, movements
are elicited by sensory input or controlled by a central motor program that utilizes open and closed–
loop controls. The person utilizes a generalized motor program and adapts it to fit the needs of the
task and environment. Unlike the reflex–hierarchical model, the systems model assumes that
movements are organized by functional needs or goals and that movements arise from the
interaction of multiple systems, hence the name systems model. These systems are self–organizing
and heterarchical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cerebellar lesions of the CNS can result in intention tremors, dysmetria (errors in depth perception),
dyssynergia (broken movements), dysdiadochokinesia, adiadochokinesia, ataxia (uncoordinated
movements), and ataxic gait as commonly seen with the conception of alcohol. Lesions of the basal
ganglia may result in resting tremors, cogwheel rigidity, hypokinesia, festinating gait (small, fast,
shuffling gait), athetosis, dystonia, hemiballismus, and chorea, the dance–like movements seen in
those with Huntington's disease (Radomski & Lathan, 2014, p.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Case Study
Prenatal exposure to alcohol (ethanol) results in a continuum of physical, neurological, behavioral,
and learning defects collectively grouped under the heading fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD). Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most severe combination of these defects under this
heading, and is characterized by pre– and postnatal growth deficiencies, facial abnormalities, and
defects of the central nervous system (CNS). The developing brain is particularly vulnerable to the
toxicity of ethanol, given the broad time frame of susceptibility from neurulation, when the neural
tube is formed, all the way through to birth. The cerebellum is an area of the brain particularly
vulnerable to prenatal ethanol exposure. Mechanisms proposed for this drastic reduction in brain
cells include apoptosis, oxidative stress, and damage to the radial glia stem cell progenitor pool.
Physical dexterity, coordination, and visuospatial processing are all affected by these stressors, and
eyeblink classical conditioning ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Like the cerebral cortex, it is roughly divided into two hemispheres that are connected at the midline
by the vermis, which is responsible for interhemispheric communication and interaction with the
surrounding cerebrum and brain stem. The cerebellum is composed primarily of specialized neurons
called Purkinje cells, granule cells, and astroglia. These cells are organized so that the exterior of the
cerebellum is primarily composed of gray matter surrounding a core (cerebellar nuclei) of white
matter. Ethanol–induced abnormalities in the cerebellum manifest as an overall reduction in volume,
with certain areas more affected by ethanol's toxicity than others. The affected areas include the
anterior region of the vermis and the cerebellar nuclei, the abnormalities of which are highly
dependent on the developmental timeframe of prenatal

A Congenital Malformation Commonly Affecting Children Born...
As a congenital malformation commonly affecting children born with Spina Bifida, the Arnold–
Chiari malformation, or Chiari Malformation Type II, involves the irregular extension of both the
cerebellar tonsils and the brain stem tissue into the opening to the spinal canal – the foramen
magnum (NINDS, 2013). Typically, the brain stem and the cerebellum sit above the opening to the
spinal canal, where the brain stem houses most of the cranial nerves that supply the body. Providing
the control centres for vital bodily functions such as breathing, regulation of the body's internal
environment through maintenance of heart rate and blood pressure, as well as providing sensory and
motor control to a significant portion of the body (Joynt, 2014), the Arnold–Chiari malformation
causes substantial problems for patients. Likewise, the congestion of these structures in the spinal
canal limits the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the brain to the spinal cord (Medway,
2006), causing other medical issues that become regularly associated with Spina Bifida as a result,
such as hydrocephalus (Columbia Neurosurgery, n.d.). Issues associated with the Arnold–Chiari
malformation can only be relieved, rather than treated, through surgical processes that aim to
eliminate or reduce these symptoms (WebMD, 2014).
The Arnold–Chiari malformation refers to the second type of malformations associated with the
Chiari group, where the irregular formation of the brainstem and cerebellum sees them

What Is The Pathophysiology For John's Case
John is 63 years old who receives home care by an occupational therapist twice a week for his
resting tremor. John and his therapist are working on maintaining joint flexibility and balance, so
John can continue to write, use the computer, and cook simple meals. John is able to ambulate when
his wife assists by walking slowly beside him, holding his arm. Sometimes, his wife helps him open
his prescription bottles, so he can take his levodopa and carbidopa. The following paragraphs will
explain the pathophysiology behind John's case. Parkinson disease (PD) is a degenerative disorder
of the basal ganglia, manifested by combination of resting tremor, increased muscle rigidity,
bradykinesia or slowness of movement, gait disturbances, and impaired

Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Degeneration (PCD)
Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration (PCD)
PCD is one of the most common and characteristic paraneoplastic syndromes. In series of patients
with antibody–associated PNS, presentation with cerebellar signs occurred in 37%. Usually the
syndrome starts acutely with nausea, vomiting, dizziness and slight incoordination of walking,
evolving rapidly over weeks to a few months with progressive ataxia of gait, limbs and trunk,
dysarthria and often nystagmus associated with oscillopsia. The disease is progressive in months and
then stabilizes. By this time most patients are severely debilitated: walking without support, sitting
unsupported and self–feeding becomes difficult while handwriting is often impossible. Signs are
always bilateral but may ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Brain FDG–PET scan and SPECT may show cerebellar hypermetabolism and increased perfusion
during the acute stages of PCD(Choi et al. 2006). In the chronic phase, CT and MRI often reveal
cerebellar atrophy. In the search for antibodies and associated malignancy anti–Yo (PCA–1), anti–Tr
(PCA–Tr) and anti–mGluR1 are associated with relatively 'pure' cerebellar syndromes. Anti–Yo
antibodies point at breast, ovarian, endometrium and fallopian tube cancers[70]. Rarely, anti–Yo
associated PCD occurs in male patients, usually associated with a gastrointestinal adenocarcinoma,
expressing the cdr2 antigen(Debes et al. 2007). Anti–Tr antibodies appear specific for Hodgkin's
disease(Bernal et al. 2003) and anti–mGluR1 antibodies have been found in two patients with PCD
and Hodgkin's disease(Sillevis Smitt et al. 2000). About 50% of PCD patients with an underlying
SCLC have high titers of anti–Hu antibodies while the remaining patients are likely to have anti–
P/Q–type VGCC antibodies. These antibodies were present in all patients who also had Lambert–
Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS). In patients with anti–amphihysin or anti–CV2 antibodies, the
cerebellar degeneration is often part of the PEM syndrome and more widespread neurological
symptoms and signs are usually found. The less well characterized

Route Sixty Six
Conceptualization is the process that provides the speaker with an idea. The speaker must also have
a desire to verbalize this concept. In order to be able to conceptualize the idea "I have never seen
Route Sixty Six" the speaker would access memories through the arcuate fasciculus and the superior
longitudinal fasciculus. Because there is no memories of watching the show, or perhaps those
memories were not accessible, the speaker concludes that they have never seen the show. If there
was an external linguistic stimulus that triggered the conceptualization of this idea, the process
would begin with auditory comprehension in Wernicke's area of the dominant hemisphere. This
stimulus would arrive either from the primary auditory cortices through ... Show more content on
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"Gunsmoke is one of my favorite shows of all time even though it is rarely aired these days" might
also be produced with one breath. However, it would be possible for a speaker with normal
respiratory function to inspire before "even

Parkinson's Disease Multiple System Atrophy
Parkinson's disease, Multiple System Atrophy, and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy are all
neurodegenerative diseases in which systems are very much alike. The symptoms are so closely
related to one another that in the beginning stages, it is rather difficult to distinguish them apart from
the other. A patient having the symptoms of any of these diseases must undergo a series of imaging
testing, including Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). If Parkinson's disease is visible, the
Magnetic Resonance Imaging allows physician's to identify the disease in order to determine a
prognosis. . These images additionally identify and highlights spots of the white matter located in
the brain to determine the disease, often times the cortex will be somewhat

Cowden Syndrome
A 43 year old woman presented with a one year history of abdominal pain and constipation. She also
gave a history of nodules in her mouth which biopsy showed papilloma (Figure A). In endoscopy
nodularity of the esophageal mucosa was seen in the entire length and a single nodule was seen on
the epiglottis. Coarse nodularity was seen in the stomach from cardia and fundus to the antrum.
Nodularity of the bulb and D2 was also seen and multiple polyps of different sizes were seen in
colon (Figure B) (Video 1). Biopsies was taken from these polyps and reported as hamartomatous
polyps. The patient had facial and acral lesions which biopsy confirmed trichilemmomas and acral
keratosis. Thyroid and breast sonography showed multiple benign nodules which was ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1996, the susceptibility locus for Cowden syndrome was mapped to chromosome 10q22–23, and
in 1997, germline mutations in the PTEN gene (phosphatase and tensin homology, deleted on
chromosome 10) on 10q23 were first reported in families with this syndrome. Hamartomas in
Cowden syndrome affect all three germ cell layers but most commonly arise from ectodermal and
endodermal elements. Almost all patients (90% to 100%) have mucocutaneous lesions that include
trichilemmomas, acral keratoses, and oral papillomas. Breast lesions affect the majority of female
patients and include fibroadenomas, fibrocystic disease, and adenocarcinomas (25% to 50%).
Thyroid abnormalities, such as multinodular goiter and follicular adenoma, are found in one half to
two thirds of patients. Thyroid carcinoma occurs in 3% to 10% of patients. Macrocephaly, cerebellar
gangliocytoma, and genitourinary malformations are also frequent components of Cowden
syndrome. Increased risks for endometrial carcinoma and renal cell carcinoma have been added to
the operational criteria for Cowden

Hasta Mudras Essay
The Dance therapy, especially Mudra therapy is involved in holding the hasta mudras to give the
therapeutic effect. When we hold a particular hasta mudra the nerves get stimulated and it is passed
to the brain via the spinal cord through the peripheral nervous system. To comprehend the
stimulations, while holding the Hasta Mudras; and the process of carrying the impulses to the brain
and back, we need to study the nervous system of the brain and its functions. The nervous system
comprises the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system, consisting of the cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves, together with their motor
and sensory endings.
4.6.1 Central nervous system The central nervous system is composed of millions of nerve and glial
cells, together with blood vessels and a little connective tissue. The nerve cells or neurons in the
blood play a very major role in the transmission and reception of signals. The glial cells, termed
neuroglia, are characterized by short processes that have special relationships to neurons, blood
vessels, and connective tissue . These cells play a very major role in receiving and transmitting of
the signals on stimulating while holding the corresponding hasta mudras.
4.6.2 Brain The brain is the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both the Cerebral and Cerebellar cortex are symmetrical and divided into right and left hemispheres.
The superficial layer of the hemisphere has the gray matter and is a few millimeters in thickness;
whereas the interior hemisphere is made partly of white matter with nuclei of gray matter in the
Cerebellar cortex. The Gray matter has the bodies of nerve and glial cells in contrast to the white
matter which consists of the processes or fibres of nerve and glial cells. The brain also has cavities
in the interior portions known as ventricles. These ventricles are full of cerebrospinal

Sinusoidal And Central Vestibular System Lab Analysis
frequency, <0.04 Hz, sinusoidal rotations) indicates an abnormally low system time constant which
is suggestive of peripheral system involvement (labyrinthine, 8th nerve), but possible involvement at
the level of the vestibular nuclei must be also considered [18]. These agreed with our results, as all
our patients (25 patients) had abnormal increase in phase lead. However the radiological imaging
shows abnormal results in DTI in 15 cases. This denotes mixed pathology affecting both peripheral
and central vestibular system As a result of complexity of the vestibular system, no single test can be
a single diagnostic test. Symmetry is a comparison of the slow component of the nystagmus when
rotated to the right compared with rotation to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Diffusion–tensor (DT) imaging allows measurement of the random motion of water molecules and
provides information about cellular integrity and pathology. In a highly ordered white matter tract,
water molecules diffuse faster in the direction parallel to the tract than in the perpendicular
direction, thats because the transverse diffusion is restricted by axonal membranes and myelin
sheaths [21]. In contrast to isotropic diffusion where diffusion is equal in all directions, diffusion
with a strong directional preference is called anisotropic diffusion [8]. DT imaging is useful for
identification and estimation of neural tracts integrity at the subcortical level [7]. Also, the new
technique of DT tractography allows the visualization of the integrity of the corticospinal tract
(CST), which is the major neuronal pathway that controls voluntary movements and is the most
important motor pathway for predicting motor outcome in the human brain [22]. Patients with
vestibular symptoms had lower fractional anisotropy values in the distinct regions than control
subjects with no symptoms. We used fractional anisotropy values from DTI–MRI to measure
damage to the brain's signal–transmitting white matter (WM). It had been clear that, the lower the
fractional anisotropy, the greater the damage to the tissue of WM underlying vestibulopathy with
cutoff

Unertan Syndrome Essay
Uner Tan syndrome, Unertan syndrome or UTS is a syndrome proposed by the Turkish evolutionary
biologist Üner Tan. According to Tan, persons affected by this syndrome walk with a quadrupedal
locomotion and are afflicted with "primitive" speech and severe mental retardation and, most
notably, quadrupedality (the use of four limbs to walk). Tan observed that 5 out of the 19 family
members were affected by this autosomal, recessive disease, which was likely the result of
inbreeding. Affected individuals were between the ages of 15 and 32 and walked exclusively on
their hands and their feet. Tan postulated that this is an example of "reverse evolution". The
discovery of this unusual trait was of great interest to scientists around the world. Many hoped that
the cause of Unertan Syndrome could be traced to a specific genetic mutation that would shed light
on the evolution of bipedalism in humans.
The primary characteristic of the syndrome is habitual quadrupedalism, which was also the gait of
our early ancestors. There are two kinds of quadrupedal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Signs of cerebellar dysfunction including: intention tremor, dysdiadochokinesia (inability to execute
rapidly alternating movements particularly of the limbs), dysmetria (lack of coordination of
movement typified by under– or overshooting the intended position), and nystagmus (involuntary
rhythmic eye movement, with the eyes moving quickly in one direction, and then slowly in the
other). However, the cerebellar signs are relatively mild, and they are no more pronounced in the
quadrupeds than in the one affected brother who walks

Astrocytomomy And Adjugative Surgery: A Case Study
Surgery is the treatment of choice for wellcircumscribed lesions (Figure 1D) and the factor strongly
associated with outcome is the extent of surgical removal.6,7 Gross total resection leads to more
than 90% long–term survival.7 Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytomas are resectable and adjuvant
therapy is not indicated. Those arising from the brainstem are often not completely resectable and
require adjuvant chemotherapy (carboplatin and vincristine) and consideration of radiotherapy at
progression. A clinical trial of BRAF and MAPK pathway inhibitors (AZD6244) is underway.8 A
recent study has reported long–term follow up (mean of 18.4 years) for 101 children with benign
posterior fossa astrocytomas.6 Complete resection was achieved in half the

Initiation And Propagation In Cerebellar Purkinje Neurons...
Initiation and Propagation in Cerebellar Purkinje Neurons
Baylee LaBree
University of New Hampshire
Introduction Neural processing is discerned as dendritic input followed by electrical transmission
and axonal neurotransmitter output. In the axon of Purkinje cells, lie simple and complex spikes. It
is here where the initiation of whether action potentials within neurons initiate at the axon initial
segment (AIS) or at the first node of Ranvier within cerebellar Purkinje neurons (Palmer, Clark,
Gründemann, Roth, Stuart, Häusser, 2010). Studies have suggested that loss of Purkinje neuron
density could significantly decrease motor function. These studies focus on those with alcohol abuse
and neurodegenerative diseases within mice ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another study looked at mice hippocampal pyramidal neurons. At higher temperatures the
hyperpolarized voltage sodium channels at the AIS contributed to increased excitability. This AIS
excitability contributed to increased heat related seizures, which offered that sodium channels play a
role in febrile seizures (Wimmer, Reid, Mitchell, Richards, Scaf, Leaw, Petrou, 2010). Another mice
oriented study focused on ion channel regulation in the axon initial segment. This study found that
dopaminergic signaling can control neuronal output through calcium channels (Bender, Ford,
Trussell, 2010).
Materials and Methods To test the hypothesis that all axon potentials initiate in the AIS, voltage–
sensitive dye was injected to obtain whole cell somatic recordings. Transgenic mice that expressed
green fluorescent protein or enhanced green fluorescent protein were used for the purpose of neuron
selection. Parasagittal slices of the cerebellar were examined with a confocal imaging system to
ensure absolute neuron morphology. Selected neurons were loaded with voltage–sensitive dye
through a glass patch electrode, and whole cell recordings were taken under IR–DIC video
microscopy. The neuron was stained via glass patch in room temperature for 20–50 minutes to
ensure optimum uptake into the cell, after staining the selected neuron was incubated at room
temperature for 1–1.5 hours. The soma was illuminated with a 450mW microscope, the fluorescence
of the stained cell was

Ataxia Telangiectasia
Ataxia Telangiectasia (AT) is an autosomal recessive disorder that is primarily characterized by
progressive cerebellar ataxia, caused by a mutation in the ATM (Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated)
gene which plays a crucial role in DNA repair. According to Delgado in 2015, cerebellar ataxia
occurs when the cerebellum becomes inflamed or damaged. The cerebellum is the area of the brain
responsible for controlling gait and muscle coordination, thus AT disease symptoms show a loss of
control of muscle coordination (Delgado, 2015). It can also be characterized by telangiectasia; this is
a condition in which dilated venules (tiny blood vessels) cause threadlike red lines or patterns on the
skin (Delgado, 2015). These patterns, or telangiectases, form ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Dr. Janniger, a Pediatrician at Rutgers New Jersey Medical School asserts that elevated AFP is the
most constant marker for Ataxia–Telangiectasia (2007). Normally, AFP is a fetal protein made in a
fetus's liver and should drop off near or within a year of birth (Blaese, Stiehm, Bonilla, & Younger,
2013). This AFP level is elevated in 95% of patients with AT, after age 18–24 months (Blaese et al.,
2013). Additionally, an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) of the cerebellum or chest would be
indicative of AT by about the age of 10; cerebral white matter demyelination and microhemorrhages
would be evident (Janniger, 2017). The cerebellum would have also lost much of its volume (Chun
& Gatti, 2004). Tavani describes the MRI of 19 patients on AT and correlate the appearance of these
scans with the degree of neurologic deficit, the timing of which can be crucial in determining life
expectancy or if an alternative diagnosis is needed (Tavani, Zimmerman, Berry, Sullivan, Gatti,
&Binghmam, 2003). The team found there was a noted progression of cerebellar atrophy from the
lateral areas to the superior areas over time (Tavani et al., 2003). Other laboratory findings, in
addition to elevated AFP and diagnostic MRI scans, include immunological deficiencies such as low
T cell levels, low IgA, IgE, and IgG, chromosomal aberrations, sensitivity to radiation, defects of
cell cycle checkpoints,

The Etiology of Autism Essay
Autism is a behavioral syndrome usually presenting behavior abnormalities before the child is 30
months of age. These behavioral abnormalities include marked social deficits, specific language
abnormalities and stereotyped, repetitive behaviors (Piven, 1990). Although the exact etiology of
autism is not known it is now believed that it is a dysfunction of one or more unidentified brain
systems and not the result of parental and environmental influences. Variations in symptomology
and in prognosis among autistic persons depend on both the severity and the extent of the underlying
brain dysfunction (Repin, 1991). Several studies have been conducted including neuroanatomic
imaging, microscopic neuroanatomic observations and positron ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Throughout their lives autistic children avoid eye contact and are unaware of other people's feelings.
They are unable to make friends and do not learn to play with other children. They often prefer
social isolation.
Many autistic children have some sort of language disorder and this will often be another presenting
complaint to the doctor from the parents. Some children are mute and understand little; others speak
late and produce unintelligible sentences with no desire to communicate. These children often
memorize television commercials and recite them with perfect imitation of the tone of voice and the
rhythm of the speaker they are imitating. Although these children are unable to verbally
communicate, they also rarely use gestures or imitate actions to communicate. They often will
retrieve things and try to do things for themselves rather than try and ask for them.
Autistic children need routines and any deviation from routine severely upsets them. Repetitive
movements such as rocking, humming and flapping hands is characteristic behavior. As these
children become older, they may spend weeks to months learning about one specific topic.
The intelligence range of autistic children varies from profound mental deficiency to superior
intelligence. "Idiots savants" is the name referred to autistic persons who have a superior skill in a
narrow range of abilities such as calculations or rote verbal memory (Repin, 1991).
Although many studies have been done by

Neurological Assessment Paper
Neurological assessment is a vital part of my physical examination of my patients. A neurological
evaluation contains several exams, tests and procedures which are used to make the diagnosis of
nervous system diseases. As mentioned by Jarvis (2012), some patients' who are hospitalized might
have neurologic deficit or trauma and require close monitoring. Obtaining information of the
patient's baseline of neurological function is a vital priority of my assessment. Change of mental
status is subtle and an earliest sign of neurologic deficit (Jarvis, 2012). Accurate documentation and
thorough assessment of the neurologic system is vital aspect of nursing care of all patients, most
especially for the neurosurgical patient. In addition, I believe

Childhood Obesity and Its Effect
Childhood obesity is considered to be a serious issue among our youth. Obesity can cause many
types of physical problems, which most are aware of, but it can also cause some undesirable internal
feelings within children and adolescents who suffer from it. Self–esteem, or self–worth, is important
as it helps develop personality and is a major ingredient to our mental health status (Wang, F. and
Veugelers, P. J., 2008). Some have said obesity may even have a negative effect on cognitive
development, as well. There have been studies performed to research the effects of obesity on
children and adolescents, which I am going to review. First, let me discuss some statistics that have
been measured by the Center for Disease Control and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not only could depression result from these feelings of worthlessness, but depending on the child or
adolescent and their desire to be accepted, they could be more prone to developing an eating
disorder later in life ( Phillips, F., 2012). Research has revealed that obesity has been linked to
abnormalities in the makeup of brain tissue and the function of it. Also, there have been animal
studies on a part of the brain known as the cerebellum. In this study, it was discovered that the cells
of the cerebellum are affected by external stimuli in the environment ( Miller, J. L., Couch, J.,
Schwenk, K., Long, M., Towler, S., Theriaque, D. W., & Leonard, C. M., 2009). The effects of
obesity on cognitive development have been investigated to see if the claims that obesity causes a
cognitive developmental delay are accurate. Miller, Couch, Schwenk, Long, Towler, Theriaque, and
Leonard conducted a study by measuring total cerebellar volume by way of MRI. They ran these
tests on individuals with Prader Willi Syndrome ( with a known reason for obesity in the child) and
early onset obesity with an unknown cause. Both of these conditions are characterized by excessive
weight. They also brought in their siblings of both groups with normal body weight as a control
group. Because we know Prader Willi Syndrome is a congenital disorder with a known cause for
obesity and cognitive developmental delays, the results of the

Radiologic Encephalitis Research Paper
Diagnosis and management Clinical syndromes are never pathognomonic for a paraneoplastic
aetiology and a high index of clinical suspicion is important. Symptoms can be atypical, psychiatric
or even fluctuating and PNS should often be in the differential diagnosis of otherwise unexplained
severe neurological syndromes. Radiologic findings are especially important to rule out other
possible causes; in case of PNS they often render aspecific findings. As an exception, CT and MRI
reveal temporal lobe abnormalities in 65–80% of patients with limbic encephalitis (LE)(Dalmau and
Rosenfeld 2008) and often some degree of cerebellar atrophy is seen in the chronic stage of
predominantly cerebellar syndromes. In patients suffering from paraneoplastic cerebellar
degeneration (PCD), ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because of overlapping syndromes in separate antibodies, paraneoplastic antibodies should be
searched for by screening rather than by focusing on a specific antibody. Unfortunately, not all
patients with paraneoplastic syndromes have identifiable antibodies in their serum. Once a
paraneoplastic etiology is strongly suspected, a careful search for the underlying neoplasm is
mandatory. If detailed history taking, thorough physical examination and high resolution computed
tomography (CT) of chest, abdomen and pelvis do not show a primary tumor, whole body positron–
emission tomography (PET) or PET/CT may be the best screening method for locating the occult
cancer(Patel et al. 2008). Besides, the type of antibody and paraneoplastic syndrome may suggest a
specific underlying tumor and indicate more directed diagnostic tests, such as mammography (or
MRI) when breast cancer is suspected. With positive antibody screening and strong suspicion of
paraneoplastic disease, negative tumor search should be repeated at 3–6 months intervals for 2–3

Action Tremor: The Three Types Of Dystonic T
Action Tremor
As indicated, action tremor takes place only when an affected body part is moving to change
position intentionally. Action tremor is subdivided into three types: cerebellar lesion, rubral tremor,
and psychogenic tremor. Cerebellar lesions and rubral tremors are discussed in the paragraphs below
(Grimaldi & Manto, 2013).
Cerebellar lesion. A cerebellar lesion is a tremor related to cerebellar disorders. It happens after a
patient suffers a stroke that causes cerebellum damage. The damage to the cerebellum impairs
muscle coordination and deactivates the brain's control of a body part's movement. It is mainly
composed of low frequency oscillations. This can lead to an inability to coordinate balance while
walking, and trouble stabilizing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dystonic tremor is a type of tremor that can affect any individual under any age. This disease takes
place in conjunction with a neurological disorder called dystonia. When incorrect message from the
brain affects some muscles, it results in abnormal movements of body parts. Its amplitude and
frequency are unknown.
Orthostatic tremor. Orthostatic tremor is described by periodic muscle contractions that take place in
the legs and trunk instantly after standing. Its amplitude and frequency are unknown.
Differences Between Essential Tremor and Parkinson's Disease
Essential tremor, as described earlier, is not only considered the most widespread of abnormal
neurological diseases, but also the most widespread among all other tremor diseases. Parkinson's
disease is rest tremor that is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, originally described by James
Parkinson in 1817. According to the Mayo Clinic, many people confused ET and PD, though they
differ in many aspects:
Genetic. Many cases of ET occur in family while PD never transfer in family and is caused by the
damage of neurons in the brain.
Associated conditions. ET causes other health problems, but PD is associated with a stooped
posture, slow movement, and a shuffling gait. However, people with ET may sometimes develop
other neurological signs and symptoms, such as an unsteady gait called ataxia (Mansur et al.,

Cerebellar Syndrome
PML is a rare brain demyelinating pathology, characterized by the infection of glial cells, affecting
predominantly adults and only occasionally children. Patients have neuropsychological deficits at
the time of the onset of the disease. Common symptoms are: motor deficits, altered state of
consciousness, visual disturbances and ataxia. However, there are also atypical manifestations that
include cerebellar syndrome, meningitis, and meningoencephalitis, progressive myoclonic ataxia,
muscular degeneration associated with signs extrapyramidal (Fig.).
It is a progressive disease and leads to death within a few months where the patient is in permanent
immunodeficiency conditions. The average survival varies with respect to the Patient status: in
HIV–negative ones it is only a few months, in HIV–positive and in treatment with antiretroviral
therapies, survival increases even if can occurs serious complications to the ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The neuropathological description of PML has been reported for the first time in 1958 by Astrom
and colleagues, following the analysis of brain tissue taken by two patients with chronic
lymphocytic leukemia and a patient with Hodgkin's lymphoma [Astrom et al. 1958]. The etiology of
this disease was not known until Zu Rhein and Chou, in 1965, observed the presence of viral
particles in the cerebral lesions

Vertigo Case Study
Indication Hearing loss and vertigo. History The patient is a 74–year–old right–handed white female
who initially saw Paul R. Cass, DO several years ago. She then saw Douglas Black, MD. His notes
were reviewed. She was seen here mainly for CPAP for her obstructive sleep apnea. At that time, she
had multiple neurological complaints that were unchanging and nonspecific. She did have an MRI
in 2010, which revealed a right cerebellar lacune. A repeat MRI in 2011 revealed age related white
matter ischemic disease and the cerebellar lacune was not commented on. She states that she had
dizziness years ago at the time that the "slight CVA" of the right cerebellar area was noted. This
resolved. In 2000, she was in Florida and had the onset

What Is The Connection Between THD And LPT?
If nothing else, the lesson that can be taken from the connection between Hebb's postulate in 1949
and the discovery of LPT in 1973 is that the advancements in the neurobiological field of medicine
can applied to previous theories and start to offer new ways to alleviate the symptoms that come
with diseases such as Huntington's and Parkinson's. In a groundbreaking study, the alleviating
effects of both THC and CBD were studied on rats who were injected with 6–hydroxydopamine
(Lastres–Becker, Molina–Holgado, Ramos, Mechoulam, and Fernandez–Ruiz, 2005). This drug has
been found to induce Parkinson's disease–like conditions. Based on previous studies on the
effectiveness of these cannabinoids on protecting neurons from neurotoxicity, the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the first experiment, the subjects were male rats that were either 8 weeks old or older. By means
of a stereotaxic surgery, a lesion was made into their medial forebrain in which the purpose was to
inject the 6–hydroxydopamine toxin. Another group of rats were also operated on to control for any
antagonistic effects that the surgery itself might have had. Whether they were to be given THC or
CBD, the rats were given a 16–hour waiting period between the injection of the toxin and their first
treatment. This was to ensure that any effects that were analyzed wasn't caused by a reaction of the
either the THC and CBD and the 6–hydroxydopamine interacting. There was continued treatment
with the cannabinoid for two weeks, then they stopped giving it to them for another two weeks.
After these four weeks had passed, they killed the rats to examine their brains. The effect of
cannabinoids on the glial cultures made from the brain of one–day old mice and cultures of
cerebellar neurons taken from the brain of seven–day old mice. This section of the research had two
experiments. In first experiment, the cerebellar granule neurons either mixed with HU–210 or 6–
hydroxydopamine. HU–210 is described as having the same effect at cannabinoid receptors but
needing a less potent dose. In the second part of this experiment, HU–210 was combined with the
glial cultures taken. After a day of incubation, those glial cell cultures were

Essay about Etiology of Developmental Dyslexia
Etiology of Developmental Dyslexia
The long disputed debate about the primary cause of dyslexia is still very much alive in the field of
psychology. Dyslexia is commonly characterized as a reading and writing impairment that affects
around 5% of the global population. The disorder has frequently been hypothesized to be the result
of various sensory malfunctions. For over a decade, studies have made major contributions to the
disorder's etiology; however, scientists are still unclear of its specific causal. Initially, dyslexia was
thought to be a reading disorder in children and adults (1). Later it was suggested to consist of both a
visual and writing component, therefore characterizing it as more of a learning disability which ...
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While it was important to locate the specific cause of the disorders' manifestations, it seemed that
the most effective results would be achieved by a collective approach. This kind of approach would
encompass ideas placed forth by both the cognitive and neurological theoretical ideas which
currently existed in the current research of the etiology of dyslexia.
The phonological deficit hypothesis of dyslexia is one of the most long standing explanations
existing in psychological research. The theory was coined by a man known as the father of dyslexia,
Pringle–Morgan in 1896. Morgan viewed reading as a process that critically involved the
segmentation of text into graphemes (1). These graphemes served as the earliest precursors to
phonemes (the small unit of language), such that grapheme to phoneme conversion is equivalent to
the whole sound of a word (1), (5). The process is said to both require that a reader assemble and
address a word's phonology. Dyslexics are said to have phonological deficits which caused
phonemic representation difficulties; they would often fare worse than others when it came to
mapping sounds into letters in the brain, and with phonemic recall (1,5). Deficits in dyslexics' ability
to retain short–term word memory and problems with segmentation of words into phonemes (e.g.,
auditory discrimination), lent support to these ideas (5).
A study by Petra Georgiewa and colleagues investigated the phonological

Purkindule Cell Membrane Analysis
Results
Light microscopic results
The cerebellar cortex of control adult rats showed that the architecture of the cerebellum with H&E
was made up of molecular, Purkinje cells and granular layers. The molecular layer was formed
mainly of fibers with a few glial cells [basket cells (BC) and stellate cells (SC)].
Purkinje cells were arranged in one row and appeared pyriform in shape. The granular layer showed
tightly packed small rounded cells (Fig. 1). With toluidine blue (semithin sections), the cerebellar
cortex showed molecular, Purkinje cells and granular layers. Purkinje cells were of large pyriform
somata with clear vesicular nuclei and prominent nucleoli along the outer margin of the granular
layer (Fig. 2). Immunohistochemical
staining ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This group showed a positive cytoplasmic immune reaction for caspase–3 of neuronal cells of whole
layers but less marked than that of the AL–treated group (Fig. 12).
Transmission electron microscopic results
Ultrathin sections of the cerebellar cortex of the control group showed normal ultrastructure of
Purkinje cells with the characteristic large size of the somata, a euchromatic nucleus, and a
prominent nucleolus. The cytoplasm was rich in organelles with rough endoplasmic reticulum
cisternae, numerous mitochondria, and free ribosomes (Figs 13 and 14). Granule cells showed a
normal ultrastructure with their rounded heterochromatic nuclei. The cell was surrounded by a shell
of cytoplasm showing intact strands of rough endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, and few
mitochondria (Fig. 15).
The cerebellar cortex of the NS–treated group showed no ultrastructural deviation from the control
group.
The cerebellar cortex of the AL–treated group showed
Purkinje cells with an irregular euchromatic nucleus with increased condensation of nuclear
chromatin, prominent invagination of its nuclear envelope, myelin figure formation, areas of
vacuolated cytoplasm,

The Presence Of Rat Model Of Parkinson 's Disease Induced...
The present study was established to show revealed the presence of neurochemical and
histopathological changes in the cerebellum of rat model of Parkinson's disease induced by the
intrastriatal injection of rotenone. This may change the strategy of the disease treatment that depends
mainly on the restoration of dopamine levels in the basal ganglia.
The present findings showed the development of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum of rat model of
PD induced by intrastriatal injection of rotenone. This was indicated from the significant increase in
the excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters; glutamate and aspartate and the significant decrease in
the inhibitory amino acids; GABA, glycine and taurine. These neurotransmitters are involved in
many functions such as motor behavior, cognition, and emotion (Ottersen and Storm–Mathisen,
1986, Schmidt et al., 1992)1,2. The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is
important for brain to sustain proper neuronal function (Mel et al., 2004)[1]. Perturbation in
glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission is associated with several neurological and
psychiatric disorders (Sanacora et al., 2004) (3) [glutamate gaba balance 1].
Functional neuroimaging study using PET or blood oxygen level–dependent functional MRI
frequently demonstrated increased activation in the cerebellum in patients with PD during
performance of various upper limb movements (Rascol et al., 1997; Catalan et al., 1999; Wu and
Hallett, 2005; Yu et

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