Kidney Injury And Hormonal Failure

Kidney Injury And Hormonal Failure
The kidneys play host to a variety of different important functions in our bodies. The kidney's
primary function is the removal of toxins, which is excreted in the form of urine. The second
extremely important role of the kidneys is maintaining the body's acid–base balance. This is balance
is maintained by the excretion of fixed acids and the reabsorption of bicarbonate. The hormonal
functions of the kidneys include the regulation of blood pressure and the manufacturing of red blood
cells.
As critical care nurses, why should we be concerned about acute kidney injury (AKI)? How about a
few statistics to help you answer this question. Approximately 5 % of all hospitalized patients will
develop AKI during their hospital stay (Yaklin, 2011). For ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are a variety of options for anticoagulation in CRRT patients. Heparin is the least expensive
and drug with the shortest half life, which is why it is the preferred method of anticoagulation.
Heparin does require frequent PTT monitoring and dose adjustments. The disadvantages to heparin
use are increased bleeding risk and thrombocytopenia. For those patients who develop heparin
induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), the use of a direct thrombin inhibitor is recommended. Argatroban
and Lepirudin are the two direct thrombin inhibitors of choice. Deciding between the two is based
on patient history, current medical condition and method of CRRT used. Argatroban is eliminated by
the liver, whereas Lepirudin is eliminated by the kidneys and may not be used in patients with AKI.
For those patients with an allergy to Heparin, the use of citrate is an option. Citrate binds to calcium
in the patients blood within the CRRT circuit and will help prolong circuit life. Citrate requires
monitoring of labs, specifically ionized calcium, sodium and acid base status. Citrate is
contraindicated in patients with hepatic failure or with lactic acidosis. When the use of
anticoagulates are contraindicated, sodium chloride is used. Small boluses, approximately 100–200
milliliters, are used to flush the CRRT circuit. These fluid boluses are used to reduce the stagnation
of blood in the
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Acid Base Disturbance Report
Acid–Base Disturbances is any condition which results in changes of the extracellular fluid pH from
the normal range of pH 7.35 – 7.45. ... Because the blood pH and the ECF pH are almost always
equivalent, disturbances of acid–base homeostasis are diagnosed by measuring blood pH. "When the
pH is below 7.35, the condition is called acidosis; when the pH is above 7.45, it is called
alkalosis". (VanPutte, 2013). Acidosis or Alkalosis states are categorized as being either metabolic
or respiratory so the imbalance or condition maybe respiratory acidosis, or respiratory alkalosis,
metabolic acidosis and or metabolic alkalosis. Because the body is always striving for or attempting
to maintain normalcy (homeostasis), regardless of the etiological source all initial acid–base
disturbances will result in an imbalance of the normal pH ratio. To combat the effects of acidosis
and or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Ketoacidosis the body is making too many ketones due to fats being burned for absent
carbohydrates as source of energy, excessive amount of fats in the body become acidic creating the
ketones. Possible cause are diabetics not receiving proper insulin and hydration, excessive alcohol
drinking with low po intake, as well as anoxia. The patient have the following signs and symptoms
tachypnea, tachycardia, HA, confusion, tired or weakness, loss in appetite, and or N/V. Treatment is
to correct the imbalance or the underlying cause of the imbalance ie hydration fluids, Insulin
Respiratory Acidosis– has two forms Acute and Chronic it is usually caused by other condition or
disease such as Asthma, Pneumonia, COPD, and Sleep Apnea. With chronic respiratory acidosis the
patient may be asymptomatic, however; acute clinical findings are but not limited to decrease in
respiratory rate/volume, HA, drowsiness, confusion, and tremors. Treatment is usually oxygen and
or mechanical

Organic Compound
Inorganic and organic compounds are both necessary for the human body. The definition of an
inorganic compound is a compound that does not contain hydrocarbon groups. An inorganic
compound is composed of several other elements, such as salts, metals, and other elemental
compounds, but can contain hydrogen or carbon. If they have both, carbon and hydrogen molecules,
they are organic. Organic compounds are defined as compounds containing hydrocarbon groups.
Organic compounds will include things like the nucleic acids, found in DNA, lipids and fatty acids
found in the cells of living organisms, proteins and enzymes that are necessary for cellular processes
to take place, and more. There are numerous effects to the body if there are disturbances ... Show
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Hypervolemia, hypovolemia, overhydration, and dehydration are four examples of disturbances in
water balance. Hypervolemia is an upsurge of too much blood plasma, causing an elevated volume
of blood. Hypovolemia is a decrease in the volume of blood in your body, which can be due to blood
loss or loss of body fluids. Overhydration is an excess of water in the body, while dehydration is a
deficiency of water in the body. Electrolytes are important minerals stored in very small amounts in
the body, which include: sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. An electrolyte disturbance
can be caused by severe fluid loss through sweating and by certain health conditions, such as kidney
problems, diabetes, malnutrition, hormone disorders, and heart disease. Some consequences of an
electrolyte disturbance are dizziness, nausea, fatigue, or muscle twitching or spasms that continue.
The carbohydrates in foods are long chains of simple sugar molecules and must be broken down. If
an enzyme needed to process a certain sugar is missing, the sugar can accumulate in the body,
causing glycogen storage diseases. Glycogen storage diseases are caused by lack of an enzyme
needed to change glucose into glycogen and break down glycogen into

Acid Base Balance Research Paper
Acid–base balance in the body is important to maintain our normal functions. The regulation of
hydrogen ions is essential for the body to perform normally and to achieve homeostasis. Our bodies
maintain a pH level between a small margin of 7.35 to 7.45. If the pH level becomes too low, the
body goes into a state called acidosis. On the contrary, if it elevates too far, the body enters into a
state called alkalosis.
Acidosis is caused by an overproduction of acid in the blood, an excessive loss of bicarbonate from
the blood, or by a buildup of carbon dioxide in the blood. Acidosis is categorized into two separate
categories; Metabolic acidosis and Respiratory acidosis. As the pH in the blood lowers, the body
starts to react to the drop. Respirations can become faster and deeper to try and release carbon
dioxide which is slightly acidic, and the kidneys will excrete more acid into the urine. If the body
cannot compensate for the drop in pH, it can enter into a coma.
Metabolic acidosis occurs when the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Just as in acidosis, the two types of alkalosis are metabolic and respiratory. When the pH becomes
too high due to too much base in the blood, the body can start to have uncontrolled skeletal muscle
contractions.
Metabolic alkalosis occurs when the body gains too much base or loses too much acid. Some causes
of this would be vomiting for long periods of time where stomach acid is lost or too much fluid and
electrolytes such as sodium or potassium is lost. Ingestion of large amounts of a base can also cause
alkalosis. An overactive adrenal gland and the use of diuretics are also a major cause of metabolic
alkalosis. Treatment of metabolic alkalosis includes the replacement water and electrolyte loss and
treating the underlying issue of alkalosis. Diluted acid can also be given for alkalotic

Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance Essay
Disturbances of Acid–Base Balance
If an acid–base disturbance shifts the pH outside of the physiologic range, various control measures
are activated to resist the change in pH. Compensatory mechanisms try to preserve the normal 20:1
ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid to keep the pH at normal range. The body works to maintain
normal ratios through a compensation mechanism using renal and respiratory methods (Crowley,
2010).
Metabolic Alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis is seen by an increase in the concentration of plasma bicarbonate relative to the
concentration of carbonic acid, which shifts the pH to the alkaline side of the physiologic range
(case study– pH 7.5). The main causes of metabolic alkalosis are loss of gastric juice or ... Show
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Excessive use of antacids (case study–using more than the recommended dose) may also cause
metabolic alkalosis by neutralizing gastric acid, which has the same effect as loss from vomiting.
Ingesting sodium bicarbonate as an antacid to neutralize gastric acid has the same effect as any other
antacid. Any sodium bicarbonate ingested that exceeds the amount required to neutralize the gastric
acid will be absorbed, contributing further to metabolic alkalosis.
Chloride depletion also results from loss of GI secretions caused by severe vomiting (case study) or
diarrhea. Chloride and bicarbonate are the two main anions in the plasma, and their concentrations
vary inversely. When the plasma chloride falls, plasma bicarbonate rises to keep the total
concentration of anions in the extracellular fluids in check.
An excess secretion of adrenal corticosteroids that regulate salt and water metabolism
(mineralocorticoids) often causes metabolic alkalosis, and potassium depletion. A major site of
action of corticosteroids is the distal renal tubule, where the hormone promotes absorption of
sodium in exchange for potassium, which is secreted into the tubular filtrate. An excess of
mineralocorticoids increases absorption of sodium in

There were many things that I learned in Module 7 . Some...
There were many things that I learned in Module 7 . Some of them where: what is the difference
between an acid and a base; what is pH; what is equilibrium, what is Le Châtelier's principle; and
what is oxidation. Here are some of the things that I learned in lesson 07.01 (Acids and Bases) and
lesson 07.02 (Acid–Base Reactions). An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+ or
hydrodium ionsH3O+ in solution. There are three "kinds of acids": Arrhenius, BrØnsted–Lowry, and
Lewis Acid. An Arrhenius acid is a substance the increases the concentration of hydrogen ion, H+ or
hydronium ions H3O+when dissolved in water. You must have water. A BrØnsted–Lowry acid is
any substance that donates a hydrogen ion, H+ to another substance. A ... Show more content on
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Here are some of the things that I learned in lessons 07.03 (pH), and 07.04 (Equilibrium). The
formula to calculate the pH of a solution is pH = – log [H3O+]. A titration is a laboratory technique
used to calculate the concentration of a chemical. You are performing an acid–base neutralization
reaction. For example, let's say we have some HCl that we do not know the concentration. We can
react it with a base, such as NaOH. You start by placing the substance of a known concentration in a
buret, such as a 0.25 M NaOH solution. Then, place the chemical that you do not know the
concentration of in a flask under the buret, such as HCl. We need to add an indicator to the flask
since most reactions are colorless. You will 'titrate' the NaOH until you reach the endpoint, which
means that you will allow the chemical in the buret, called the titrant, to flow into the flask. At the
end point, the solution will have a light pink color. Once you determine how much of the titrant,
NaOH you used, you can use stoichiometry to calculate the concentration of the unknown,
HCl.Chemical equilibrium is when the forward and the reverse reactions are occurring at the same
rate. If K is greater than 1, that means there are products than reactants are equilibrium. If K is less
than 1, there are more reactants than products at equilibrium.As more products are made, the rate of
the forward reaction will decrease.The rate of the

Ocean Acidification Essay
To begin, Ocean Acidification is a complex issue that revolves around the pH level of the water in
the oceans. According to Ocean Acidification by Gattuso and Lina "Ocean Acidification is a
reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period, typically decades or longer, caused
primarily by the uptake of CO 2 from the atmosphere" Scientists use the pH scale to describe the
strength of acids and bases. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with 0 being the most acidic and 14
the most basic. Gattuso and Lina address that, "Once dissolved in seawater, CO 2 is a weak acid
which generates a number of changes in seawater chemistry." Furthermore they state,"The ocean pH
levels has decreased from approximately 8.2 to 8.1 between pre–industrial time and the 1990s, and
may reach 7.8 in 2100." The issue of Ocean Acidification is dependent on the pH levels of the
oceans. The belief is lowered pH levels could cause disastrous effects to the millions of different
types of sea life in the oceans. Scientists believe that a difference in pH levels could devastate the
ecology of the oceans. For example, it is stated by Gattuso & Lina that, "Changes in the carbonate
chemistry of seawater can have a wide range of effects, some of which may be mediated through
disturbances in the acid–base status of affected organisms." As a result, "The extracellular pH of
body fluids in animals and the intracellular pH of various organisms are usually tightly regulated,
but the capacity of regulatory

Medical Case Study: Compensated Acute Metabolic Alkalemia
Resource 1: Case Study The patient's acid–base disturbance is very clearly a sign of acute renal
failure. The levels all correlate to a case of compensated acute metabolic alkalemia. The case is
acute because the blood pH is only off by .1 from the average normal range. Furthermore, the levels
of PaCO2 40 mm, PaO2 95 mm, SaO2 97%, and HCO3– 32 meq/lite are all well within the normal
ranges, which further shows that the failure is acute at the point of testing. It is alkalemia because
the blood is slightly more alkaline than normal. This can be seen as blood is normally at a pH of
between 7.35 and 7.45. If the pH were to drop below this amount, it would be too acidic. Here, the
pH increased, resulting in an alkaline state. This patient's current condition is compensated because
it falls within the result range of renal compensation (WHO, 2010). There are two possible causes
for this condition that are revealed in the case study. The first cause is that the patient was sick with
the flu during which she was vomiting multiple times each day and unable to keep down any foods
or liquids, resulting in her becoming dehydrated. This dehydrated state reduces the amount of
plasma in the blood stream, causing an alkalemia effect (WHO, 2010). This is further exasperated
by the loss of gastric secretions, which are very high in hydrochloric acid. This hydrochloric acid
typically enters the bloodstream in small amounts, encouraging the necessary homeostatic state for
proper blood

Mobile Phone Exposure And Carcinogenesis Essay
Mobile phone exposure and carcinogenesis
Brain cancer is the most frightening hazard of mobile phone use. The International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) classified RF fields as "possibly carcinogenic to humans," in 2002 in
spite of limited evidence from human and animal studies (IARC, 2002).
The relation between mobile phone radiation exposure and cancer are justified. Muscat et al. (2000)
showed that a relationship exists between mobile phone use and meningioma or glioma. A meta–
analysis conducted by Swedish researchers and published in the International Journal of Oncology,
pointed out to a significant correlation between long–term use of mobile phones and brain tumors
(Hardell et al. 2011). They found that both malignant and benign tumors were linked to the chronic
exposure to cell phone radiation and suggested that mobile phones were not safe for long–term use.
In 2011, after taking the opinions of 30 experts from 14 countries, the World Health Organization
(WHO) categorized mobile phone radiation as a potential Group 2B carcinogen and officially
advised consumers to limit their use (IARC, 2011; Baan et al., 2011). This suggests that mobile
phone radiation may have a carcinogenic effect. Recently, Howlader et al. (2013) reported that
mobile phone use raises the risk of brain cancer. Several possible pathways of carcinogenesis have
been suggested. As we have discussed, the plasma membrane may be a target of RF–EMW. RF–
EMW may act on various enzymes and

Meth Research Paper
Methamphetamine was created in Japan in 1919. It became widely used in World War 2. Kamikaze
pilots would get high doses before their missions. Meth kept soldiers awake and focused. People
started using in it the U.S. in the 1950's as a diet drug. Meth was also known as the "soccer mom
drug" because people could get their work done quickly and lose weight at the same time. Many
people started taking the drug in high doses and began abusing the drug in the 1960's.
Methamphetamine became illegal in the 1970's. Meth is a synthetic drug made with household
chemicals. Sudafed is cooked down is used as the base of the drug. Other drugs that can be put in
this drug are battery acid, drain cleaner, lantern fuel, and antifreeze. After the drug

3-Acetamidopropane-1 Alcohol Analysis
It is well known that excessive alcohol can produce various side effects to human. However, giving
up drinking is difficult and can bring several symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. To treat this problem,
acamprosate, 3–Acetamidopropane–1–sulfonic acid, is used as a medication with a common brand
name, Campral. Acamprosate is a small molecule that has a molecular weight about 181.21 g/mol.
Its molecular formula is C5H11NO4S and is named as 3–Acetamidopropane–1–sulfonic acid or N–
acetyl homotaurine. The main function of acamprosate is re–balancing the chemicals in the brain.
Before alcohol consumption, human brain retains a balance of chemicals called neurotransmitters.
When the intake of alcohol is repeated, the brain alters the balance and turns to adapt to that
chemical changes, and finally, this will be lead to tolerance and addiction of alcohol. By modulating
and normalizing the alcohol–related ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During the synthesis, the first two steps are using SOCl2 (Thionyl chloride) and Na2SO3 (Sodium
sulfite). Thionyl chloride is a reagent of the reaction of alcohols that replaces the alcohol with
chlorine. Then, the chlorine becomes a leaving group, and the sodium sulfite reacts as a substitution.
When the 3–aminopropane–1–sulfonic acid is made, this is treated with calcium hydroxide and
acetic acid. Calcium hydroxide, which is a strong base, deprotonates the molecule and makes the
product, acamprosate calcium. This synthesized acamprosate has two functional groups, sulfonic
acid, and amide. Interestingly, acamprosate molecule does not have any chirality or E/Z
stereochemistry. There is no carbon that has four different substituents or no nitrogen with three
different substituents and a positive charge. In addition, there is no carbon–carbon double bond
existing in this

How Does Water Increase The Rate Of Chemical Reactions In...
flow chart:
1. Water increases the rate of chemical reactions in the body.
2. Without maintenance of fluids the body becomes in water crisis that leads to weakening of body
cells.
3. A good homeostasis is important for human body.
4. Lack of water results in less transport of substances such as enzymes, hormones etc.
5. O2 is important for every cell in the body and it is transported to whole body through water. If
water is available more oxygen will be purified in the lungs and blood would be more oxygenated
and vice versa.
6. Water removes metabolic wastes and toxic through urination which is important for excretion.
7. Water provides a specific medium for chemical reactions in the body.
8. It regulates body temperature.
9. Blood is main ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first is a chemical buffer, the second line of defence is the respiratory system, and last is the
urinary system. These three mechanisms work together to keep body pH within that narrow range.
However our bodies are very sensitive to pH levels, so strong mechanisms are in place to in place to
regulate it. If pH rises or falls outside acceptable ranges for a specific part of the body, proteins and
enzymes may become denatured and lose their ability to function. This could lead to serious damage
or death. That is why it's absolutely essential that our body has a homeostatic mechanism to regulate
the correct acid–base balance. One mechanism the body uses to control blood pH involves the
release of carbon dioxide from the lungs. Carbon dioxide, which is mildly acidic and is a waste
product of the metabolism of oxygen which all cells need and is constantly produced by cells. As
with all the waste products, carbon dioxide gets excreted into the blood. The blood carries carbon
dioxide to the lungs, where it is exhaled. As carbon dioxide accumulates in the blood, the pH of the
blood decreases (acidity increases). The brain regulates the amount of carbon dioxide that is exhaled
by controlling the speed and depth of breathing. The amount of carbon dioxide exhaled, and
consequently the pH of the blood, increases as breathing becomes faster and deeper. By adjusting
the speed and depth of breathing, the brain and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH minute by
minute. The kidneys are able to affect blood pH by excreting excess acids or bases. The kidneys
have some ability to alter the amount of acid or base that is excreted, but because the kidneys make
these adjustments more slowly than the lungs do, this compensation generally takes several

Hallucinogen Research Paper
Hallucinogen is a title commonly given to drugs that are mind–altering. This category of drug
includes those which cause a variety of side–effects, most commonly temporary distortions to one's
view of reality. Hallucinogens are commonly used for recreation, along with in some cultures as
religious practices ("What Is A Hallucinogen?"). The most common hallucinogens are LSD,
Psilocybin, Peyote, and DMT. All five of these are plant–based substances ("Hallucinogens"). They
also each fall under the classification of an alkaloid. Alkaloids are commonly found in plants, and
have not been proven to serve any specific purpose among plants. Alkaloids can vary in structure,
but always have a nitrogen atom as part of a structure similar to that ... Show more content on
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I personally believe that use of hallucinogens has already become fairly socially acceptable. I feel
that my generation is very open–minded and is less likely to condemn others for controversial
choices than older generations. I feel that it should be socially acceptable, because everyone makes
their own choices. If someone is choosing to use hallucinogens on their own time for recreation, and
they are not hurting anyone else in the process, there is no reason they should be shamed for that
choice. They understand the consequences of their own actions, and can therefore be mature about it
and deal with said consequences. At the same time, those who use hallucinogens as a religious rite,
such as some southwestern native american tribes do, should not be frowned upon. Christians
consume wine in church as part of the eucharist. Nobody tells them that because alcohol is harmful
to the human body, they should not do it. Therefore, there is no reason for anyone else to condemn
religious groups for using hallucinogens. Everyone has the capability to make their own choices,
whether for recreation or for religious reasons. If no one is forcing a sheet of blotter paper onto one's
tongue or putting peyote in someone else's tea, I see no problem with use of hallucinogens from a
social

Chemical Kinetcs – the Hydrolysis of Pna Ester
"Chemical Kinetcs – The hydrolysis of PNA Ester"
Introduction: Reaction of a compound with water can result in a splitting, or lysis, of the compound
into two parts. Organic molecules containing a group of atoms called an ester can be hydrolyzed by
water to form a –COOH group (carboxylic acid) and an HO–– group (alcohol) as follows:
RCOOR' + H2O ( RCOOH + HOR'
This reaction is spontaneous for almost all esters but can be very slow under typical conditions of
temperature and pressure. The reaction occurs at a much faster rate if there is a significant amount of
base (OH–) in the solution. In this lab experiment, the rate of this reaction will be studied using an
ester called para–nitrophenyl acetate (PNA), which produces an alcohol, ... Show more content on
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|Table 1 |
|Varying Exp |Test Tube|PNA [45mg/0.5L] |(PO4)3– Buffer| |H2O |Catalyst | | | |
|1.5x[PNA] |2 |3 |7 |2 |0 |– |– |– |– |
|1/2 [PNA] |3 |1 |7 |2 |2 |– |– |– |– |
|Imidazole |4 |2 |7 |2 |0 |Imidazole |0.025 |1 |0.005 |
|Super (10x) Imidazole|5 |2 |7 |2 |0 |Super (10x) Imidazole|0.25 |1 |0.05 |
|2–Me. Imid. |6 |2 |7 |2 |0 |2–Me. Imid. |0.025 |1 |0.005 |
|4–Me. Imid. |7 |2 |7 |2 |0 |4–Me. Imid. |0.025 |1 |0.005 |
|Acidic pH 6.5 |8 |2 |6.5 |2 |1 |– |– |– |– |
|Basic pH 7.5 |9 |2 |7.5 |2 |1 |– |– |– |– |
|Basic pH 8.0 |10

A Patient With Respiratory Acidosis Essay
a) In a patient with respiratory acidosis, the partial pressure of CO2 in the plasma (PCO2) rises
above normal levels of 40 mmHg (1). Airway resistance due to asthma, respiratory depression due
to drug use as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease all cause hypoventilation, lowering
partial pressure of plasma oxygen (PO2) to below its normal value of approximately 100 mm Hg (1)
and can lead to respiratory acidosis. The equation below describes the equation between CO2 and
H2O with H+ and HCO3–. According to the law of mass action, all reactions tend towards
equilibrium, and any disturbance in the amount of any of the products or reactants will shift the
reaction in a direction which leads to re–establishment of equilibrium. If CO2 concentration rises,
the new chemical equilibrium will favour further production of both H+ and HCO3– through
disassociation of H2CO3. Each additional molecule of CO2 would lead to production of one
molecule of H+ and HCO3–.
〖CO〗_2+H_2 O→ H_2 CO^3→H^++HCO_3^– (1).
Production of H+ will cause plasma pH to fall below 7.4. Normally, increases in H+ concentrations
are buffered mostly by haemoglobin, however buffers can only resist small changes in pH. The
HCO3– levels increase slightly, but are likely to still remain within normal levels of 22 to 26
mEq/L. This is because equilibrium changes in concentrations is slight compared to the large
compensatory changes (1). Renal mechanisms can assist in excreting H+ and reabsorbing HCO3–.

Acid-Base Imbalance
Acid–Base Imbalance
Janet J Memoli
Grand Canyon University NUR 641E
September 30, 2015
Acid– Base Imbalance One of the basic concepts that new nurses need to learn is that homeostasis in
the body is maintained by the acid base balance in the body. That concept is critical when looking at
arterial blood gases. This can help guide the nurse to anticipate what the doctor will order and the
education that she needs to give the patient and the family. This case study should help to illustrate
the point.
Case Study The case study that was given to us is a 22 year old woman who reports being "sick with
the flu" She has been vomiting and having difficulty keeping food and drink down. In addition she
has been taking ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
High pH is alkalosis, low pH is acidosis.. Next you look at carbon dioxide and bicarbonate.
Bicarbonate will go the same way as pH. So if the pH is high then the bicarbonate will be up, if the
pH is low then the bicarbonate will be low. Carbon dioxide is the opposite. If the pH is high then the
carbon dioxide is low, if the ph is low then the carbon dioxide is high ( Fournier, 2011). The possible
causes of this acid base imbalance are the vomiting and the overuse of antacids. As the name implies
it is bicarbonate which has been added to the body. The vomiting reduces the extracellular fluid and
this in turn leads to a release of angiotensin and aldersterone. This release then increases the
bicarbonate absorption and increased hydrogen ion and potassium excreted. This patient may also
have hypokalemia which is very common in metabolic alkalosis and would need to be replaced if it
occurred ( Thomas, 2015). The respiratory rate would also slow to try and compensate for the
alkalosis. The treatment for this patient is to replace the fluid which should stop the release of
angiotensin and aldersterone. This should be accomplished with normal saline. If there is
hypokalemia you would need to supplement with potassium. A proton pump inhibitor would also
need to be used like prilosec to prevent further losses in hydrogen ions. If she was on any diuretics
they need to be discontinued and if renal failure is

The Effect Of Ph Solution Of Feed Phase On The Removal...
Figure. 7. Effect of pH solution of feed phase on the removal efficiency of citric acid
Transport conditions: Feed phase: citric acid 10–2 M, pH 2–12. Stripping phase: deionized water,
pH=6.8. Membrane: 12.60 cm2 of surface area, Calix[4]resorcinarene (0.15 g/g mixture of
polymers), 0.03 ml 2–NPOE/g mixture of polymers. Values obtained after 5 days of
experimentation.
3.8 Stability of PIMs
In this study, one PIM was reused, whereas the feed and strip phases were replaced after one cycle
with fresh ones in 5 experiments and each experiment lasted from 4 days. As observed in Fig. 8. The
initial flux of PIM shows a gradual decrease with increasing of cycle's reuse, which may be caused
by the loss of carrier from membrane [37]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Conclusion
In this study, a polymer inclusion membrane was prepared and succevally applied for the removal of
citric acid from synthetic wastewater. The mixture of CTA and CA was found to be the optimum
base polymer for quantitative transport of citric acid. Moreover, the nature of carrier especially alkyl
chain length, stirring rate, and pH of feed phase are also important factors affecting the increased
rate of citric acid transport. Hence, from results obtained it can be seen that the investigated
calix[4]resorcinarene are effective extractants for citric acid and that their extraction abilities depend
on the alkyl chain length of the substituent in the macrocycle. Choosing the appropriate length of
alkyl chain, very selective system can be designed. The excellent efficiency for the citric acid
transport by the proposed PIM system reveals its potential application for the selective removal,
concentration and purification of citric acid from different media.
References
[1] K.L. Kalra, H.S. Grewal, Fungal production of citric acid, Biotechnol. Adv., 13 (2) (1995) 209–
234.
[2] M. Pazouki, P.A. Felse, J. Sinha, T. Panda, Comparative studies on citric acid production by
Aspergillus niger and Candida lipolytica using molasses and glucose, Bioprocess Eng., 22 (2000)
353–361.
[3] A.A. Ghoreyshi, F.A. Farhadpour, M. Soltanieh, M. Abdelghani, Transport of small polar
molecules across nonporous

Comparison Of Proteins, Lipids And Carbohydrates
The so small thing that is being talked about is a cell. This is because even though a cell is so small
inside our body, there are many different complications it can generate while processing. There are 4
main organic compound molecules that make up a cell which are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins
and Nucleic Acids. Each of these different molecules have individual jobs in parts of cell while
transferring transferring information.These molecules are what help with the structure and function
of a cell. Carbohydrates are what provides the cells with energy, they contain simple sugars and
glucose which helps cells to create cellular energy. Lipids are what follow Carbohydrates, they
generate energy storage for the cell. They also provide shape ... Show more content on
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Proteins are the main structure of the cell, they help with function and do the largest amount of work
in the cell. Next there is a code that gets from the nucleus to a readable form by our bodies through a
process called protein synthesis. There are two steps to protein synthesis, Transcription and
Translation. These both help with the genetic coding of the DNA which takes place in the nucleus of
the cell. Transcription is when the genetic information from the double helix of the DNA is
replicated into a new molecule of mRNA. Translation which takes place in the cytoplasm, is when
that newly created mRNA molecule is formed into a sequence of amino acids during the process of
protein synthesis. That is when those amino acids can start creating codons which are three
nucleotides formed together in a genetic code. If a code is not translated correctly then a mutation
can occur. A mutation when a change occurs in the DNA sequence when coding a gene, which can
cause different diseases such as

Metabolic Alkalosis Lab Report
Metabolic alkalosis is a primary increase in serum bicarbonate (HCO3–) concentration. This occurs
as a consequence of a loss of H+ from the body or a gain in HCO3–. In its pure form, it manifests as
alkalemia (pH >7.40). As a compensatory mechanism, metabolic alkalosis leads to alveolar
hypoventilation with a rise in arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO2), which diminishes the change
in pH that would otherwise occur.
Normally, arterial PaCO2 increases by 0.5–0.7 mm Hg for every 1 mEq/L increase in plasma
bicarbonate concentration, a compensatory response that is very quick. If the change in PaCO2 is
not within this range, then a mixed acid–base disturbance occurs. For example, if the increase in
PaCO2 is more than 0.7 times the increase in bicarbonate, then metabolic alkalosis coexists with
primary respiratory acidosis. Likewise, if the increase in PaCO2 is less than the expected change,
then a primary respiratory alkalosis is also present. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Remember that an elevated serum bicarbonate concentration may also be observed as a
compensatory response to primary respiratory acidosis. However, a bicarbonate concentration
greater than 35 mEq/L is almost always caused by metabolic alkalosis.
Metabolic alkalosis is diagnosed by measuring serum electrolytes and arterial blood gases. If the
etiology of metabolic alkalosis is not clear from the clinical history and physical examination,
including drug use and the presence of hypertension, then a urine chloride ion concentration can be
obtained. Calculation of the serum anion gap may also help to differentiate between primary
metabolic alkalosis and metabolic compensation for respiratory acidosis. (See

Describe The Relationship Between Chemical Rxns And The...
Chemistry in Action
I. Chemical Reactions (Section 8.1)
A. Molecules and Chemicals Reactions
1. Chemical Reactions– a chemical change resulting from a collision between atoms or molecules.
Parts of a chemical rxn are reactants and products.
a. Reactants– substances that cause a chemical reaction, the original product.
b. Products– the new that comes from rxn; substances that are produced
c. Equations: An expression that uses chemical symbols to represent a chemical rxn.
i. Example: 2H₂ + 0₂ yields 2H₂O
d. Coefficients– the number the proceeds the formula and it tells you how molecules or formula
units are present.
e. Law of Conservation of Mass– states that the total number of reactants is equal to the total mass
of products; how many reactants ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because some chemical rxns are reversible the forward and reverse rxns occur simultaneously
(meaning at the same time).
3. Le Chatelier's principle: when equilibrium is disturbed the rxn will be partly affected, or partially
offset the disturbance.
E. Types of Chemical Rxns
1. Combination Rxn– Chemical rxn that has two or more substance that makes a new third
substance.
i. Example: A + B yields AB
2. Decomposition rxn– a chemical rxn compound breakdown or decomposes to form a different
substances.
i. Example: AB yields A + B
3. Single Displacement– Chemical rxn in which an element is replaced by another.
i. Example: A + BC yields B + AC ( the element B in the compound BD is displaced.)
4. Double Displacement– a chemical rxn where two compounds exchange atoms or ions.
i. Example: AB +CD yields AD +CB (the B and the D are exchanged)
F. Salts, Acids, and Bases
1. Salts: an ionic compound that doesn't contain a Hydrogen ion (H⁺) or a hydroxide ion (OH⁻).
i. When salt or another ionic compound dissolves in water or another polar solvent is dissociation.
2. Acids and bases:
i. Acids– a substance that produces hydrogen cations (H⁺) when dissolved in water (aqueous
solution). ii. One popular property acid is its sour

Chemistry : Fluid And Electrolyte Imbalance
Fluid and Electrolyte imbalance
Purpose: To provide nursing students with a solid foundation of understanding the basic concepts of
fluids and electrolytes, acids and bases, pH, buffering mechanisms and will be able to weave their
knowledge in identifying fluid electrolyte imbalances in clinical settings.
Goals: The nursing student will be able to verbalize the acid base regulation in the body, the
mechanisms of acid base imbalances and correlate the finding in pathological situations.
Objectives:
Course Objectives with Essentials: At the end of the course student will be able to
1. Integrate and apply knowledge from nursing science and evidence based practice to health care
needs of an individual in a clinical setting (Essential I: Liberal Education for Baccalaureate
Generalist Nursing Practice, Essential VII: Clinical Prevention and Population Health, Essential IX:
Baccalaureate Generalist Nursing Practice)
2. Assess for and adapt care to address the needs of patients' cultural, language, ethnic, or spiritual
needs.
(Essential IX: Baccalaureate Generalist Nursing Practice)
3. Integrate biological, physiological, and pharmacological sciences in nursing while providing
patient care in a clinical setting.
(Essential II: Basic Organizational and Systems Leadership for Quality Care and Patient Safety,
Essential IV: Information Management and Application of Patient Care Technology, Essential VII:
Clinical Prevention and Population Health, Essential IX: Baccalaureate Generalist

Essay On Titration Of Carbonate And Bicarbonate
Determine the total alkalinity of (=[HCO–3 +2[CO2–3]) by preforming a titration with the use of
HCl.
Determine the Bicarbonate content (HCO–3 + OH– → CO2–3 + H2O) by preforming a titration
with the use of NaOH to convert HCO3– to CO2–3.
Calculate the composition of carbonate and bicarbonate in the solution.
Introduction
Acid–base titrations are common laboratory practices that are used to determine the concentration of
either an acid or a base, by neutralizing the substance with a known concentration of an acid or base.
Crude sodium carbonate, also called soda ash, is commonly used as a commercial neutralizing
agent. In this experiment, we will determine the composition of an unknown solid, knowing only
that it contains sodium ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using this, the concentration of carbonate can be determined from the total alkalinity (see Results).
Experimental Information
Procedure
At the start of the experiment all the following glassware was cleaned with DI water, and soap; then
dried to remove traces of DI water that remained. The glassware used was a 50mL buret, (3) 150 mL
volumetric flask, a 25mL glass pipet, and a 250mL volumetric flask. 2.5 grams of solid unknown
was added to the 250mL volumetric flask with the use of a funnel, and DI water was filled to the
mark on the 250mL volumetric flask, making sure to rinse the funnel, so the unknown residue
presented on the funnel can rinse down into the flask. After removing the funnel, we diluted to the
mark with DI water, and swirled the flask, until all of the powder was dissolved. This experiment
involved two different titrations. The first titration we observed was for total alkalinity (=[HCO–3
+2[CO2–3]) which was measured by titrating the mixture with 0.1 M HCl to a bromocresol green
end point. After 2L of 0.1M HCl were prepared, and divided among all groups. 25.00–mL aliquot of
unknown solution was pipetted into a 150mL volumetric flask, using bromocresol green as the
indicator, to observe the color change from a tinted light blue to a tinted light green, being the

Nutrition Is Essential For Children 's Health
The term "Standard American Diet" refers to a diet, which is:
High in animal fats
High in unhealthy fats
Low in fiber
High in processed foods
Low in complex carbohydrates
Low in plant–based foods
It is a little bit different for children as their diet may not consist of so much meat and animal fats,
but it is definitely very high in processed foods, and low in fiber as well as in fruits and vegetables.
The standard American died has extremely serious consequences on our current and future
generations. What children eat during their younger years is negatively affecting their health and
setting them up for health concerns and chronic diseases later in life.
The paradox in the United States is that our children are being overfed and undernourished at the
same time. Proper nutrition is essential to children's health. According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, in 2012 more than one–third of children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 were
considered overweight or obese (1).
Most of obese children suffer from the emotional consequences, such as poor body image and low
self–esteem.
And still, nowadays, many children's diets lack good healthy nutritious choices. More than 90% of
children aged 4 to 18 don't meet recommendations for vegetable intake, and more than 75% don't
meet guidelines for fruit intake. Moreover, more than 90% of children consume more than the
recommended amounts of solid fats and added sugars (2).
Having said that there is a lot of

How Vitamins Are Essential For Normal Health And Growth
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential for normal health and growth. Because vitamins
are not synthesized in the body, they need to be obtained in trace amounts from the diet (Timberlake,
2015). The human body cannot produce all of the nutrients needed to function. There are many
different types of vitamins the human body needs. Each vitamin has a different function that helps
the body to perform specific activities like produce energy, boost the immune system, regulate cell
and tissue growth, protect cells from damage, guide mineral utilization, etc. (Timberlake, 2015). If
the human body does not receive enough of the vitamins it needs, it can lead to many deficiencies
and altered functions that over time can foster illness development. Vitamins are a necessity that
humans need to sustain life. According to the book, General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry:
Structures of Life, vitamins are classified into two groups by solubility: water–soluble and fat–
soluble. Water–soluble vitamins contain polar groups which make them soluble in the aqueous
environment of the cells. Water–soluble vitamins, such as B–complex vitamins and vitamin C, need
to dissolve in water before the human body can dissolve them (Timberlake, 2015). These vitamins
must be absorbed in the foods humans consume daily. Fat–soluble vitamins are non–polar
compounds that are soluble in the fat components of the body such as at deposits and cell
membranes. Fat–soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A,

Reaction Of The Maillard Reaction
Introduction
The non–enzymatic reaction of reducing sugars with amino groups of amino acids, peptides and
proteins is called as non–enzymatic glycosylation or simply glycation. This non–enzymatic reaction
ultimately results in the formation of complex brown pigments and protein–protein crosslinks that
were first studied under defined conditions by Maillard in the early 1900s (Maillard and Gautier,
1912) and the reaction came to known as the Maillard reaction. There is a condensation reaction
between reducing sugar and free amino acids at the amino terminus or susceptible ε–amino group of
lysine residues of proteins producing labile N–substituted glycosylamine (Schiff base) that may
undergo two sequential rearrangements, forming a stable Amadori product (Fayle & Gerrard, 2002).
The reducing sugars namely, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, ribose and certain carbohydrate
relatives are inherently reactive toward nucleophilic groups. Glucose is the least reactive among
common sugars because it exists in least concentration in the open chain form (Paulsen and
Pflughaupt, 1980). Amadori rearrangement was a key early step in the Maillard reaction (Hodge,
1955). Early glycation directs the formation of Schiff's bases and Amadori products that further
oxidized to advanced glycated end products (AGEs) (Chetyrkin et al., 2008). Studies have shown
that the glycation process (in the early stage where the interaction of sugars, such as glucose, with
free amino groups of lysine and

Case Study On Metabolic Sacidosis
Metabolic sacidosis occurs when the chemical sbalance of acids and sbases in a patient's blood gets
sthrown off. This can happen when a spatient's body is making too much sacid, isn't getting rid of
senough acid, or doesn't have senough base to offset a normal samount of acid. Metabolic sacidosis
is defined as shaving an arterial blood pH less than s7.35 with plasma bicarbonate sless than 22
mmol/L. The patient in sthis case had a blood pH of 7.34 with sa plasma bicarbonate slevel of 14
mmol/L. Additionally, the patient had a sdecreased PaCO2 of 26 mm Hg and an elevated sPaO2 of
92 mm Hg, which scould be compensatory for the metabolic sacidosis. The patient has been taking
ssalsalate and aspirin medications, which are common ssalicylates. Salicylate ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Patients are soften symptomatic at salicylate concentrations shigher than 40–50 mg/dL. Patients
with ssalicylate sconcentrations approaching sor exceeding 100 mg/dL usually shave serious or life–
threatening stoxicity. Patients with chronic spoisoning who have levels of 60 mg/dL or greater
soften have serious toxicity. In overdoses, the peak serum sconcentration may not occur for 4–6
hours, so sconcentrations obtained before that time smay not reflect speak levels. levels from 15–30
mg/dL are sconsidered to be within the therapeutic range. Signs and symptoms sof toxicity begin sto
appear at levels higher sthan 30 mg/dL. A 6–hour salicylate slevel higher sthan 100 mg/dL is
considered spotentially lethal and is an indication for hemodialysis. Chronic singestion can increase
sthe half–life to longer sthan 20

Acid Base Status Essay
Discuss how changes in acid–base status of a patient can arise and the mechanisms available in the
body to rectify these.
In the body, blood has many different roles. However, one of its main functions is to maintain the
balance between acidity and alkalinity.
Blood acidity increases when the level of acidic compounds in the body rise, or when the level of
alkaline compounds in the body fall. The bodies balance between acidity and alkalinity is known as
the 'acid–base balance'.
The blood's acid–base balance is precisely controlled because even a minor deviation from the
normal range can severely affect many organs. The body uses different mechanisms to control the
blood's acid–base balance.
Effective management of the acid base balance in patients can be a very challenging task. It relies on
an accurate diagnosis of which disorder is specifically affecting the patient. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Some can be easily reversed, however, some can be fatal.
The release of growth hormone is normal in metabolic acidic adults, though insulin–line growth
factor–1 (IGF–1) is reduced by metabolic acidosis. Alongside this acute acidosis reduces plasma and
tissue levels of IGF–1. Together these irregularities can cause impaired growth in infants and
children. Acidosis can cause the thyroid hormone to be depressed, this could affect the energy
metabolism and cell function in the body. (Davies, Carter and Wells, 2004).
The main consequence of metabolic alkalosis is decreased ventilation, causing in hypoventilation.
Cerebral blood flow is also decreased due to vasoconstriction, this may result in confusion or even
seizures. In hospitalised patient it is mostly occurs due to large doses of penicillin based drugs,
causing severe Hypokalemia.
As with metabolic acidosis, respiratory acidosis can affect the central nervous system. Resulting in
headaches, confusion, apathy and motor disturbances such as

Pathophysiology of Acid Base Balance Essay examples
Intensive and Critical Care Nursing (2008) 24, 28–40 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Pathophysiology of
acid base balance: The theory practice relationship Sharon L. Edwards ∗ Buckinghamshire Chilterns
University College, Chalfont Campus, Newland Park, Gorelands Lane, Chalfont St. Giles,
Buckinghamshire HP8 4AD, United Kingdom Accepted 13 May 2007 KEYWORDS Acid base
balance; Arterial blood gases; Acidosis; Alkalosis Summary There are many disorders/diseases that
lead to changes in acid base balance. These conditions are not rare or uncommon in clinical practice,
but everyday occurrences on the ward or in critical care. Conditions such as asthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (bronchitis or emphasaemia), diabetic ketoacidosis, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
High alveolar ventilation brings more O2 into the alveoli, increasing O2 , and rapidly eliminating
CO2 from the lungs (for chemical abbreviations see Table 2). Partial pressure of gases Dalton's law
explains the partial pressure of a gas, which is the pressure exerted by a gas within a mixture of
gases independent of each gas in the mixture (Marieb, 2004). The partial pressure of each gas is
directly proportional to its percentage in the total mixture and in air is determined by atmospheric
pressure. Atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (760 mmHg), 21% of this air is oxygen, and the partial
pressure of oxygen (PO2 ) in atmospheric air is: 21 × 101 = 21.2 kPa 100 Within the alveoli the PO2
is different to air because of enrichment in the air passages (dead space) with CO2 and water vapour.
Alveolar air contains much more CO2 and water vapour and much less O2 and so makes a greater
contribution to the near–atmospheric pressure in the lungs, then they do in air. This is due to: gas
exchanges occurring in the lungs, humidiﬁcation of air by the conducting passages, mixing of gases
in the dead space (contains air not involved in gaseous exchange) between the nose and alveoli. In
alveoli, PO2 averages only 13.2 kPa (100 mmHg). Continuous consumption of O2 and production
of CO2 in the cells means that there is a partial pressure gradient both in the lungs and at the tissue
level

chapter 18 study guide,
Name____Shelby Bill__________________ BIO 236 Nutrition Ch. 18 1. Define... Nutrition– Study
of the sources, actions, and interactions of nutrients. macronutrients– A nutrient (carbohydrate, lipid,
and protein) required in a large amount. micronutrients– Nutrient (vitamin or mineral) required in
small amount. 2. Nutrients that cannot be synthesized by humans, like some amino acids, are called
______essential___ nutrients. 3. List the 6 types of Vegetarian diets, including food restrictions.
Vegan– No animal foods Ovo–vegetarian– Eggs allowed; no dairy or meat Lacto–vegetarian– Dairy
allowed; no meat Lacto–ovo–vegetarian– Dairy and eggs allowed; no meat Pesco–vegetarian–
Dairy, Eggs, and fish ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Excesses vitamin leads to nausea, headache, dizziness, hair, loss, birth defects. Deficiences are night
blindness, degeneration of epithelial tissues. 2. Vitamin D– A group of steroids; resistant to heat,
oxidation, acids, and bases; stored in liver, skin, brain, spleen, and bones. Promotes absorption of
calcium and phosphorous; promotes development of teeth and bones. Sources: produces in skin
exposed to ultraviolet light; in milk; egg yolk; fish liver oils; fortified foods. Excess: Diarrhea
calcification of soft tissues, renal damage. Deficienceis: Rickets,bone decalcification and
weakening. 3. Vitamin E: A group of compounds; resistant to heat and visible light; unstable in
presence of oxygen and ultraviolet light; stored in muscles and adipose tissue. Functions: an
antioxidant; prevents oxidation of Vitamin A and polyunsaturated fatty acids; may help maintain
stability of cell membranes. Sources: Oils from cerel seeds, sald oils, margarine, shortenings, fruits,
nuts, and vegetables. Excesses: Nausea, headache, fatigue, easy bruising and bleeding. Deficiencies:
rare, uncertain effects. 4. Vitamin K– Exists is several forms, resistant to heat but destroyed by
acids, bases, and light, stored in liver. Functions: Requires for synthesis of prothombin, which
functions in blood clotting. Sources: Leafy green vegetables, egg yolk, pork liver, soy oil, tomatoes,
cauliflower. Excesses: jaundice in formula–fed newborns. Deficiencies: prolonged

The Function Of The Acid Base Equilibrium
PBL Write up: Acid–Base
This document aims to explain the function of the acid–base equilibrium in place in the human body
and to identify potential problems that may occur. Theses processes are tightly linked with the
control of fluid levels in the body, this relationship and the function of the water homeostasis system
will also be explored. The aim of this write up is to display a full understanding of the learning
objectives developed in the PBL session. However by adhering to the original learning objectives it
would be difficult to develop a clear structure for this write up as they do not seem clearly defined.
They cover areas multiple times and are structurally unsound. Therefore in this write up the
following structure will be used:
1. Acid Base Balance
–What is the body's acid–base equilibrium?
– The Body's buffer systems and how they function?
–What can go wrong and how does it affect the body?
2. Dehydration
–What can cause dehydration and what are symptoms?
–How does this link to the acid–base problem?
–How does it affect electrolyte balance?
–How is fluid balance regulated?
3. Possible diagnosis of the patient and an explanation
–Treatment
Acid Base Balance:
What is the body's acid–base equilibrium?
The acid–base equilibrium within the body is a key part of the homeostatic maintenance of the body
and has wide–ranging effects on body chemistry and function. This system is based on the
regulation of Hydrogen ions, as this is the basis of the pH

Acid Base Case Study Paper
Acid–Base Case study Paper
A 22–year–old female brought to local hospital with complaint of flu– like symptoms for the past
eight days. She is vomited several times daily, having difficulty keeping liquids or food down, and
has been self–medicated more than the recommended dose of antacids in an attempt to calm the
nausea. She has become severely dehydrated and had fainted at home; causing in her taken to a
hospital. Upon arrival to the hospital, an arterial blood gas (ABG) sample was drawn and then an IV
was placed to help rehydrate her. ABG analysis is used to measure the pH and the partial pressures
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood. An ABG result can help in the assessment of a
patient 's gas exchange, ventilator control and acid–base balance. Classification of the Acid–Base
Disturbance
Acid–base imbalance is an abnormality of the human body 's normal balance of acids and bases that
causes the plasma pH to deviate out of the normal range (7.35 to 7.45). Diagnosis is established
from health history, clinical symptoms, and laboratory findings, including ABG results (Mccance &
Huether, 2013, p. 113).
The ABG results of patient as follows: (Grand Canyon University, 2016)
Test Result Normal levels pH 7.5 7.35 – 7.45
PaCO2 40 mm Hg 35–45 mm Hg
PaO2 95 mm Hg 80–100 mm Hg
SaO2 97% 95–100%
HCO3– 32 meq/liter

Acid Base Balance
Acid–Base Balance
Kelly Heffron
Grand Canyon University NUR–614
September 16, 2015
Acid–Base Balance
The acid base balance is a homeostatic process that aides the body in maintaining a pH in the arterial
blood between 7.35–7.45 (Patient, 2015). The body works together through multi–systems to ensure
that acidity or alkalinity never take over within the blood. The purpose of the following paper is
define the classification of the acid–base balance, define the factors from the case study, explain the
pathophysiology, describe the compensatory mechanisms, pharmacological interventions, and the
educational needs of patients with an imbalance.
Classification
In the following case study, the patient presents with metabolic alkalosis. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Another major factor that the patient did was self–prescribe antacids for the stomach issues (Grand
Canyon University, 2015). Metabolic alkalosis occurs from excessive intake of antacids. Antacids
are calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate (Human Touch of Chemistry,
2015). With the vomiting and loss of gastric secretions, HCO3 began to build–up in the body. For
the stomach upset, the patient began to add more HCO3 formularies to the stomach, which increased
the levels of HCO3 in the body.
Pathophysiology
There are different ways that metabolic alkalosis can occur. Generally, the imbalance occurs from a
loss of hydrogen ions, a shift of hydrogen ions into the intracellular space, and administration of
antacids (Medscape, 2015). Hydrogen ions are lost from the kidneys and the gastrointestinal tract,
which occurs from vomiting and diarrhea. When hydrogen ions are excreted from the body,
bicarbonate ions are added to the intracellular space (Medscape, 2015).
Compensation Mechanism
When homeostasis is disrupted, the body will respond in several ways. Depending upon the
imbalance, the body will work to quickly correct the problem and restore the body to homeostatic
state. There are organ systems involved to correct the issues, like the renal and respiratory systems.
When the body breathes, the lungs blow off carbon dioxide that has built up in the body.
Renal Compensation In the case study, the patient was suffering with

Thick Mucus Can Build Up In Airways Case Study
. It is genetically passed down and it causes mucus to become to thick. It is a fake gene, or mutated
gene, that can't keep the respiratory airways clear. The thick mucus can build up in airways, and that
is what is causing her to have shortness of breath and wheezing. It targets the respiratory system
which causes problems with getting air, and it also targets the digestive system.
2. How would you classify this girl's acid–base status?
Her pH level is low, so she is acidic(acidosis). Her pCO2 is high, and her pO2 and hemoglobin is
way low. (Respiratory acidosis)
3. How does cystic fibrosis cause this acid–base imbalance?
The buildup of mucus does not allow her to get the right amount of air with each breath, and that
causes the pCO2 to rise. The more the it rises, the more HCO3– it produces. The HCO3– is what
causes the pH level to decrease. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
How would the kidneys try to compensate for the girl's acid–base imbalance?
It is the buffer. It sends put what is needed, but in this case, it would send out more OH–.
5. This girl has also had a long history of diarrhea and poor weight gain. Explain why.
The thick mucus also builds up in the pancreas causing the digestive enzymes not to do their jobs
effectively. Nutrition is not broken down properly and so the body can't absorb it right. That causes
the weight loss and diarrhea.
6. List some other causes of this type of acid–base disturbance.
Asthma and

Respiratory Acidosis Essay
Acidosis and Alkalosis are both conditions in which the levels of acids and bases are not controlled.
The typical pH value for the body is between 7.35 and 7.45. If the pH is above 7.45, it's called
alkalosis, and if the pH is below 7.35 it's called acidosis.
Acidosis Acidosis is an increased acidity in the blood, kidneys, lungs, or other body tissues. There
are two types of acidosis, respiratory and metabolic.
Respiratory: Respiratory acidosis is a condition where too much carbon dioxide builds up in the
body, specifically in the lungs. Some of the symptoms of respiratory acidosis are drowsiness,
confusion, shortness of breath, sleepiness, and headaches. If caught early, the symptoms can be
treated and a full recovery is possible. Some common causes of respiratory acidosis are asthma, an
injury to the chest, obesity, sedative misuse, overuse of alcohol, chest muscle weakness, nervous
system issues, and deformed chest structures. Treatment plans for respiratory acidosis include oral
drugs to dilate airways or a CPAP device. A CPAP device is a continuous positive airway pressure
device. This device opens up airways and helps many people breathe ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the early symptoms of metabolic alkalosis are nausea, numbness, prolonged muscle
spasms, muscle twitching, and hand tremors. Some of the late stage symptoms are dizziness,
difficulty breathing, confusion, stupor (a state of near–unconsciousness), and even coma. Some of
the possible causes of metabolic alkalosis are vomiting, overuse of diuretics (any substance that
promotes the increased production of urine), adrenal disease (when your glands make too much or
not enough hormones), loss of potassium, antacids, ingestion of bicarbonate, laxatives, and alcohol
abuse. Treatment plans for metabolic alkalosis are to take oral medications or supplements to make
up for acid loss, or to combat base

Assignment Notes On Respiratory Acidosis
Assignment Template
Name: Janett Perez Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
Define condition
Respiratory Acidosis is a condition that occurs when the lungs cannot remove all the carbon dioxide
the body produces. This causes body fluids, mainly the blood to become too acidic.
Respiratory Alkalosis is an acid imbalance due to a condition called hyperventilation which is where
you take in too much oxygen and it decreases the carbon dioxide being produced in your body.
Metabolic Acidosis is a condition that occurs when the body produces excessive quantities of acid or
when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body.
Metabolic alkalosis is a metabolic condition in which the pH of tissue is elevated beyond the normal
range (7.35 –7.45) Causing Increased bicaronate in the blood.
List PCO2 levels
The normal range for Pco2 is between 35–45 mmHg. Anything above 45mmhg would be high.
(Tortora & Derrickson, 2013)
The normal ranges are 35–45 mmHg. Anything below 35 mmHg causes respiratory alkalosis.
(Tortora & Derrickson,2013)
N/A
N/A
List HCO3– levels
N/A
N/A
When metabolic acidosis happens, it means that the HCO3 levels drop below 22mEq/liter. (Tortora
&Derrickson, 2013)
When metabolic alkalosis happens, this means the HCO3 levels rises above 26 mEq/Liter. (Tortola
& Derrickson 2013)
List pH levels
Normal arterial blood pH is between 7.35 and 7.45 when respiratory acidosis is in affect your pH
level would be lower than 7.35.

A Person 's Normal Ph Range
A person's normal pH range is between 7.35 and 7.45. (Tortora, G., Derrickson, B. H. ,2014–01–22).
This range is important for the body to function properly. There certain conditions that can cause the
pH range to fluctuate. Acidosis is a condition in which the blood pH is below 7.35 and alkalosis is a
condition in which the blood pH is higher than 7.45. Significant changes in pH range can affect
cellular function and possibly lead to death. "Your blood needs the right balance of acid and basic
(alkaline) compounds to function properly". (George, K., 2013)
Respiratory acidosis is a condition that happens when there is too much carbon dioxide in the lungs.
When this happens, the blood becomes too acidic. People with respiratory acidosis will have a pH
less than 7.35 with a PaCO2 greater than 45mm HG. (sitelms.org) This particular form of acidosis
can be caused by diseases of the airways, lungs, and chest. It can also be caused by diseases that
may affect the nerves and muscles that tell the lungs to inflate or deflate. Certain narcotics may
cause this to happen as well. If respiratory acidosis does not become too severe the kidneys will help
to raise the blood pH to the normal range. The kidneys increase the amount of hydrogen it releases
and the reabsorption of bicarbonate. When medical treatment is necessary, it is usually aimed at the
underlying disease, or cause of the condition. (.nlm.nih.gov, 2016) Bronchodilator drugs may be
prescribed to help reverse some types of

Physioex 8 Exercise 7
Respiratory Volumes
Activity 2: Measuring Normal Respiratory Volumes
1. Minute respiratory volume: 7,500 ml
2. Judging from the trace you generated, each inspiration took place over how many seconds? 2
Seconds
3. Each expiration took place over how many seconds? 2 seconds
4. Does the duration of inspiration or expiration vary when you tested/measured the ERV or FVC?
Yes
Activity 3: Effect of Restricted Air Flow on Respiratory Volumes
1. How does this set of data compare to the data you recorded for Activity 2? The MRV is 3075 and
the breathing is not as strong.
2. Is the respiratory system functioning better or worse than it did in the previous activity? Explain
why. The breathing is more shallow and incomplete. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
When normal breathing resumed tidal volume increased, which lead to an increase in total air flow.
Activity 9: Comparative Spirometry
1. What do you think is the clinical importance of the FVC and FEV1 values? FVC measures the
amount of gases expelled when a subject takes a deep breath, then exhales maximally. While FEV1
determines the amount of air expelled during the first second. Why do you think the ratio of these
two values is important to the clinician when diagnosing lung disease? Because it is a determining
factor as to whether the patient has healthy lungs, pulmonary disease, or restrictive disease.
2. In "Normal Breathing", FEV1/FVC x 100% = 80%
3. In "Emphysema Breathing", is the FVC reduced or increased? Reduced Is the FEV1 increased or
decreased? Reduced Which of these changed more? FEV1
4. In "Acute Asthma Attack Breathing", is the FVC reduced or increased? Reduced Is the FEV1
reduced or increased? Reduced Which of these is changed more? FEV1 Why did the lung volumes
and/or capacities change in the spirogram for this condition? Because the bronchiole smooth muscle
will spasm and the airway become constricted.
5. In "Acute Asthma Attack Breathing with Inhaler Medication Applied", has the FVC reduced or
increased or is it normal? Normal Has the FEV1 reduced or increased or is it normal? Normal Why

did the medicine make the volumes or capacities change? Because it atomizes the medication and
allows direct application on the afflicted

The Role Of Proteins Of A Cell Range From Structural,...
The DNA encodes specific characteristics of an organism which breaks down into genes. The genes
goes through a transcription process. Transcription is where the language of the body 's building
blocks is transcribed from DNA to RNA and the body will recognize it so it can carry out the next
process. Translation of the information collected from RNA is the next step. The information
collected is transported to the protein. Certain proteins play specific roles so the body synthesizes
the right protein for the specific job at certain time.
Production of proteins is one of the most significant processes taking place in the cell. The role of
proteins in a cell range from structural, enzymatic and hormonal functions. DNA is responsible for
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The double spiral of DNA unwinds and unzips in such a way to release the instructions located for
the given protein. Consequently, the instructions are carried out of the nucleus to the ribosomes.
This point of location of the DNA molecule is called a gene. Genes act as a pattern for another type
of nucleic acid called RNA. Instead of a thymine as in DNA, each adenine of the unzipped DNA
attracts a uracil, U. The other bases follow the same pattern as in DNA i.e., G, T, and C attract the
same partners C, A and G. The single chain of nucleotides which is newly formed is called
messenger RNA and its formation is called as transcription. mRNA carries an exact duplicate of the
information recorded in the DNA and leaves the nucleus with the instructions. The mRNA
molecules are attracted to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Another smaller kind of RNA molecules
called transfer RNA (tRNA.) also is there in the cytoplasm. Only one kind of amino acid can be
attached to one end of a tRNA molecule while the other end carries a distinctive tag to identify it.
The strand of mRNA lines up at the ribosome and the base pairs are attracted to their partners again.
The attraction between the mRNA and the tRNA compliments each other. A triplet sequence of
mRNA transcript codes for a specific amino acid and the sequence is called a codon. A
corresponding triplet sequence on the transfer RNA (tRNA) called as

Ph Lab Report
"PH is the measure of h+ (hydrogen ions) and translates as the power of hydrogen"
The term ph indicates the measure of hydrogen ions in a solution. The pH scale is a logarithmic
scale that represents the acidity or alkalinity/basicity of a substance. As seen in figure 1 the Ph scale
runs from 0.0 to 14.0 with 7.0 indicating neutral. Image
(Anon 2017)
Your Bibliography: Anon 2017. Ph Scale [Online]. Available at:
https://prezi.com/qrwoxztwxqc7/ph–scale/ [Accessed: 5 February 2017].
For each pH shown there is a tenfold effect between molecules, a pH of 3 is ten times more acidic
than a pH of 4 and a 100 times (10x10) greater than the pH value of 5 an example of this can be
seen in figure 2. The same method applies for pH values of 7 and above, each of which is ten times
more alkaline (Wise geek.com, 2016) Low levels of PH discovered within a solution indicates that
the substance has a greater acidy concentration, with a decreased potential for absorbing hydrogen
ions. Whereas a solution with an increased levels of Ph indicate that the substance has an inreased
alkaline/bascity concentration, and has an elevated potential for absorbing hydrogen ions.Refd water
has a pH of 7.0 because of its partial dissociation, but when combined with ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
If the blood within the body was to lack hydrogen irons blood would become alkalosis (too
alkaline/base). If this was to occur the buffers within the blood would realease hydrogen ions.
However, if the blood had too many hydrogen ions this would cause the blood to become acidosis
(too acidic).Both of the conditions are extremely serious as the body's metabolism is very sensitive
to pH changes. If the pH levels of the blood was to fluctuate or deviate out of the ranges of 7.0 and
8.0 severe sickness or death would

Kidney Injury And Hormonal Failure

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