Fate of nitrogenous fertilizer in submerged soil

1. WEL COME
TO
SEMINAR SERIES
2014-15
1

2. Seminar Presentation
on
2
Co-Guide,
Dr. N. N. Gudadhe
Assistant Professor
Department of Agronomy
N. M. College of Agriculture,
N. A. U., Navsari
Speaker,
Mr. Gohil Naresh B.
M. Sc. Student
Reg. No:- 2010113027
Dept. of Soil Sci. and Agril. Chem.
NAU, Navsari.
Major Advisor,
Dr. D. P. Patel
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Natural Resource Management
ASPEE college of Horticulture and Forestry,
N. A. U., Navsari

3. 3

4. Submerged soils are soils that are saturated with water for a
sufficiently long time in a year to give the soil distinct soil properties,
because of oxidation-reduction processes (Brady and Weil, 2010).
Rice is the only major food crop that can be grown under various
degrees of submergence.
Nitrogen is one of the essential nutrient for plants and it is widely
recognized as the most limiting nutrient for production in submerged
soil.
Poor efficiency of N fertilizers in rice can be attributed to it's improper
management by farmers who have only limited understanding about
the fate of N in submerged soils that is highly prone to nitrogen loss in
different ways viz. Volatilization, Denitrification and leaching. (Savant
and Stangel, 2008).
Besides, the majority of Indian soils are low in available soil nitrogen;
the efficiency for utilization of nitrogen fertilizers in most of the crops
has been rather low, particularly in submerged conditions.
4

5. Upland rice frequently use 40-60 per cent of the applied N, whereas
submerged rice crop typically use only 30-40 per cent (Bulbule et
al., 2002).
Hence, it is essential to know fate of nitrogenous fertilizers and
factors affecting it in submerged soils which will helps us to
increase nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) by minimizing the losses of
nitrogen from the root zone.
Furthermore, this will also help us to identify soil management
practices that are climate change compatible by reducing green
house gases such as CO2, CH4 and N2O.
5

6. Nitrogen: a primary essential element
 Nitrogen is one of the most important
primary nutrient because of is larger
requirement by the plants (1.0 to 5.0
percent) and its wide spread deficiency
across the world.
 Nitrogen is taken up by the plant from the
soils in the form of nitrate (NO3
-) and
ammonium (NH4
+) ions.
 It occurs in the atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere.
 78% nitrogen present in atmosphere but
plant is enable to utilize it.
 Soils contains nitrogen in the range of 0.02
to 0.4 % on weight basis.
 It is a highly mobile nutrient in the soil as
well as plant.
6

7. FORMS OF NITROGEN IN SOILS
SOIL NITROGEN
Organic (92-98 %)
Hydrolysable-N
Amino
sugar
Amino
acid
Acid
soluble
humin
Non-
Hydrolyzable-N
Inorganic (2-8 %)
Ionic
e.g., NH4
+
NO3
-
NO2
-
Gaseous
e.g., N2
N2O
NO
NO3
NH3
7

8. Functions of Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a basic constituent of plant.
It is an integral part of chlorophyll.
It is indispensable part of genetic material viz. DNA.
It improves the protein quality of the plant.
Excessive supply of nitrogen develops excessive succulence
which results harmful effects
8

9. Nitrogen deficiency in plant
 Chlorosis: Due to high mobility of N in the
plants, its deficiency symptoms first appear
on the older leaves in the form of light green
to pale yellow coloration.
 Stunted growth: Stunted growth may
occur because of reduction in cell division.
 Quality: Reduced N lowers the protein
content of seeds and vegetative parts. In
severe cases, flowering is greatly reduced.
 Early maturity: N deficiency causes early
maturity in some crops, which results in a
significant reduction in yield and quality.
9

10. Sources
of
Nitrogen
in soil
Fertilizers
Organic
manures
Crop
residues
Biofertilizers
Green
manures
Rain
water
Sources of Nitrogen in soil
10

11. NH4
NO3
Nitrification
Plant
uptake
Leaching
Denitrification
Volatilization
NH3
N2O N2, N2O
Nitrogen loss by different process in soil
11

12. Why to fertilize the soils with Fertilizers
 More losses of nitrogen from the soils than the natural
sources
 Depletion of SOM (Soil organic matter) in arid and semi
arid regions
 To maintain the soil fertility as well as productivity
Fertilizers
Organic Inorganic
12

13. Type of Inorganic Nitrogenous Fertilizers
No. Name of fertilizers Nitrogen Content %
Nitrate (NO3-) fertilizers :
1. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) 16
2. Calcium nitrate [ Ca(NO3)2] 15.5
Ammonical (NH4+- N) containing fertilizers:
1 Ammonium sulphate 20
2 Ammonium chloride 24 - 26
3 Anhydrous ammonia 82
Nitrate and ammonical (NO3--N) containing fertilizers:
1. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) 33 -34
2. Calcium ammonium nitrate 26
3. Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26
Amide (Both NH4+ and NO3-) forms:
1 Urea 46
2. Calcium cynamide (Ca CN2 ) 21
13

14. Source: IFA, 2010
Fig. 1: Fertilizer consumptions
14

15. Source- https://npk101.wordpress.com/category/nitrogenous-fertilizers/ (2010)
Fig. 2: Nitrogen Fertilizer Products
(105 million tones nutrients)
15

16. Source: IFA, 2010
Fig 3: World Nitrogen Fertilizer Use By Crop
16

17. Characteristics of Submerged soils
 Greater amount of soil solution.
 Reduced oxygen level.
 Low aerobic microbial activity.
 Altered chemical status of the soil (Reduction processes).
Submerged soils
Submerged soils are soils that
are saturated with water for a
sufficiently long time in a year to
give the soil distinct gley horizons
resulting from oxidation-reduction
processes.
17

18. Aerobic soil
Anaerobic soil
18

19. Dominant forms of elements in submerged versus aerated soil
19
19

20. Fig. 4. A schematic diagram of N transformations in a submerged soil.
Buresh et al. (2008) 20

21. Nitrogen Transformation in Submerged Soil
Mineralization and Immobilization
+2H2O +O2 +1/2 O2
Organic N R – NH2 OH- + R- OH + NH4
+ 4H+ + energy + NO2
- energy + NO3
-
(Amine) (Ammonium) (Nitrite) (Nitrate)
21

22. In aerobic soil layer:
mineralization microbial oxidation microbial oxidation
organic form NH4
+ NO2
- NO3
-
of nitrogen ammonification
In submerged soil :
mineralization : stops at this points
Organic form NH4
+ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of nitrogen
22

23. A. Aminization:
(Aerobic /anaerobic)
heterotrophic
Proteins R – NH2 + CO2 + energy + other additional
(Combined microorganisms (Amines) organic products
With minerals)
Organic N + 4C2H5COOH + H2O 4CH3COOH + CO2 + 3CH4
Propinate Acetate Carbon Methane
dioxide
B. Ammonification
R – NH2 + HOH NH3 + R – OH + energy
+ H2O
NH4
+ + OH-
23

24. Nitrification - Denitrification
24

25. Volatilization
(NH4)2SO4 2NH4
++ SO4
-
2NH4
+ + 2 OH- 2NH3 +2H2O
25

26. Leaching Losses
26

27. Urea Hydrolysis
27
Soil
(NH2)2 CO + 2H2O (NH4)2 CO3
Urea Water Urease Ammonium
Carbonate
(NH4)2 CO3 + 2H+
2NH4
+
+ CO2 + H2O
Ammonium Ammonium Carbon Water
Carbonate dioxide gas

28. Factors affecting N transformation
1. Composition of Organic matter
2. C : N ratio of organic matter
3. Moisture content in soil
4. Soil temperature
5. Soil aeration
6. Soil reaction
28

29. 1. Composition of organic matter
Fig 5.- Nitrogen
mineralization or
immobilization
with organic
residues based on
C:N ratio.
Source : R. Weil (2010) 29
Composition of organic matter Rate of decomposition
Sugars, and simple proteins Rapid decomposition
Crude proteins
Hemi cellulose
Cellulose
Fats and waxes
Lignins and phenolic compounds Very slow decomposition

30. 2. C : N ratio
Fig 5 - Effect of mineralization and immobilization based on C:N ratio.
Source : N.C.Bredy (2010)
30
2. C : N Ratio

31. Fig 6 - Effect of moisture on cumulative N mineralization.
Source : Aghera and Warncke (2005)
31
Incubation time (week)
3. Moisture content

32. Fig 7 – Rates of nitrification, ammonification and denitrification are
closely related to microbial activity and water filled pore space.
Source : Bateman and Baggs (2005) 32

33. Heavy rains resulted in nitrogen loss by denitrification and leaching. 33

34. Fig 8 - Effect of temperature on cumulative N mineralization.
Source : Aghera and Warncke (2005) 34
4. Temperature

35. Fig 9 – Relationship between O2 and N2.
Source : John et al. (2014)
35
5. Soil aeration

36. Fig 10 – Ammonia volatilization is affected by temperature and pH.
Source : Glibert et al. (2006) 36
6. Soil reaction

37. Location Methane (kg/ha) No. of observations Average (kg/ha)
Nadia, West Bengal 108-290 3 158
Cuttak, Orissa 7-103 44 91
Bhubaneshwar, Orissa 140-186 2 163
New Delhi 10-221 68 39
Allahabad, U.P. 5 1 5
Trichur, Kerala 37 1 37
Trivandrum, Kerala 90 1 90
Kasindra, Gujarat 120 1 120
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand 54-114 4 79
Karnal, Haryana 64-100 2 81
Raipur, M.P. 4-109 6 34
Ludhiana, Punjab 452-1650 5 875
Table 1 : Seasonal methane emission from rice fields at different
locations in India.
IARI, New Delhi Pathak et al. (2010) 37

38. N losses can be minimized by following ways from the
submerged soils
 Use of slow release N fertilizers
 Use of nitrification inhibitors
 Selecting appropriate source and rate of N
fertilizers
 Adopting the diffident methods of fertilizer
application
 Other agronomical measures i.e. Methods of rice
plantation
38

39. Review of Research Work

41. N source
Initial N
content
(mg/plot)
N content after
the rice harvest
(mg/plot)
N leached
% of N applied
% of N lost
through other
mechanism
Control 4200 4079 - -
Sod. Nitrate 4660 4111 64.5 21.8
CAN 4660 4149 18.5 49.2
Am.sulphate 4660 4192 13.7 31.2
Urea 4660 4176 11.5 42.8
NSU 4660 4219 9.1 19.9
NCU 4660 4203 9.8 24.8
SCU 4660 4254 7.1 15.0
USG 4660 4124 12.6 18.2
S. Ed - 3
LSD (P=0.05) - 6
Table 2: Apparent N balance sheet for rice as influenced by N- carriers
IARI, New Delhi Rao and Prasad (1980)
CAN- calcium ammonium nitrate, NSU- N-serve blended urea, NCU- neem cake coated urea,
SCU- sulphur coated urea, USG- urea super granules
41

42. Source of N
Days after nitrogen application
1 3 10 20 30
Control 0.02 0.05 0.16 0.41 0.41
Sod. Nitrate 0.38 0.93 1.64 2.54 3.00
CAN 0.14 0.32 1.03 2.53 2.53
AS 0.03 0.54 3.64 10.07 10.30
Urea 0.03 0.33 2.45 7.14 7.30
NSU 0.06 0.85 2.06 4.28 4.28
NCU 0.04 0.98 2.79 5.38 5.82
SCU 0.06 1.00 1.52 2.31 2.31
USG 0.03 0.24 0.81 1.68 1.78
Table 3: NO2-N (mg N) in leachates (cumulative values) as influenced by sources
of N applied.
IARI, New Delhi Rao and Prasad (1980)
CAN- calcium ammonium nitrate, NSU- N-serve blended urea, NCU- neem cake coated
urea, SCU- sulphur coated urea, USG- urea supergranules
42

43. Treatment
Nitrogen applied
(kg/ha)
Volatilization loss of
NH3 – N (kg/ha)
N volatilized as NH3
(%)
USG (all basal) 76 2.2 2.9
PU (basal, 50%) 38 1.9 5.0
PU (top dress, 50%) 38 2.23 5.8
GCU (all basal) 76 1.8 2.5
PU (all basal) + ECC 76 2.0 2.6
UNP (19-19-0) (all
basal)
76 2.9 3.8
UNP (27-9-0) (all basal) 76 1.4 1.8
Table 4: NH3 – N volatilization loss from rice plots following
application of urea based fertilizers.
IARI, New Delhi Mishra et al. (1995)
USG- urea super granule, PU- Prilled urea, GCU- gypsum coated urea, ECC- encapsulated
Calcium carbide, UNP- urea nitro phosphate
43

44. Treatments
Grain yield (q/ha)
Mean NUE (kg
grain/kg N)
Soil available N kg/ha
after rice
First year
Second
year
First
year
Second year
Prilled urea 26.2 28.1 11.9 238 230
Lac coated urea
(LCU)
30.9 36.6 20.1 285 274
Rock phosphate
coated urea
26.7 28.5 12.4 247 235
Karanj coated
urea (KCU)
29.0 32.3 16.2 265 260
Neem coated
urea (NCU)
29.2 32.8 16.7 280 271
CD (0.05) 1.6 3.3 -- 13 10
Table 5: Effect of different slow release N fertilizers on grain yield and
Nitrogen use efficiency of rice.
BAU, Ranchi . Singh et al. (1999) 44

45. Table 6: Effect of Neem coated urea on yield, N uptake and Apparent
N recovery of rice.
Sources
Grain yield
(q/ha)
Straw yield
(q/ha)
N uptake
(kg/ha)
Apparent N
recovery (%)
Prilled urea 38.8 43.7 71.1 26.9
Neem coated urea 43.0 48.6 85.9 43.8
10% neem oil
emulsion coated urea
41.1 46.1 78.2 39.1
20% neem oil
emulsion coated urea
42.0 46.9 81.2 38.2
CD (0.05) NS NS 7.1 8.7
IARI, New Delhi. Shivay et al. (2001) 45

47. Table 7: Effect of nitrification inhibitors on denitrification losses and rice
grain yield in a submerged soil.
Treatments
Rice
Yield
(kg/ha)
Denitrification (g N ha-1 hr-1) on days after
fertilization
2 4 6 8 10
Urea alone 4660 27.3 81.3 52.0 87.0 62.0
Urea + DCD 5360 10.4 15.9 16.7 10.8 12.5
Urea + ECC 6130 7.8 3.5 5.0 2.0 2.0
CSU,Fort Collins,Colorado Banerjee et al.(1999)
DCD = Dicyandiamide ECC =Encapsulated calcium carbide
47

48. Nitrification inhibitor Mitigation (%)
Dicyandiamide 13-42
Neem Cake 10-21
Neem oil 15-21
Nimin 25-35
Coated Ca-carbide 12-29
Thiosulphate 15-20
Table 8: Efficiency of nitrification inhibitors in mitigating nitrous
oxide emission in rice- wheat system.
IARI, New Delhi Pathak et al. (2010) 48

50. Rate of nitrogen
applied (kg/ha)
Quantity of N
applied mg/400 g
soil
Quantity of NH3 – N
lost (mg)
Percent loss NH3 – N
0 0 - -
50 9 0.840 9.33
100 18 2.160 12.0
200 36 4.300 11.94
300 54 5.940 11.0
400 72 7.056 9.80
Table 9: Effect of different rates of N application on the ammonium volatilization
losses from submerged soil.
GAU, Navsari Boraniya (1982) 50

51. Nitrogenous
fertilizer
Quantity of N
applied mg/400 g
soil
Quantity of NH3 –
N lost (mg)
Percent loss NH3 –
N
Urea 18 2.390 13.27
Ammonium
sulphate
18 1.296 7.20
Table 10: Effect of different nitrogenous fertilizers on the ammonium
volatilization losses from submerged soil.
GAU, Navsari Boraniya (1982)
51

52. Table 11: Effect of different sources of N on grain and straw yields , NUE and N uptake.
OUAT,Bhubaneshwar Mishra et al.(1998)
Prilled Urea(PU)@60kgN ha-1in 3splits(50%basal,25%DATP,25%PI) , UB @ 60kgN/ha 15 DATP
Prilled Urea(PU)@30kgNha-1in 2splits , BGA @ 10kg/ha was applied 7 DATP
Azolla,water hyacinth,Gliricidia,Ipomea&Pongamia @ 10t ha-1
Treatments
Grain
Yield
(qha-1)
Straw
Yield
(qha-1)
NUE
(%)
N uptake
(kgha-1)
T1 – Control 25.1 40.5 --- 50.13
T2 - 60kgN as PU 39.6 55.2 24.17 46.15
T3 - BGA(10kgha-1)+ 30kg N as PU 39.3 54.8 23.75 76.47
T4 - BGA (10kgha-1)+Azolla (10tha-1) 37.4 52.6 20.58 66.78
T5 - Urea briquette(60kgNha-1)+30kgN as PU 43.2 58.4 30.17 85.22
T6 - Water hyacinth(10tha-1)+30kg N as PU 40.6 56.2 25.83 79.18
T7 - Azolla(10tha-1)+30kg N as PU 46.4 59.8 35.50 92.34
T8 - Glyricidia(10tha-1)+30 kg N as PU 41.7 58.8 27.67 82.85
T9 - Ipomoea(10tha-1) +30 kg N as PU 37.5 53.7 20.67 68.95
T10 - Pongamia (10tha-1)+30 kg N as PU 38.9 54.4 23.00 72.38
CD (0.05) 5.2 7.8 --- 11.23
52

53. Treatment Treatment N
recovery (%)
15 N recovery (%) N loss
(%)
Plant Soil
Application to
wet soil
(conventional
method)
28 25 29 46
Application to
dry soil
(alternate
method)
76 57 24 19
Table 12 : Effect of urea N application (100 kg N /ha) to wet saturated
and dry soils on N Use Efficiency by lowland rice.
PAU , Ludhiana Katyal and Gadalla (1999) 53

54. Table 13: Effect of different sources of N application on losses of
fertilizer N from rice field.
Treatment
N applied as Urea
(kg ha-1)
Total loss
(kg ha-1)
Percentage of
fertilizer N
applied
Ammonia Volatilization loss (NH3-N)
Urea 120 15.26 12.7
Urea + CCC 120 21.32 17.8
Urea + FYM 60 7.84 13.1
Denitrification loss (N2 + N2 O-N)
Urea 120 3.80 3.2
Urea + CCC 120 0.87 0.7
Urea + FYM 60 1.02 1.7
Leaching losses NH4
+-N + NO3-N
Urea 120 1.04 0.9
Urea + CCC 120 0.36 0.3
Urea + FYM 60 0.55 0.9
Bandyopadhayay and Sarkar (2000)CCC : Coated calcium carbideNew Delhi 54

55. Table 14: Effect of integrated N management on yield, N content and Total N
uptake of rice.
Treatment
Yield (kg/ha) N content (%) Total N uptake
(kg/ha)Grain Straw Grain Straw
T1 6161 6642 0.576 0.320 56.65
T2 5806 6057 0.677 0.266 54.65
T3 6390 5326 0.590 0.266 52.04
T4 6307 6370 0.616 0.288 57.40
T5 6475 5534 0.621 0.457 65.62
T6 8082 9502 0.758 0.492 107.69
T7 7519 8062 0.958 0.372 101.95
T8 6266 6224 0.700 0.324 63.60
T9 6349 5764 0.772 0.364 69.53
T10 7978 7895 1.001 0.341 107.32
T11 7185 6913 0.825 0.401 87.37
T12 7686 6746 0.590 0.372 70.36
CD (0.05) 1197 1142 NS NS 20.84
GAU, Navsari. Anonymous (2002) 55

56. Treatment Details
T1- FYM (100% N)
T2 - FYM (75 % N)+ Castor cake (25 % N)
T3 - FYM (50 % N)+ Castor cake (50 % N)
T4 - FYM (25 % N)+ Castor cake (75 % N)
T5 - Castor cake (100 % N)
T6 - Organic fertilizer (25 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor
cake)+ Inorganic ferti.(75% N)
T7 - Organic fertilizer (50 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor
cake) + Inorganic ferti.(50% N)
T8 - Organic fertilizer (75 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor
cake) + Inorganic ferti.(25% N)
T9 - FYM (25 % N) + Poultry manure (25 % N) + Castor cake (50 % N)
T10 - FYM (25 % N) + Poultry manure (25 % N) + Inorganic ferti.(50% N)
T11 - Inorganic fertilizer (100 % N) as per soil test (120 – 25 – 0 )
T12 - Inorganic fertilizer (100 % N) as per recommended dose (120 – 30 – 0 )
56

57. Nitrogen treatments
NH3-N NO3-N TN
Loss
(kg/ha)
Percentage
(%)
Loss
(kg/ha)
Percentage
(%)
Loss
(kg/ha)
Percentage
(%)
N0- Control
0.57 - 0.38 - 1.04 -
N1- 90 kg N/ha as
urea (50% of TNAR) 2.91 3.23 1.25 1.38 4.57 5.07
N2- 180 kg N/ha
(the TNAR) 4.07 2.26 1.14 0.63 5.73 3.18
N3- 270 kg N/ha
(150% of TNAR) 5.21 1.93 1.73 0.64 7.62 2.82
N4- 360 kg N/ha
(double TNAR) 11.22 3.11 2.20 0.61 14.75 4.10
Table 15: Nitrogen loss from paddy field in treatments with
different N fertilizer applications.
Bangladesh Iqbal (2011)
TNAR- typical nitrogen application rate
57

59. Table 16: Effect of application methods for N fertilizer (Basal treatment) in rice.
T1=Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P at TP.
T2=Broadcasting 50% N & full dose of P at 7-10 DATP
T3= Spot application 50% N & full dose of P at 7-10 DATP
T4= Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P + castor cake @5q/ha at TP
T5= Spot application of 50%N & full dose of P + castor cake @5q/ha at 7-10 DATP
T6 = Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P + Neem cake @5q/ha at TP
T7= Spot application of 50%N & full dose of P + Neem cake @5q/ha at 7-10 DATP
T8= Broadcasting of 50 % N in the form of AS &full dose P at TP
T9= Spot application of 50 % N in the form of AS &full dose P at7-10 DATP
Treatments
Yield (kg/ha) N content (%) N uptake (kg/ha)
Grain Straw Grain Straw Grain Straw
T1 6439 7702 0.92 0.438 59.3 33
T2 6086 6540 0.83 0.479 50.5 31.4
T3 6667 8384 0.77 0.473 51.2 39.6
T4 7576 8914 0.812 0.438 61.6 39.1
T5 8232 9823 0.850 0.448 70.0 44.1
T6 7348 8889 0.810 0.457 59.5 40.7
T7 7879 9218 0.802 0.438 63.1 40.3
T8 6894 8217 0.790 0.455 54.4 37.5
T9 6944 8662 0.790 0.444 54.8 38.4
CD (0.05) 302.6 543.0 NS NS NS 5.55
GAU, Navsari Anonymous (2002)
59

60. Table 17: Effect of split application of N fertilizers in rice.
Treatments
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
Straw yield
(kg/ha)
N uptake
Kg/ha
Nitrogen Use
Efficiency (NUE)%
N1 3095 3714 52.6 ----
N2 5095 5881 75.3 33.97
N3 4048 4452 60.4 26.99
N4 4381 4857 63.1 29.21
N5 4869 5310 69.8 32.46
N6 5726 6333 85.5 28.63
N7 5817 6476 85.2 23.05
CD(0.05) 120 266 0.78 ---
N1=Control [0 Kg N /ha]
N2=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at Basal (B),Active Tillering(AT)& Panicle Inition(PI)]
N3=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at B, AT, PE(penicle emergence)]
N4=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at B, PI, PE]
N5=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at AT, PI, PE]
N6=200 Kg N /ha [4 equal splits at B, AT, PI, PE]
N7=256.7 Kg N /ha [4 equal splits at B, AT, PI, PE]
TNAU, Madurai Balasubramanian (2002)
60

61. Level (mg/g soil) Water depth (cm) Cumulative losses (%)
75
0 33.21
5 24.82
10 18.01
150
0 30.63
5 22.25
10 19.85
225
0 20.01
5 16.93
10 13.53
Table 18: Effect of N levels and water depth on ammonia volatilization
losses (%) from urea.
CCS HAU, Hissar Kumar & Kumar (2005) 61

62. Treatment
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
Straw yield
(kg/ha)
N uptake (kg/ha)
T1 : Control 2067 3264 30.22
T2 : 57 kg N ha-1 as PU (3splits) 2962 3956 43.85
T3 : 57 kg N ha-1 as NCPU (basal) 3157 4013 50.13
T4 : 76 kg N ha-1 as PU (3splits) 3208 4172 50.25
T5 : 57 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT 3738 4578 68.25
T6 : 76 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT 3738 4641 68.91
T7 : 57 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT +
19 kg N ha-1 as PU at PI
3994 5053 70.69
LSD (0.05) 242 458 -
Table 19: Effect of different doses and methods of application of PU and USG on
yield and N uptake of rice.
Orissa Jena et al. (2008)
PU- Prilled urea, NCPU- Nimin coated prilled urea, USG- Urea super granule, PI- panicle initiation
62

63. Ultivation N rates
Basal
fertilizer
Tillering
fertilizer
Booting
fertilizer
Total NH3 loss
TF
N0 (control) 1.02 a 0.80 a 0.32 a 2.14 a
N1 (80 kg/ha) 3.77 b 1.58 b 1.08 b 6.44 b (5.37)
N2 (160 kg/ha) 4.91 c 3.03 c 1.84 c 9.78 c (4.77)
N3 (240 kg/ha) 6.33 d 4.19 d 2.61 d 13.13 d (4.58)
SRI
N0 (control) 1.38 a 1.03 a 0.72 a 3.14 a
N1 (80 kg/ha) 4.22 b 1.98 b 1.67 b 7.88 b (5.93)
N2 (160 kg/ha) 6.06 c 3.65 c 2.48 c 12.19 c (5.66)
N3 (240 kg/ha) 7.78 d 5.04 d 3.41 d 16.23 d (5.45)
Table 20: Ammonia volatilization losses after N fertilizer application at
basal, tillering and booting stages (kg N ha-1).
China Zhao et al. (2010)
SRI- system of rice intensification, TF- traditional flooding
Notes: Values followed by the same letter within one column are not significantly different by LSD at
the 0.05 level under the same cultivation system. The number in parentheses indicated the percentage
of the amount of applied N.
63

65. Fig 12 - Global Warming Potential of transplanted and
direct seeded rice.
Jalandhar, Punjab Pathak et al. (2009)
65

66. Fig 13 : Global warming potential of conventional continuously
flooded and mid-season drainage technologies in rice.
Jalandhar, Punjab Pathak et al. (2009)
66

67. Table 21 : Cumulative CH4 and N2O emission during the rice cropping season from
land preparation to harvest as affected by residue management and season
(Values are means of four fallow management treatments).
Residue
management
CH4 emission (g/m2) N2O emission (mg/m2)
2011 WS 2012 DS Difference 2011 WS 2012 DS Difference
With residue 55 33 22*** 23 21 2 ns
Without
residue
26 17 9* 49 71 - 22 ns
Difference 29*** 16*** -26 ns -50 ns
LSD 6 - - 54 - -
ns = not significant at P ≤ 0.05.
WS = wet season, DS = dry season.
*** Significant at P ≤ 0.001.
* Significant at P ≤ 0.05.
Philippines Sander et al. (2014)
67

68. Table 22: Cumulative CH4 emission N2O emission during the rice cropping season
from land preparation to harvest as affected by fallow management and
season (Values are means of two residue management treatments).
Fallow
management
CH4 emission (g/m2) N2O emission (mg/m2)
2011 WS 2012 DS Difference 2011 WS 2012 DS Difference
Flooded 72 a 47 a 25** 35 a 44 a -9 ns
Dry 21 c 16 b 5 ns 79 a 45 a 34 ns
Dry + tillage 25 c 14 b 11* 17 a 75 a -58 ns
Dry and wet 44 b 23 b 21*** 13 a 19 a -6 ns
LSD 11 - - 78 - -
In a column, means followed by a different letter are significantly different according to LSD test at alpha = 0.05.
ns = not significant at P ≤ 0.05.
WS = wet season, DS = dry season.
*** Significant at P ≤ 0.001.
* Significant at P ≤ 0.05.
Philippines Sander et al. (2014)
68

69. The unique condition of submerged soils promotes N - losses
through denitrification, ammonia volatilization and leaching which not
only to decreases in nitrogen use efficiency but also leads to water and
atmospheric pollution to a greater extent.
Oxidized layer at soil water interface, sources and composition
of N fertilizer, soil reactions, soil temperature etc. are influence the N
transformation in the soils.
The yield of rice, N use efficiency and N uptake in submerged
soil can be improved by adopting the proper techniques of N
management like adequate level of N, Split application of N at critical
stages and sources of N (Ammonium sulphate).
Other than this, use of slow release N fertilizers (USG, LCU), N
inhibitors (NCU), spot application and deep placement of USG near root
zone and integrated N application can also reduce the losses of N and
ultimately increase the NUE under submerged conditions.
69

70. 70