Clean Coal And The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

Clean Coal And The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
Clean coal is the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases which arise from coal
application. (Fan, 2008) This process is usually used for electrical power generation using clean coal
technology. Clean coal pumps and stores carbon dioxide emissions underground by using the
integrated gasification combined cycle. Coal gasification is the main process in the integrated
gasification combined cycle. The integrated gasification combined cycle increases efficiency and
lowers cost in capturing carbon dioxide emissions. (Fan, 2008)
Clean coals main objective is to capture and store carbon. According to the World Coal Institute
(WCI) clean coal technologies are defined as "technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency
and the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are an array of technologies that are accessible to advance our coal performance. This can
include enhancing our existing options, deploying advanced technology, utilizing synergies with the
application of renewables, and developing and commercializing next generation technologies.
The United States (and Canada) recently began this whole Clean Coal Technology Program recently,
1985 to be exact. The reason for the Clean Coal Technology Program was originally because of the
environment being destroyed by acid rain. It was believed by both countries that the acid rain was
damaging rivers, lakes, and forests. (Fossil Energy Office of Communications, 2013) Since many of
the pollutants that formed "acid rain" were coming from big coal–burning power plants in the
United States, the U.S. Government took the lead in finding a solution. (Fossil Energy Office of
Communications, 2013) One of the actions by the United States Department of Energy was to create
a collaboration between the government, a number of states, and private companies to test new
methods developed by scientists to make coal burning much cleaner. This was developed as the
"Clean Coal Technology Program."
The biggest challenge for early researchers was figuring out how to make coal "clean" and exactly
what sort of process could be easily replicated without harming any more of Earth's valuable
resources. Scientists after many tests, found more than one way of making coal
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A Brief Note On Landfill With Electricity Recovery
3.3.2. Landfill with Electricity recovery
Landfilling with electricity recovery used in this study is a typical MSW landfill with surface and
basic sealing, site operations including landfill gas treatment, sludge treatment, leachate treatment
and deposition, and meeting European limits for emissions. The inventory data are taken from the
GaBi database (GaBi, 2015). 28% of the landfill gas is assumed to be used for electricity production
while 22% of it is assumed to be flared and the rest (50%) emitted to the environment. The energy
and manufacturing processes of the sealing materials requirements for the site, are included within
the system.
3.3.3. Incineration
The Incinerator used in this study is an MSW incinerator with Moving grate combined heat and
power incinerator used in Europe and UK in particular. The inventory data used are taken from the
GaBi database (GaBi, 2015). And the control of emissions is done using wet and dry flue gas
treatment by injecting hydrated lime, urea and activated carbon into the flue gases with filter bags
for particulate removal. Ferrous metals (Fe, Cu, Al etc.) are recovered, which 60% of the produced
bottom ash after metal recovery and ageing is reused as construction material (and will leave the
system as bottom ash for reuse). The remaining 40% are disposed on a landfill (GaBi, 2015)). The
credits for the electricity, metal recovery and operation of the underground deposit is included with
gross electrical efficiency assumed to be

The Energy Supply Of India Essay
Abstract The development of a nation is also measured on the parameters like the adequacy of
electrical energy. To make a nation as the developed nation, the energy supply should have a reach
to the extreme parts too. As India is an agricultural nation and so sorts of agricultural left outs are
accessible here. Along these lines, this immense measure of agricultural wastes can be an input
resource for power production in Indian villages. Rice husk is one of the potential agricultural
wastes which can be utilized as an input source to generate electricity, conditioned that it will be
handled and processed effectively. The reason for this paper is to bring the focus on the alternative
power generation methods in the rural part. The rice husk plants are generally small and medium
scaled efficient enough to supply or to meet the basic need of a village. In this piece, the main focus
is to show the available rice husk in India, the distinctive possibilities and the procedure with which
it can be utilized to generate power. Finally, a decrease in competition in supply by the larger plant
may lead to the decrease in the cost. But various issues related to investment as the risk of failing of
plant, monopoly on the supply side of husk from various rice mills, institutional challenges related
to the distributional area. 1. Introduction Even with the increase in the demand for electricity
globally, India's peak demand of electricity is 165253 MW and we have a surplus supply.

Informative Essay On Trash Environment
Trash Environment The Plasma gasification plant will produces electricity for cars, busses, and
trucks, the gasification plant makes electricity by trash. It works by a trash truck or by trash being
dumped into it. typically uses an inert gas such as argon. It will give electricity for usually for things
with gas but now uses electricity so our city stays unpolluted for people's safety and ours. We also
have wind turbines and no pollution sites or factories the only factories we have are the healthy
ones. Hopefully they will call their friends and will come to visit and hopefully they will stay and
buy a house and no people will get sick diseases or die and although we have lots of cars that look
like polluting ones we don't we have them there just any electric car. Facts About The Gasification
Plant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Sometimes they call it artificial lightning plasma can have temperatures that can exceed 7,000
degrees centigrade that's three times hotter than fossil fuels and hotter than the surface of the sun).
The plasma arc would quickly transform organic materials into synthetic gas. Often called syngas,
and melt inorganic materials, which when cooled, become like a rock. (and can be sold as
construction materials). With no remaining waste to deal with in it, landfills become obsolete. In
many regions of the United States, (it would be more cost–effective to take municipal solid waste to
a plasma gasification plant for energy production than to dump it in a landfill). When the plasma
gasification is fully done, (even existing landfills could be economically mined for energy
production), environmental cleanup and land reuse. Plasma gasification of 1 ton of average
municipal solid

Energy Sources Of Renewable Biomass
I. INTRODUCTION
As an abundant, inexpensive, and renewable as well as environmentally–friendly (i.e. CO2–neutral)
energy source, biomass energy has been a particular focus of researcher and policy makers as well
as industries around the world (Chen, 2003). Renewable biomass presents an important research
area for energy source, considering the current global crises of exhaustible sources of energy.
Bioenergy is the 4th largest source of energy in the world, and it does not contribute to the global
warming through emissions of CO2 or any other green–house gases. Biomass pyrolysis has
witnessed exponential growth in its research and has been investigated extensively in the last few
decades, first in the form of fixed bed reactors and later in the form of moving bed reactors
(fluidized bed, auger bed etc). As the combustion of solid biomass is analogous to the combustion of
other solid fuels, such as coal and waste, essentially the same technology is applicable to all solid
fuels, although modifications are required to handle the high content of moisture and volatiles
typically associated with biomass fuels (Duffy & Eaton, 2013). In this paper, which reviews the
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of fixed/moving bed solid–gas reactors, biomass
pyrolysis, gasification and combustion has been the focus of the study. Combustion of biomass in
the presence of carrier gases like N2 etc has been extensively studied, with focus being on the
numerical or CFD models which have

Introduction. Sub-Saharan Africa (Ssa) Holds The Largest
Introduction
Sub–Saharan Africa (SSA) holds the largest population in the world without electricity; about 70%
of the total 1.3billion energy–poor around the world . The energy structure in SSA is challenging
and dubbed by possessing inadequate capacity and unreliable means with high costs. In addition, the
most expensive prices for access to electricity are paid by some of Africa's poorest. Fortunately,
distributed power in Africa does not have any policy regulations or grids to upkeep . Solar energy
and biomass are among the most abundant renewable resources for providing energy to rural sub–
Saharan Africa. These resources can be harnessed and used effectively with modern technology such
as solar PV and biomass gasifiers to produce ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Kenya and Tanzania half a million household are serviced by pay as you go solar companies . M–
Kopa Solar, one of the leaders in this space based in Nigeria, has already brought solar power to
over 140,000 African residents and small business owners (approximately 1.12 MW based on 8 W
average system size) .
Although solar panels and kits are easily transported and require little to no maintenance, solar does
not solve all of Africa's problems. Current systems can only light up small shops and service small
businesses such as salons. Several firms are working on scaling them up to provide power to small
factories and farms. But even so, small scale solar power is not sufficient when it comes to big
industries . Small home solar system (usually comprising of 1or 2 panels) do not provide sufficient
power for large loads, such as hospitals. Additionally, although it is very sunny, irradiance still
varies throughout the day and need for batteries which add large costs.
Biomass Energy
Africa is rich in vegetation with tropical forest and woodlands covering 60% of the continent. In
several countries of Sub–Sahara Africa (SSA), biomass energy accounts for 70–90 percent of
primary energy supply. The consumption of wood is the predominant sour¬ce of biomass energy,
and represents the largest single sour¬ce of energy for most families in SSA . In rural areas, wood is
collected "free" from nearby forests. Forests are the main sources of wood for energy production .

The United States Environmental Association
The United States Environmental Association (EPA) has listed natural changes in greenhouse gas
(GHG) concentrations, volcanic eruptions and solar energy as some of the natural causes of climate
changes on earth. However, the recent climate changes cannot be explained by natural causes alone.
Research indicates that natural causes are very unlikely to explain most observed warming,
especially warming since the mid–20th century. Rather, human activities can very likely explain
most of that warming. These human activities are the causes of anthropogenic climate changes. The
article also adds "Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750; human activities have
contributed substantially to climate change by the addition of CO2 and other heat–trapping gases to
the atmosphere. These greenhouse gas emissions have increased the greenhouse effect has caused
Earth's surface temperature to rise. This is the primary reason which is affecting the amount and rate
of climate change is greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels." Other activities that
initiate climate changes are caused by the gas emissions from fossil fuels used to heat homes,
petroleum based fuels like gasoline and diesel used for transportation and electricity production
which comes from burning fossil fuels.
My position is that global warming is definitely taking place. This is apparent in the unseasonable
and sudden weather we are having with the severity of the storms that have taken place like

Efficient Delivery Of Cancer
The efficient delivery of drugs and energy to tumors faces several difficulties and obstacles that
need to be overcome for effective cancer treatment. Nanoparticles administrated through
intravenous injections accumulate at a tumor site due to the enhanced permeability and retention
(EPR) eﬀect, but only a small quantity of the injected particles can actually "reach the tumor" (Su et
al, 2016). The majority of the nanoparticles interact with "cancer cells at the periphery of a tumor"
which presents a "physiological barrier" that prevents most of the injected particles from reaching
the tumor (Su et al, 2016). In addition to this barrier, there is also another significant obstacle,
"cancer–associated fibroblasts", which can also ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This conglomerate composed of protein–lipid, sponge–like carbon, and reduced graphene oxide
(rGO) was administrated by the researchers to mice in order to study the material's ability to
"transport the hydrophobic drug docetaxel (DTX) and perfluorohexane (PFH) for deep tumor
penetration and therapy" (Su et al, 2016). The Lf–lipo–GNS composite is capable of carrying large
amounts of drugs in its pores which can be released through the absorption of light by the GNS. By
applying near–infrared (NIR) irradiation, the gasification of PFH occurs due to "an increase in local
temperature" in the graphene nanosponge which as a result "damages and ruptures tumor spheroids"
(Su et al, 2016). Consequently, the combined effects of "gasification and chemo– and
thermotherapy" can substantially reduce tumors and even completely eliminate them without future
reappearance. The researchers conducted a study on in vitro photolytic therapy on "RG2 tumor
spheroids incubated with the control group (PBS only), Lf–lipo–US–GNS/DTX, Lf–lipo–US–
GNS/DTX+NIR, and Lflipo–US–GNS/DTX–PFH+NIR" (Su et al, 2016). Due to its tumor
penetration ability, the researchers used "10 μg/mL of 40 nm Lf–lipo–US–GNS" to conduct the
study. After the composite was administrated to the tumors, they were allowed to incubate for "4 h"
followed by NIR irradiation with "a power density of 2 W cm–2 for 10 min" and then were stained
with propidium iodide to

Technology Tour : Antelope Valley Station
EE 438 – Power Technology Tour
Tour: Antelope Valley Station
Date: 8/11/15
Time: 10:00
Location: North of Beulah, ND
Tour Guide: Paige Fleck
Antelope Valley Station is a lignite coal based electrical generation plant that produces power as a
division of Basin Electric Power Cooperative, The station is located just north of Beulah, ND and
has a generation capacity of 900 MW. It has two generating units each with a 450 MW rating. To put
this in perspective, 900 MW can sufficiently meet the power demands of approximately 720,000
homes. Since the beginning of its operation, Antelope Valley has consistently provided affordable
wholesale electricity for Basin Electric and has consistently ranked among the lowest–cost
producers when compared to other coal–based power plants in the United States.
Antelope Valley receives its coal directly from the neighboring Coteau Freedom Mine. The Kress
haulers from the mine directly drop coal into conveyor that run coal both to Antelope Valley Station
and Dakota Gasification Plant. Antelope Valley Station takes the smaller chunks of lignite and
crushes them down even further. This coal is then transferred using conveyors into the coal silos
inside the plant. From here gravity forces the coal down into a pulverizing chamber. Once
pulverized, air forces the coal into the boiler.
The boiler in Antelope Valley Station is quite large. Tour guide Paige Fleck described the boiler as
being taller than the State Capitol Building in

Dry Filters During WWII
During the Second World War a multitude of dry filters containing wood wool, sisal fibre, glass
wool, wood chips soaked in oil, and other types of fibrous or granular material were used for
removal of the fine dust (average particle size below 60 micron), but success was very limited.
Wet purifiers such as water and oil scrubbers and bubblers are also effective but only within certain
limits.
The best cleaning effect is obtained by employing cloth filters. However, normal cloth filters are
very sensitive to the gas temperature. In the case of wood or agricultural waste gasification, the
dew–point of the gas will be around 70 C. Below this temperature water will condense in the filters,
causing obstruction of the gas flow and an unacceptable

The Refinery, The Petroleum Distillation, By Benjamin Jr.
1.1 INTRODUCTION The modern refinery, the petroleum distillation, appeared in 1862 when
Benjamin Jr.'s research showed that 50% of the new Pennsylvania Rock Oil can be distillates into
first–rate burning oil, kerosene and paraffin oil and, and the other 40% can be used for another
purpose, such as lubrication. In the nineteenth century, the United States and Russia were the
countries that produced oil which led to many developments in oil extraction. In the twentieth
century, different regions in the world started to produce oil productions, such as Indonesia, Mexico
and Middle Eastern countries. Since then, the oil industry has grown by more technological research
and developments in improving their processes and reducing the energy used (Speight, 2011). The
refinery industries shows different terms to describe the type of oil. The crude can be segregated
according to its characteristics, such as components, gravity and sulfur content. The following are
some types of oil used in industry: Conventional crude is the oil produced form the conventional
method, oil well. Also, its refinery is expected to be normal one, hence, it does not have hard
operation conditions. It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds: gaseous, liquid, and solid.
Opportunity crude (challenging crude or unconventional crude) is the same as the conventional
crude, but they are very difficult to process due to: high total acid number, high sulfur content and/or
low API gravity. Heavy oil

Space Station Research Paper
Our city is named blue moon and is responsible for operation final frontier a research space station
orbiting earth in 2200 lands locked to the earth city Blue moon. Our space station is climate
controlled to stay around 70 degrees Fahrenheit and has misters to help control the humidity. Do in
this climate our workers do not need many types of clothing and when they arrive, they will have a
neutral and constant Climent to adapt to. Our city's geography is relatively plain meaning that it is
easy to walk where you need to go and public transportation is easy to run. Our plain geography
makes ours look simple, but our city is far from boring.
Since we have many people on a space station much is different from life on earth..
Since our city is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of these risks include dangerous items such as broken glass, dangerous items that are not
supposed to be there, bacteria, and many others. Also, the process of recycling can be extremely
dangerous if proper safety precautions are not taken. Take a cell phone and electronics recycling, for
instance. Electronics contain many harmful metals such as Lead and Cadmium, so workers in the
plants that recycle old electronics need to make sure that they have dust masks and latex gloves on
so that they don't come into contact with lead dust. There are also many costs to recycling. You need
to purchase machinery, collection trucks, bins, and hire workers to keep the place

IGCC Technology : Bypassing Environmental Barriers?
Bypassing Environmental Barriers? When it comes to environmental concerns and power plants,
global warming and carbon dioxide emissions come to mind. As mentioned in the Bypassing
Regulatory Barriers section, IGCC technology still requires the use of generators which are where
emissions exit. As stated by Christou, Hadjipaschalis, and Poullikkas (2008):
It is acknowledged that greenhouse gas emissions from an IGCC plant are much lower than those
from a typical pulverized coal plant. However, the need for further reduction of harmful emissions
to the environment (Kyoto protocol) and the developments in technology have advanced the idea of
an IGCC plant incorporating CCS (p. 2464).
For CCS technology, there are several approaches and they ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
2199). As stated by Mudd (2011) with regards to oxy–combustion capture:
Oxy–combustion is a hybrid of post–combustion clean up. Pulverized coal is fed into a furnace and
combusted with concentrated oxygen rather than ambient air. This results in a much higher
concentration of CO2 in the exhaust gases, enabling a more efficient process in removing the CO2
for sequestration (p. 47).
With regards to the capture efficiency of CCS technology, "Studies of CO2 capture from IGCC
power plants typically assume an overall CO2 capture efficiency in the range of 75–92%" (Chen &
Rubin, 2009, p. 918). Despite the possible incorporation of carbon capture technology with the
possible high capture rates, IGCC technology is still in situations where "Dealing with air permit
appeals will delay the construction and operation of these units" so bypassing environmental barriers
is difficult (Neville, 2009, p. 7).
Efficiency Comparison between IGCC and Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum, and Nuclear
IGCC technologies' competitions are coal, natural gas, petroleum, and nuclear power plants. Figure
5 below shows the efficiency of coal, petroleum, and nuclear power plants to be roughly 34% and
natural

A Brief Note On Tour : Coteau Freedom Mine, A Subsidiary...
Summary Written By: Bradley Penney
Tour: Coteau Freedom Mine
Date: 8/11/15
Time: 8:00
Location: North of Beulah, ND
Tour Guide: Cheri Shantz
The Coteau Freedom Mine, a subsidiary of North American Cole Mine of NACO, provides coal to
three main consumers: Antelope Valley Station, Leland Olds Station, and Dakota Gasification
Company. All three consumers of the coal excavated at the Coteau Freedom Mine are part of the
Basin Electric Company, which produces and distributes much of the power for the northern central
states. The mine itself excavates about 15 million tons of coal per year, which is nearly 60,000 tons
of coal per day. It is responsible for one half of the production of coal in North Dakota.
Tour guide Cheri Chantz provided a background on how coal and the mine itself were formed. The
Coteau Freedom Mine was formed over 50–60 million years ago. It takes approximately ten feet of
vegetation under heat and pressure forms approximately one foot worth of coal. The type of coal
found at the Coteau Freedom Mine was lignite coal, which is a low quality form of coal. Lignite
coal has lower energy content or BTU compared to other forms of coal due to the decrease in the
amount of carbon present in the coal and an increase in impurities and water content. In fact, lignite
coal is nearly one–third water.
The process to mine the coal is quite complex. First, surveyors are called on site to document the
layout of the land so that in can be restored to

Environmental Load Of Coal Gas
[1] Introduction/Motivation
The total United States carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for 2014 were 5,404 million metric tons
(Mt). Of this, the electricity sector was responsible for 2,043 Mt (37.8%). Coal fired power plants
produced 76% of the electricity sector's CO2 emissions, with the most of the remaining emissions
coming from natural gas–fired power plants. With new clean air standards being signed into law
every year, coal–fired power plants are facing a serious push towards clean coal technology. Coal
resources are abundant throughout the world, inexpensive, and relatively stable in price compared
other energy resources such as natural gas. For this reason, coal is expected continue to play a large
role as one of the primary energy sources for the generation of electricity in the United States well in
2040 (EIA, 2012). However, the most critical issue with promoting the utilization of coal is to
decrease its environmental load. Today, the generation of electricity via coal is extremely dirty;
combustion of coal generates larger amounts of sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and
particulates compared to oil and natural gas. To make it possible to utilize coal in a manner
harmonious with the environment, as required by carbon pollution standards in the United States,
and contribute to the energy security of our nation, it is important to develop and expand the use of
clean coal technology.
[2] Clean Coal Technology
Clean coal technology refers to a collection of

Gvm Exploration Limited
Case: GVM Exploration Limited TABLE OF CONTENTS Background 3 Timeline 3 Ethical Issues
3 Ethical dilemma faced by the CC 4 Ethical issue from GVMs Perspective 5 Economic
Responsibility 5 Legal Responsibility 5 Social Responsibility 5 CSR Plans 6 Ecosystem 6
Conservation of Heritage 6 Courses of Actions 7 Filing for Injunction 7 Do nothing – Let other
companies resolve the issue 7 Sub lease or outsourcing the project 7 Our Recommendation 8 Settle
in private 8 The Problem 8 1st step of the solution – Better Communication 8 2nd step of the
solution – Start the Dovik Creek Project 9 3rd step of the solution – Highlight benefits of Project
and calm fears over destruction of the environment 9 Conclusion 10 ... Show more content on
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Ethical issue from GVMs Perspective The Ethical dilemma that GVM faces is whether they should
go ahead with the GV project knowing that there are protests regarding it. To analyse the situation
better we need to look at the three tiers of responsibility that GVM, as a corporation, owes. The tiers
are: Economic, Legal and Social, Economic being the narrowest and Social being the broadest.
Analysis will be carried out to determine whether there is any breach of these responsibility.
Economic Responsibility At this level, the major responsibility that GVM owes is to GVFN and to
its own sustainability. Going ahead with this project is in the interest of GVM as they gain profits
(Egoism) and as mentioned above it's an act that's also in the interest of the majority of GVFN (Act
Utilitarianism). Tangible benefits can then be maximized for the various stakeholders, in particular,
the GVFN groups will stand to benefit economically and in terms of standard of living and GVM
who gain maximized profits (Adam Smith, Invisible Hand). Legal Responsibility From a legal point
of view GVM went through all the right legal channels[2] and this they fulfilled their responsibility.
Social Responsibility This is more commonly known as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
This is the responsibility that a business owes to the

The Concept Of Gasification
2. I consider these activities work because they are all things that have to get done. If I don't, they
will just pile up and overwhelm me. I have to do house chores and homework in order to live a sane
life. I could walk around in filth , but I would be utterly disgusted by myself. I could also not do my
homework, but then I would fail my classes and I will have spent all of this money for nothing.
They have to get done, so as much as I hate it, I will do them. 3. The only challenge I that I can
predict, is the lack of time that I have to get things done. There are only twenty–four hours in a day,
and all of them are pretty much jam packed with something. If one activity runs long, it will cut in to
another activities time slot. This means ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I. will try to overcome these challenges bypassing close attention to the time. I will also try to
multitask. I can do my laundry at the same time as my homework. All I need to do is put a load on
and forget about it. I don't have to focus on a single task at once. Some things are easier than others,
so I can do a few easy things at the same time. As long as pay attention to the clock and stick to my
schedule, I should be fine. 5. The concept of gasification really stuck out to me. I really liked the
idea that if an activity is fun you are more likely to do it for the reward of winning. No one likes to
clean, but if I test myself to see how far I can get in a room before a song ends I'm not cleaning.
Instead, I am playing a game that just happens to have an outcome that will make my living space
look nicer. I will also want to beat myself. I will always think, "Maybe I can get farther with this
song." 6. I can use the concept of gasification to make boring old tasks more exciting. If I give
myself goals , and more specifically rewards when I reach those goals, I will be more likely to do
the activity. If I give myself challenges to complete it won't even feel like work at all. Instead, it will
feel like I am just having a good time. It just so happens that I will also be getting things done in the

What Are Differences Among Gasification, Thermal...
% What is smouldering combustion?
Smouldering is defined as a self–sustaining exothermic reaction in which the heat released by
surface oxidation causes pyrolysis of the unaffected fuel adjacent to the reaction zone, which in turn
yields a rigid char which will subsequently undergo surface oxidation citep{smith2006springer}.
The initiation of furniture fires by weak heat sources, such as, a cigarette or a short–circuited wire,
and the flaming combustion of biomass occurring in bushfires behind the flaming front are two
common examples of smouldering combustion citep{rein2009smouldering}. extcolor{red}{$%$
What are differences among gasification, thermal degradation and smouldering?}
% What are differences among gasification, thermal degradation and smouldering?
When referring to smouldering, it is important to understand the differences between smouldering
and other non–flaming reactions which involve external heat flux, such as gasification and thermal
decomposition. Gasification and thermal decomposition typically involve little or no oxidation
reaction and hence are endothermic; while smouldering involves both endothermic and exothermic
reactions citep{ohlemiller2002chapter}. If smouldering reaction is self–sustained, then the
endothermic reactions are the driving force for the smouldering. Char oxidation is the principle heat
source in most of self–sustained smouldering; therefore, any material that forms char during thermal
decomposition has the potential for

The Use of Coal as an Energy Source in the United States...
Energy from Coal: The Nation's Dirty Secret
Abstract
While technology has led the world into such an advanced setting with intelligent machinery and
automated devices, coal has remained a loyal contributor of the energy needed by these various
types of equipment to function properly. Almost half of the electricity in the United States is
produced in coal plants where coal is burnt to produce this energy [1]. Both beneficial and
detrimental factors come with this alternative source of energy, known by the world for centuries.
Background Information
Even with the quantity of fossil fuels dwindling due to human consumption, coal has remained one
of the cheapest, reliable sources of electricity, natural gas, diesel fuel, and steel ... Show more
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But there are also many detrimental factors as well, since the production of coal results in air
pollution, sulfur dioxide emission, carbon dioxide emission, acid rain, and hazardous waste [4].
These environmental problems are due to both the mining of coal and coal production plants. Many
issues arise with the mining of coal. Firstly, the safety of miners is put at risk as they descend
hundreds of feet below the surface of the Earth. After many years in this field of work, many miners
develop black lung because of inhaling the coal extensively. Secondly, the extraction of coal is very
costly due to the machinery needed along with the transportation of the coal after it has been mined
to the various factories that are able to extract the sulfur impurities in coal and burn the coal for
energy [5]. New methods have been developed to help with some of the issues relating to coal
production. To rid the surrounding environment of toxic pollution, emission–scrubbing
technology has been installed into coal plants. This is approximately 90% to 95% affective in
eliminating the mercury, sulfur, and nitrogen emissions [6]. As for the deep mining issues, there is
another method to retrieve coal from the Earth, removing the entire mountain–tops covering a
reserve of coal beneath. Although this

Eagle's Perch Case Study
Our city is called Eagle's Perch, a city one hundred years into our earth's future. We have been
researching ways to conserve waste, reuse, and recycle, to make our city a quite superior place.
Also, we would like to see what our city can withstand in certain circumstances. Our team is eager
to see how far the percentage of solid waste can decrease. Hopefully at some point in time, it can
reach the number zero. Along with these ideas, this city should have a non–polluting and healthier
option of transportation and a waste conserving option. Our team has been researching this topic,
and have found two alternatives that could change our future for the better. These amazing, healthy
alternatives are called eco–bricks and solar roadways. The solar roadways provide a simpler way to
create energy without burning fossil fuels. There are miniature LED lights placed in the roadways.
These technology enhanced roads consist of solar panels that create non–polluting energy.
Therefore, street lanes, parking spaces, and road signs can rearrange to help ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The ticket to solving these problems are tubes underneath the ground. These tubes transport waste to
an area underground, away from people, which will keep the air and atmosphere fresh. Using these
trash chutes, we can help prevent solid waste buildup, and make our community a much clearer and
healthier place. Alongside these devices, there is a transportation alternative called, the Maglev. This
train, if you will, uses magnetic levitation to transport people and things. Solar panels will create the
energy to move this Maglev. Thus creating, much less pollution and a much safer way to travel and
get around. Maglevs run on tracks, which means there is a path for the Maglev to follow. Meaning,
it is very unlikely that the Maglev will crash or experience an emergency. In conclusion, the Maglev
will change the system of transportation

A Brief Note On The Gas Mixture Of Hydrogen And Carbon...
1.2.3 Gasification and Syngas Syngas is a gas mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are
products from gasfireing any hydrocarbon material such as coal at a high pressure and temperature,
30 bar and 1500 °K. The present of the oxygen is the primary difference between gasification and
combustion. When a feed gasfire, the oxygen or air is injected in small amount allowing part of the
feed to burn completely which supply the required heat and pressure, then, the heat will break down
the feed into synthesis gas (Higman & Burgt, 2003). This process consists of six main reactions:
Table 1: Gasification main reactions Reaction Process Chemical Formula Change in Enthalpy
Gasification with Oxygen C + ½ O2 → CO –3,922 Btu/lb C Combustion with Oxygen C + O2 →
CO2 –14,111 Btu/lb C Gasification with Carbon Dioxide C + CO2 → 2 CO 6,267 Btu/lb C
Gasification with Steam C + H2O → CO + H2 4,750 Btu/lb C Gasification with Hydrogen C + 2 H2
→ CH4 –2,672 Btu/lb C Water Gas Shift CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 –650 Btu/lb CO There are four
basic configurations for the gasification. These configurations describe the way oxygen introduced
to hydrocarbon feed since it will produce different characteristics for each one of them (Breault,
2015). The following is an explanation for each configuration: Table 2: The four basics
configurations for the gasification Bed Type Hydro Dynamically Moving Bed Gas flow through a
porous medium where the solids move down while gas moves up – a counter current

New Planet Power Gas And Light, Inc. Mission
New Planet Power Gas And Light, Inc. mission is to be the #1 retailer of renewable energy resources
in the Port Orange, FL 32128 area. Its goal is to produce WtE at a discounted price, provide prompt
and outstanding customer service through its knowledgeable staff, combining modern society 's
needs for waste disposal with the added purpose of creating clean syngas, affordable electricity and
pure drinking water. "A vision for a sustainable world"
Keys to Success
Some keys to success for New Planet Power Gas and Light, Inc. will be to establish the company's
strategy and planning to fill the site's waste capacity for conversion. Operational procedures must
also ensure efficient and productive methods to secure profits reducing any stoppage or downtime
within the facility. Management and staff will also be critical to staying up to date on technology
changes, customer and market demands, while retaining high quality industry control and service
creating long–term relationships, etc.
Marketing – The environmental industry and market services one of the largest mass markets of
consumer providing recyclable waste materials. It's essential for the company's marketing to reach
out to the other environmental agencies and first tiered buyers selling and distribution renewable
energy. Securing the long term contracts to ensure demand for power from the plant.
Technology – The industry is always looking for methods to improve production, control harmful
emissions, while meeting

Biomass And Renewable Sources Of Energy
Executive summary
Biomass has become one of the most commonly used renewable sources of energy in the last two
decades. Many of the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products, dried
vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic plants. It is such a widely utilized source of energy, probably
due to its low cost and indigenous nature, that it accounts for almost 14% of the world 's total energy
supply and as much as 35% in developing countries, mostly for cooking and heating. The wood
from trees is most common biomass used for energy. It has been used by humans for producing
energy for heating and cooking for a very long time. Biomass cannot replace our current dependence
on coal, oil, and natural gas, but it can complement other renewables such as solar and wind energy.
To converted biomass into usable energy in ways that are more efficient, less polluting, and at least
as economical, technological innovations will be needed. Gasification is considered as a key
technology for the use of biomass. In order to promote this technology in the future, advanced, cost
effective, and highly efficient gasification processes and systems are required. Generally all different
types of biomass can be converted by gasification into syngas mainly comprising hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane. . From this syngas, all kinds of energy or energy carriers
such as heat, power, biofuels, hydrogen, biomethane and chemicals can be provided.
Key words: renewable sources,

The Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies
4.3 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies
Biomass materials can be converted to various useful forms of energy such as heat, electricity and
liquid fuels. The technologies used to convert biomass into energy ranged widely from the simple
combustion of biomass used for cooking and heating in developing countries to a variety of
technologies to generate modern energy carriers – electricity, gas, and liquid bio–fuels. Canada is
using various materials including waste and residuals to generate electricity, heat and, bio–liquid
fuels (bio–ethanol and biodiesel) (Defra UK et al. 2007). Biomass energy can be used at the
household (–10 kW), community (–100 kW), or industrial (– MW) scale. Key biomass energy
conversion technologies include thermal and thermochemical, and biological and biochemical.
Thermal and Thermochemical Technologies o Combustion – convert forestry, agricultural and
municipal residues into heat and power under environmentally sound conditions o Gasification –
convert forestry, agricultural and municipal residues into syngas o Pyrolysis – convert forestry and
agricultural residues into bio–oils and value added products o Thermal and Catalytic Processing –
convert a variety of new and used vegetable oils; tall oils; waste greases and animal fats into
renewable diesel fuels and diesel blending stocks
Biological and Biochemical Technologies o Fermentation – convert the starch and cellulose
components of biomass to bio–ethanol o Anaerobic Digestion – convert

Clean Coal Technology
HOW CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES CAN REDUCE AIR POLLUTION FROM COAL
Coal is the most hazardous of all fossil fuels. When coal is burned, it produces emissions that
contribute to global warming, create acid rain and pollute water. Clean coal technology is a
collection of technologies that was developed to reduce the environmental impact of coal energy
generation. When coal is used as a fuel material or source, the gaseous emissions generated by the
thermal decomposition of the coal include nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide ,carbon dioxide,
mercury and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the properties of coal being used.
These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human
health, contributing

Advantage Of Petronas
Petroliam Nasional Bhd., Malaysia's state oil and gas company, will build a $20 billion refining
complex bordering Singapore to benefit from increased global demand for petrochemicals and
plastics.
Prime Minister Najib Razak told reporters in Kuala Lumpur that Petronas, as it is known, will
construct a crude oil refinery with a capacity of 300,000 barrels a day, a naphtha cracker,
petrochemicals and polymer facilities in Pengerang, in the country's southern state of Johor. It may
also construct a liquefied natural gas import and re–gasification terminal in the area, he said.
The project which is scheduled for completion in 2016, will help the nation compete with
Singapore, which has a refining capacity of more than twice as large even though ... Show more
The company is open to partners joining the project, Shamsul told reporters.
Dialog Group Bhd., based in Selangor, Malaysia, is constructing Southeast Asia's first deepwater
petroleum terminal in the same area in partnership with the Johor state government and Rotterdam–
based Royal Vopak NV, the world's biggest chemical and oil storage company.
Alex Goh, an analyst at AmResearch Sdn. said that Pengerang has been chosen as the site because
of its water depth of up to 26 meters, which is one of the deepest in Southeast Asia, in a report on
May 11. This would make it accessible for very–large and ultra–large crude carriers.
The Johor refinery will be bigger than the combined capacity of Petronas's existing facilities in
Melaka and Kerteh, Najib said. It will produce refined petroleum products such as gasoline, jet fuel
and diesel for local use and export, he said.
Chemicals

Direct Combustion Of Biomass For Heat Generation
Direct combustion is the most common way of converting biomass to energy – both heat and
electricity– and worldwide it already provides over 90% of the energy generated from biomass.
Direct combustion of solid biomass fuel is well understood, relatively straightforward, commercially
available, and can be regarded as a proven technology. Biomass combustion systems can be easily
integrated with existing infrastructure. Direct combustion of biomass for heat generation is widely
used in cold climate regions where there are significant annual demands for space heating and hot
water. Domestic biomass –fired heating appliance in the developed countries have been improved
with automation and standardized fuel supplies (e.g. wood pellets). Compared with traditionally
open fireplaces, these advanced domestic biomass applications not only achieve efficiencies of over
70% but also with greatly reduced atmospheric emissions (Liu H. 20 II)
Figure 4.2 Three steps of biomass combustion (Liu H. 2011)
4.3.2 Biomass gasification
Thermo–chemical gasification is the conversion by partial oxidation at high temperature of a
carbonaceous feedstock such as biomass into a gaseous energy carrier (Liu H. et al. 2010). The gas
resulted from biomass gasification consists of CO,
CO2, H2, CH4, higher hydrocarbons such as ethane and ethene, water, nitrogen (if air is used as the
oxidizing agent) and other contaminants such as small char particles, ash, tars and oils. Gasification
can be carried out by

Experimental Theory, State Of The Art, And Economics
The Fischer–Tropsch (FT) process is a part of the larger Gas to Liquids technology. The purpose of
the FT process is to convert syngas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, to liquid
hydrocarbon fuels. Syngas for FT can be coal, natural gas, or biomass derived, which opens several
pathways for how FT can be industrialized. Since its creation, the FT process has continuously been
researched and commercialized, but it remains an unpopular pathway to obtain liquid fuels. Ongoing
development of the process is primarily due to the value and promise of the FT products. This paper
will give an overview of the FT process with a focus on describing the process, experimental theory,
state of the art, and economics.
2. Process ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[1]
2.1 Reactions and Products
The FT process or FT synthesis is a set of catalytic processes for converting synthesis gas (syngas,
carbon monoxide hydrogen and/or other gases mixture) into liquid hydrocarbons. [2]
The reactions in the FT process are generally described as the following:
Alkanes: (2n + 1)H2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n+2 + nH2O (1)
Alkenes: 2nH2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n + nH2O (2)
Oxygenates: 2nH2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n + 2O + (n – 1)H2O (3)
Water Gas Shift: CO + H2O ⇔ CO2 + H2 (4)
The reaction stated before can be achieved with the help provided by the catalysts. The catalysts that
can be used in this process are varied. The preferred catalysts are the metals that have electron
configuration of d7 (although not required) [4]. These includes (1) Fe (Iron) = [Ar] 3d6 4s2, (2) Co
(Cobalt) = [Ar] 3d7 4s2, (3) Ni (Nickel) = [Ar] 4s2 3d8, (4) Mo (Molybdenum) = [Kr] 4d5 5s1, (5)
Ru (Ruthenium) = [Kr] 4d7 5s1. (6) Rh (Rhodium) = [Kr] 4d8 5s1, (7) W (Tungsten) = [Xe] 4f14
5d4 6s2, (8) Other platinum group noble metals. [5]
In real life, catalysts considered for FT synthesis are based on transition metals of iron, cobalt,
nickel and ruthenium. Among these catalysts, it is generally known that nickel (Ni) tends to promote
methane formation, as in a methanation process; thus generally it is not desirable. Iron (Fe) is

relatively low cost and has a higher water–gas–shift activity, and is therefore more suitable for a
lower hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio (H2/CO) syngas

Jamasb and Nepal Assessed the Economic Environmental and...
There has been a considerable amount of academic research performed in the area of evaluating the
feasibility of WTE systems through technology, environmental, and economical analysis. Some of
these studies have been done by Jamasb and Nepal (2010), Zaman (2010), Evangelisti et al (2013)
and Nixon et al (2013).
Jamasb and Nepal (2010) assessed the economic and environmental aspects of waste management
options in the UK with focus on waste management targets and carbon prices, and the results were
then compared with the conventional coal fired power systems. Comparisons were made through
developing a social cost benefit analysis of recycling, energy recovery through landfill gas,
incineration and coal power generation. The paper concluded that WTE is cost effective in
comparison to a coal–fired plant, but the technology requires government policies and subsidies to
allow the market to develop. This study could be further developed by including other advanced
WTE technologies such as AD and ATT in the assessment, as well as taking into consideration the
more recent developments in UK renewable energy government policies.
In another paper, Zaman (2010) analysed the environmental performances of three waste treatment
technologies: sanitary landfill with energy recovery, incineration and gasification–pyrolysis. The
methodology used was through conducting life cycle analysis (LCA) with SimaPro software, with
the context of a Swedish waste treatment system. The author concluded

Hydro Power Energy : Hydropower
Hydro power energy
Hydropower is the renewable energy contained in flowing water. Electricity generated using
hydropower is known as hydroelectricity and is generally considered to be reliable.
There are three main methods for generating hydroelectricity:
Storage – where a dam collects water in a reservoir, then releases it to drive turbines, producing
electricity
Pumped storage – where water is pumped to a higher reservoir, usually during times of low–priced
electricity, then released to a lower reservoir, again driving a turbine, usually when the electricity
price is higher
Run–of–river – where the natural flow of a river or stream is used to drive a turbine.
How electricity is generated through hydropower
In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in moving water, the water has to move with
sufficient speed and volume to spin a propeller–like device called a turbine, which in turn rotates a
generator to generate electricity. Roughly speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one
hundred feet can generate one kilowatt of electricity.
To increase the volume of moving water, impoundments or dams are used to collect the water. An
opening in the dam uses gravity to drop water down a pipe called a penstock. The moving water
causes the turbine to spin, which causes magnets inside a generator to rotate and create electricity.
There are a variety of types of turbines used at hydropower facilities, and their use depends on the
amount of hydraulic head (vertical

Synthesis Gas : The Interim Exquisite
1.1 Synthesis gas – the interim exquisite
Synthesis gas is a versatile intermediate feedstock for fuel and value added chemical synthesis. It is
a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in various ratios. The composition of synthesis gas can
be widely varied, depending on the synthesis processes and the composition of the raw materials,
i.e. their hydrogen–to–carbon ratios and their reactivity's. Synthesis gas can be produced not only
from natural gas, petroleum, petroleum derivatives, or coals but also from almost any organic
material, including biomass and organic wastes [1]. Synthesis gas have been synthesizing for many
years in commercial level. There are number of stablished techniques used in industries to produce
synthesis gas depending on the downstream requirements. Because of its adaptable nature synthesis
gas has a variety of uses. The carbon monoxide in synthesis gas can all be converted to hydrogen via
the water–gas shift reaction and again carbon monoxide in high purity can be obtained by low–
temperature (cryogenic) separation or absorption in aqueous copper salt solutions.
1.1.2. Synthesis Gas as a Source of Pure Hydrogen
Hydrogen gas as such is probably the chief product made from synthesis gas. It is used in huge
amounts for the synthesis of ammonia, methanol, fine chemicals, and hydrogen peroxide [2]. Its
many other uses include the hydrogenation of oils and fats, the reduction of ores, the manufacture of
drugs and fine chemicals, and rocket propulsion.

Globalization And Globalization
Many times we take things for granted, especially when we have lived our whole lives in a bubble
where there are tremendous changes but nothing that takes what we have. That's not the case for
many people living in a condition where no one should be living. Haiti is a country where poverty is
a big problem, where people starve themselves, no jobs, etc. Is a country where globalization has
impacted the environment a big way.
Many times the land of a country doesn't produce enough food because of the environment and it's
losing many changes of feeding their citizens. According to the Encyclopedia and Wikipedia in Haiti
right now roughy 40% of the land is producing food, farmers are losing crops, materials to plant
food and equipment, plus many of this farmers are the ones who keep the land producing and
bringing food. This information shows how the entire country is relying on 49% of cultives, which
means that there's not enough food since hurricanes, and other disgrace keep happening preventing
farmers to plant food. In order to be able to survive or even bring a country with enough food, they
should have more than the half of the land reproducing food and this is not the case for Haiti's land.
Moreover, the land isn't producing enough food since the land isn't being fertilized correctly without
the right materials and the environmental accidents that had happened like hurricanes, etc. Nina
Rastogi wrote the following for Haiti's Environmental Aftermath, " Those ripped–out

Energy from waste? Killing two birds with one stone...
Energy from waste? Killing two birds with one stone
Panacea to Energy crisis and waste treatment
Have you imagined that electrical appliances would be useless in one day? Have you ever thought of
living in total darkness? Concerns over energy crisis are alarmingly growing. Fossil fuels are
estimated to deplete within 100 years at current consumption rate1. Being a member of global
village, every cities and countries in the globe are responsible to pay joint effort to remedy the
situation. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the fifth assessment report
on 13 April, urging policymakers to put a halt to the use of non–renewable energy sources at once2.
"The high speed mitigation train needs to leave the station very ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Chemical conversion has two methods to generate electrical energy, i.e. direct and indirect.
The direct method is the combustion of MSW6. Since every matter stores energy, a direct burning of
MSW generates heat, which in turn provides energy to drive the motors for electricity production6.
The indirect method is pyrolysis, followed by gasification7. Pyrolysis is a term describing the
segregation of substance after thermal cracking and condensation8; gasification is a process of
converting carbon–containing compound into energy–rich fuels under specific condition8. To
illustrate these two concepts, you can think of the process of turning paddy to grain, and then to a
bowl of rice.
To separate grain from paddy, we need tools like paddy separator and husker aspirator. By breaking
paddy into smaller pieces, followed by segregation, we can obtain grains, which can be further
processed to useful materials, and husks. This procedure echoes with pyrolysis, a process that uses
machineries to separate useful and non–useful materials after breaking down the input substances to
other materials. At this stage, what we have obtained is grain. To convert it to rice that can be
consumed by human, we have to polish it and cook it. This action describes gasification, which
turns carbon–containing compounds (grains) to energy–rich fuel (cooked rice) under

Municipal Solid Waste ( Msw )
2.4. MUNICPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)
Municipal solid waste (MSW) publicly known as trash or garbage is defined according to the
Landfill directive (1999) as waste from households as well as other waste streams that are similar in
composition. Generally, MSW can be characterized as waste coming from residential, institutional,
commercial and industrial sources and they include; product packaging, kitchen waste, papers,
plastics, garden waste etc. MSW does not include construction and demolition debris, automobile
industries, waste water sludge, etc. (EPA, 2006). Table 2.1 comprises as sources of MSW and their
examples.
SOURCES OF MSW EXAMPLES
Residential Kitchen waste, yard trimmings, food packaging, cans, newspapers, clothing, disposable
tableware
Commercial: restaurants, office buildings, retail and wholesale establishments Papers, office
disposable table ware, yard trimming, boxes, food scraps
Institutional: schools and libraries Office waste papers, rest room and cafeteria trash can waste, class
room waste and yard trimmings
Industrial: packaging and administrative waste Plastic film, lunch room waste, office papers, boxes
and wood pallets etc. Table 2.1 Sources of MSW and their Examples (Gary, 2010)
MSW is a heterogeneous feedstock containing materials with widely varying sizes, shapes and
composition. This can be difficult to feed into thermal treatment plants especially gasifiers
(Valkenburg et al., 2008) and can lead to variable behavior of the treatment process. The

The On Brown Coal Gasification
Introduction
In Australia, Victorian brown coals represent a significant, low cost energy resource with reserves of
430 billion tonnes. However, its utilization is limited to mine–mouth power generation using
conventional pulverized coal–fired combustion units at relatively low efficiencies [1]. Therefore, it
is necessary to assess and develop alternative utilization techniques for this vast resource, such as
gasification. Among different gasifiers, the entrained flow gasifier is attractive for commercial
plants because of its feedstock flexibility and clean gas product. However, the technological
information on brown coal gasification is limited. There has been one study reporting on pressurized
fluidized bed gasification of Victorian brown coals at a pilot scale, but the carbon conversion of
Victorian brown coals is quite low[12].
In this study, information on the gasification behaviour of two Victorian brown coals, Yallourn (YL)
and Morwell (MW) coal, is reported, including the release of alkali, sulphur, and chlorine spieces,
carbon conversion, and gas quality during CO2 gasification. The relation between 100% carbon
conversion and residence time was investigated by regasifying the chars after every run of 5–6s
residence time. This study generates fundamental information that will be useful for the design of
commercial entrained–flow gasifiers using Victorian brown coals.
Experimental
The coal samples used in this study are Yallourn (YL) and Morwell (MW) coal, two

Productivity Improvement in Screw Type Biomas Briquettes...
Biomass densification by screw briquetting produces uniform, dense and durable solids desirable for
gasification, process heating, power generation and other heating applications which are currently
run by coal. Due to high wear rate, the screw and mould used for forming the briquettes deteriorate
leading to regular production stoppage and considerable down time losses. Hence Indian
entrepreneurs are apprehensive to adopt screw briquetting technology in spite of its potential. In this
work improvement in productivity parameters are tested for predetermined replacement of screw
before considerable damage is done. They were found to be significant and aiding quality briquette
output and smooth operation which could aid in improving ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
If the excess biomass materials are compacted to briquettes near their source they can be transported
to longer distances, stored for more duration unaffected much by humidity [9] and put into versatile
uses. There are many methods of densification available and screw briquetting is one good choice
for producing high quality briquettes, a sample of which is shown in fig 2. These types of briquettes
have uniform dimensions, high calorific value, less moisture are desirable feed stock for gasification
systems, process heating and power generation applications. But the screw briquetting technology is
having its own shortcomings like, the life of its parts like screw and mould are very short due to
high wear rate, need of skilled labors to run the machine and wastage of energy for heating the raw
material and the mould. The heating process is needed to eliminate moisture and volatile matters and
to melt the lignin content in the raw material which acts like a binder. The quality of briquettes
produced justifies the use of skilled labor. Due to high wear rate of screw and mould particularly the
screw which have very short life about 4 to 15 hrs [10] there are regular stoppages of production,
reconstruction of tools and wastage of output.Research works are going on all over the world in
designing compact briquetting machines,

The Production of Methanol and Hydrogen Fuels from MSW Essay
PAFC is commercially fuelled cell that promoted to be future energy requirement .Therefore, the
fuel needed to fill in the fuel Production of fuel from MSW is similar with biomass only vary in
composition but after removal the non–organic. The reaction of converting the MSW is
exothermically occur at 50–100 atm and copper, aluminium and zinc oxide is used as based catalyst
(Chen,1995). The CO2 is needed to activate the catalyst. Generally, before MSW is used as
feedstock it firstly will go through Refuse–Derived Fuel (RDF) process to eliminate the non–organic
substances in the MSW. The degree of pre–processing in conversion of MSW into a suitable feed
material is a major criterion. By that, the product will be more uniform and this ... Show more
The water quench saturated the product gas, cooling it to 70–100℃ can sufficiently force all the tars
and oils ,heavy metal, particulate matter to condense out in a waste water stream.
Reforming Process
At low temperature gasifiers a significant fraction of gas heating value is entrapped in methane and
other hydrocarbons. Reforming process is the alteration of hydrocarbon properties by rearranging it
.It upgrades the methanol and hydrogen production through steam reforming. In fact, the most
widely used method to produce hydrogen by steam reforming natural gas (Probstein, 1982).
Water Gas Shift Process
Shift reaction catalytically converts CO to H2 to through the water gas shift reaction for upgrading
the syngas.
CO + H2O H2¬+CO2––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– (1)
The hydrogen production will be converted as much CO to H2¬ as possible and methanol shift
enough CO to make H2: CO ratio a little greater than 2:1.The process occurs at lower temperature
thermodynamically but the kinetic are favoured by high temperature.
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
PSA is a technique which consists of four adsorber vessels, a compressor and H2S removal step.
This technique is best suited for hydrogen separation to obtain the pure H2 and the current
technology can yield about 99.9% of pure H2 (Chen,1995).The hydrogen fuel that provided for
energy generation must solemnly have no CO or else it can be a poison to

Essay On Environmental Pollution
ALGAL BIOFUEL (2009)
Submitted To: Dr. Shailendra Kumar Arya Submitted By: Kanchan Sharma
M.E. Biotechnology 1st Sem (17–106)
1) Introduction Nowadays there are two major problems in the world one is environmental pollution
and second one is energy crisis. Global warming is one of the main anxiety of environmental
pollution. Fossil fuels play main role in global warming; so we need renewable clean energy to deal
with this issue. Second major issue is the energy crisis. Biological CO2 fixation and energy
production are expected to be potential measures that will diminish the increase of atmospheric CO2
and help to evade future energy crises So to overcome the environmental problems we must taken
following steps:
Sinking the use of fossil fuels.
Removing excess CO2 from the atmosphere.
Capturing and sequestering the CO2 emitted by fossil fuel combustion before it enters the
atmosphere.
For executing these points in our life we must need biofuels. The production of fuel from
photosynthetic organisms like plants and algae is a renewable process using solar energy; therefore,
biofuel is a capable resource and biomass is obtained for its production is from harvesting forestry
and other plant residues. Even garbage from domestic houses and food industries can also be used as
starting material of oil production by thermochemical liquefaction. We focus on

Clean Coal And The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

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