Reasons For Gov't Intervention: Market Failures"TITLE"Electric Vehicles' Early Use of Batteries" TITLE"Traffic Pollution Effects & Potential Solutions"TITLE"Public Transport Priority Through Traffic Methods" TITLE"Market Failures, Public Goods, Externalities"TITLE"UK Environmental Policies & Water Quality"TITLE"Budget Airlines' Low-Cost Business Model

Reasons For The Government Intervention
ECON1020 ASSIGNMENT 2
Question 1: Reasons for government intervention
Governments only intervene in a market to correct for market failures, their objective to restore
efficiency and increase economic well–being of society. Market failure occurs when the market fails
to allocate resources efficiently, the buyer & seller cannot reach a socially optimal point. Traffic
congestion is rivalrous in consumption because there is limited space on the road, however, the road
has the ability to be over consumed thus making it a common resource, because one person's use of
the good does not diminish other people's use of it. The issue of traffic congestion is a negative
externality because when one person drives on the road, their presence reduces the speed of
everyone else and thus increases the affected party's journey time. The graph below (figure 1) shows
the demand and supply of roads with Qmarket showing the equilibrium that the forces of supply and
demand have equalled. The private value is the drivers use of the roads when there is no traffic
congestion e.g. non–peak hour. However, because their presences are an negative externality. The
demand curve shifts to the left and shown and the new demand curve is the social value, the supply
and demand now have an equilibrium at Qopt. The social value is the private value – externality.
Question 2: Public Policy Solutions
a) The use of congestion charges is a market based policy instrument in which the government will
use to
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Electric Vehicles Used Power From Galvanic Cells Or Batteries
With the invention of the first electric car in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen, there
was the hope for cleaner transport system. The electric vehicle used power from galvanic cells or
batteries. He later in 1841 advanced to a seven–ton vehicle that used two direct reluctant motors.
The two motors had more energy than galvanic cells. The electric vehicle would move at a speed of
four miles per hour. Electric vehicles were very common in 18th and 19th century. Most people
found them convenient, they as they met most of the environmental requirements in the world. The
first electric vehicle was innovated as a result of high prices of petrol. Electricity was one of the
preferred method for propulsion of electric vehicle. Gasoline ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The major cause of their ballooning demand in the market is their efficiency and environmental
health. The vehicles do not emit pollutant gases. Like the use of the sun, the use of electricity has
not been associated to any malicious products. This factors has caused the global demand for the
cars rise uncontrollably. Unlike the fuel engine vehicles engine, the electric is less labor intensive.
The vehicles also have low maintenance cost as compared to internal combustion engine vehicles.
At the same time, the source of energy, the electricity, has become the easiest form of energy
generation by many states in the world. Therefore, electric vehicles do not have energy dependency
on imported fuels. Electrical energy can be obtained from solar, wind and even nuclear. With many
governments showing great efforts in increasing the power generated into the national grid, the
possibility for running on absolute electricity vehicles has hit the market.
However, the move has come with a limiting factor: charging stations. With the fact that the car
battery may last for a while before demanding recharge, there are no efforts by the governments of
the businesses to invest in the sector. The charging systems are overwhelmed by the high demand by
electrical vehicle owners (Johnstone, Hascic, & Development., 2011). Despite that the demand for
the vehicles is

Traffic Pollution
Over the past few months, there has been a growing concern over the worsening of traffic
congestion particularly in Manhattan. The speed of traffic in Midtown has declined by 23% since
2010. This traffic gridlock will cost the City over millions of dollars in wasted fuel, wasted time and
carbon emissions. This past summer, Mayor Bill de Blasio has proposed a millionaire tax to fund
infrastructure improvements on the subway. Later in October 2017, he laid out a Five–Point Plan to
reduce traffic congestion. Working closely with Con Edison, the Mayor has also set the goal for
20% of all city vehicles to be electric by 2025. In addition to these initiatives, Governor Andrew
Cuomo has appointed a panel to study congestion pricing and report back to him by the end of the
year.
The moderator and panelists of this discussion session at NYU School of Law on November 7, 2017
sought to identify the impacts and explore plausible solutions to this perpetual problem. The
discussion was moderated by Katrina Wyman from NYU School of Law and featured the following
panelists: (i) Iyad Kheirbek, Executive Director of the Air Quality Program at NYC Health; (ii) Sam
Schwartz, CEO of Sam Schwartz Transportation Consultants; (iii) Ashwini Chhabra, Policy Director
at Uber; and (iv) Elizabeth Stein, an attorney in EDF's Clean Energy Program.
Mr. Kheirbek from NYC Health initiated the discussion by identifying some of the most common
traffic–related pollutants (PM2.5, BC, NOx, etc.) and their adverse health impacts (premature
deaths, respiratory hospitalization, etc.). Based on the data collected by NYC Health, the largest
contributor of air pollutants are heavy–duty diesel trucks, which account for only 5% of total vehicle
miles traveled (VMT) but 50% of the health impacts. Although the air quality in the city has
generally improved over the past seven years (PM2.5 and NO2 levels have gone down by 18% and
24% respectively), higher pollution levels continue to plague many neighborhoods. These pollution
hotspots include areas of heavy truck traffic in Manhattan, the Bronx, North Brooklyn and Queens,
particularly in communities near major roadways. A concerted effort is therefore required to reduce
the vehicle emission through

Public Transport And How It Can Be Prioritised Through...
Abstract
This paper addresses the importance of public transport and how it can be prioritised through traffic
engineering. Numerous methods for giving public transport priority have been researched and
discussed. Examples are provided where those techniques are implemented and their performance is
evaluated. Research proves that priority to public transport in urban areas is feasible and can lead to
reduced travel times while having a minor impact on the traffic network.
1. Introduction
As cities are expanding and traffic congestion is increasing, there is growing demand for more
regular and efficient public transport. This is in part to reduce pollution and noise levels (European
Commision Dictorate–General for Environment, 2004). European policy–makers and investors have
in fact influenced a modal shift towards more public, rather than private transport in recent years
(Bund, n.d.).
Traffic engineering involves the planning and management of urban road infrastructures and
networks (Institute of Transportation Engineers, 1999) for various modes of transport, such as
vehicles (private, public and commercial), bicycles and pedestrians. Its purpose is to find solutions
to transport infrastructures in order to provide the best transport systems for people and goods in
terms of cost, time, safety and environmental impact.
There are three key benefits in prioritising public transport in urban environments. The first is that
by reducing congestion, commercial transport becomes

Eco Assessment
Contents Section 1 2 1.1 Market Failure 2 1.2 Public goods 2 1.2.1 Relation between Market failure
and Public goods 2 1.3 Merit goods 2 1.3.1 Relation between Merit goods and Market Failure 2 1.4
Externalities 2 1.5 Imperfect competition 3 Section 2 4 2.1 UK government policy on the
environment 4 2.2 About the policy 5 2.2.1 Water quality 5 2.3 Instruments the government use to
achieve their policy 5 2.4 A justified evaluation of the performance of the policy in relation to its use
within the UK 6 References 7
Section 1
1.1 Market Failure Market Failure is an economic situation where free market fails to allocate
resources efficiently. It is the abbreviated situation in the any market where the curves ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
To be fair the price in the market, the government has to tax these monopoly markets.
Section 2
2.1 UK government policy on the environment
One of the good choice is the UK government policy in the environment because the environment
from the UK is very eco–friendly. In Myanmar, there is a lot of rubbish on the street and water is not
clean enough. So, instead of Myanmar environment be UK environment. Moreover, there are some
issue about greenhouse such as global warming, a company fined for illegally dumping waste, a
drought or flood blamed on pollution, a health scare about car exhausts and smog in tropical
countries.
There are 15 policies in the UK government on the environment. They are; 1. Marine Fisheries 2.
Waste and recycling 3. Flooding and coastal change 4. Forests and woodland 5. Marine environment
6. Radioactive and nuclear substances and waste 7. Sustainable development 8. Business and the
environment 9. Biodiversity and ecosystems 10. Water quality 11. Water and sewerage services 12.
Energy efficiency in buildings 13. Farming industry regulation 14. Environment quality 15.
Greenhouse gas emissions.
All of them, the best choosing is the water quality because not only human being but also animals
and plant are using water.
According to the website case study "DFID Sierra Leone's WASH portfolio" is implementing a
major £50

Budget Airlines
Task Three: Budget Airlines
CONTENTS
Who and what are budget airlines
Marketing environment
– Micro environment
– Macro environment
Sources of information
Segmentation
Targeting
Positioning
Marketing mix – price
Questions
Budget Airline Definition
 Budget airlines don't have free meals and entertainment
Budget airlines don't issue tickets
Budget airlines have only one class – budget class
Budget airlines use secondary airports to cut the cost
Budget airlines sell directly to the public – no sale commissions
Budget airlines promote journey 'legs' separately
Budget airlines don't reward frequent travellers with air ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However some operators have reversed this, and are paid by local governments to land at some
airports, as they expect to gain economic benefits from this.
Media has a great impact on customer's choices. Budget airlines have recently been mentioned by
the Media as the least environmentally friendly way to travel. In society concern with 'green issues'
budget airlines may need to switch in close future their marketing focus from rock bottom fares to
environmental responsibility.
Key microenvironmental issues likely to occur in next 3 years:
Continuation...

The success of budget airlines forced traditional operators to lower their prices by adapting internet
sales and yield management techniques. However they still struggle to compete with low prices
offered by the LCCs. Further reductions in traditional airline ticket prices are expected.
The railways are likely to remain dominant for short journeys as most of the LCCs use small
airports, which are often difficult to reach without a car. Rail operators are also improving offered
services and cutting down their ticket prices by selling through the internet and allowing passengers
to find lower fares when booking in advance.
The LCCs are a serious threat to regular airlines. British Midlands responded to the competition by
launching its own budget airline 'bmi baby'. Following its success more traditional carriers may
decide in future to launch their own 'no frills' airlines.

A Business 's Responsibility For An Efficient Allocation...
It is a business's own responsibility to define the external economic environment to ensure their
market will be successful. When businesses are free and left to peruse their own private objectives it
is extremely important economic efficiency is carefully thought about as there are a range of market
failures that could occur which lead to government intervention. "Market failure occurs when
freely–functioning markets, fail to deliver an efficient allocation of resources. The result is a loss of
economic and social welfare." (Geoff Riley,2012).To avoid market failure businesses must be aware
of changing market conditions.
All organisations have to face the 'Economic Problem' this is deciding what to produce, how to
produce it and who to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Legal monopoly can be companies that operate as a monopoly under government order, these
companies will offer products or services at a structured price and can be independently run and
government regulated or both government run and regulated. An example of legal monopoly is the
price of alcohol or air flight prices, the government can always intervene and change the prices.
Natural monopoly are companies which produce a product in economies of scale for example
production would be permanently concentrated in a single firm rather than contested competitively,
such as water, gas and electricity firms. Local monopoly is usually where an organisation is the only
supplier in that area– for example a petrol station in a small town far from the city. They will receive
all purchases for that particular product as there is nowhere else to get it.
There a number of problems that can occur within production leading to market failure within an
organisation. Markets who are in high competition are often run by big firms with high monopoly
power which can lead to exploitation of suppliers, consumers and employees. Big firms also try
avoid direct costs which will lead to environmentally damaging use of resources. In order for the
govern–ment to attempt to correct their monopoly manipulating any stakeholders, The Competition
and Markets Authority (CMA) and The Office of Fair Trading, investigate possible abuse of market
power.

Swot Analysis Of Bluewater
Bluewater Eric Kuhne is the architect behind £400 million Bluewater Shopping Centre which
opened March 16, 1999. It is located in Kent with 240 acres surrounded by a further 50 acre
landscape of lakes, parkland and trees. Its website boasts "Rising out of a former chalk quarry
among 50 metre–high cliffs ... Bluewater's striking architecture is simply unique." The centre is
triangular in shape with an anchor store at each point. There are 6 sections of the centre. They are;
The Guildhall (situated between House of Fraser and John Lewis) boasts a selection of classic and
high fashion retail and lifestyle stores, The Village (situated off The Guildhall) has restaurants for
fine dining, lifestyle stores and boutiques, Rose Gallery (situated between ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It has 13,000 free parking spaces (an astonishing 90% of its customers come by car). Bluewater bus
station services 3 London bus routes (96, 428 and 492) however is not part of Oyster card TFL
system. It also facilitates Arriva buses (477, 490, 700) and Fastrack A and B. 1.7 miles from the
centre is the closest National Rail station servicing London Charing Cross via Woolwich, Arsenal
and Lewisham and via Sidcup, Gravesend and Gillingham. Bluewater has an annual footfall of 28
million and serves one of the largest and most affluent retail catchments in the UK. Over 6.5 million
people with an available spend of £13 billion. 73% of its visitors are from top three Acorn categories
(comfortable communities, rising prosperity and affluent achievers) versus 63% in catchment. This
shows how Bluewater attracts more affluent people from outside it's initial catchment

Using Population Control to Achieve Environmental...
Environmental sustainability is when a person, community or area is able to meet the needs of the
present, without compromising the needs of the future. Overconsumption will lead to hardship in the
future, and possibly to the destruction of the planet's finite resources; and if we continue using our
resources as at current rates, which have been estimated to be 4 planets worth of resources, this will
be inevitable. Populations are all the inhabitants of a specific area/country and this population can
be controlled in various methods such as population policies, like the ones in China, Kerala and
France; as well as control via migration by putting on limits.
A population control method that has achieve environmental sustainability is ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, Canada has a fairly low population density of just 3.75 people per square
kilometer and with high resources, Canada is environmentally sustainable; some even say that
Canada is under populated and therefore Canada is lenient on in migration.
Similarly to this, Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) had the theory that when population overshoots a
certain point (usually food production) there will be catastrophic effects. The club of Rome, in 1968
published a report called the 'limit of growth', which stated that population growth will lead to an
increase in food demand and this will eventually lead to resource exhaustion, which is obviously not
environmentally sustainable. To prevent resource exhaustion, the Club of Rome decided that we
have to regulate population growth and reduce fertility– and that is what China's One Child Policy,
and Kerala's non–enforced population policy was aiming to do. Similarly, the anti–Malthusianist–
Ester Boserup was a resource optimist, with research based on studies of shifting cultivation. Her
hypothesis was that population growth would result in an increase demand for food and to meet this
demand, improved agriculture productivity would be needed. A higher agricultural productivity
means an increase in methods of agriculture like the 'slash and burn' technique, which often are not
environmentally sustainable at all.
All these population / resource theories

Scooter Industry
International Marketing
Introduction In modern business it is extremely important for companies to have wide variety of
tools, which enable them to analyse their environment and their markets. Most commonly used tools
are PEST analysis, SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces. In this case the most appropriate tool is
PEST analysis which can be further extended to PESTEL. Other variations such as SLEPT,
PESTLE, STEEPLE and STEEPLED are also possible. SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces
require more specific information about the actual company and its market, but in this case this
information is not available. Brooks et al. (2004), say that PEST acronym stands for Political,
Economic, Legal, Social and Technological environmental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Political environment assessment prior to entering a new market is therefore outmost important.
Economical Economical factors include economic growth, government spending levels, inflation,
exchange rates, unemployment levels and national and individual income. Manufacturers would
prefer to have politically stable countries, with low inflation rates and steady growth of real GDP.
Inflation is analysed by Daniels and Radebaugh (1998) as an important aspect of economic
environment, because of its influence on interest rates, exchange rates and cost of living. Other
economic indicators have to be monitored and analysed as well. Gillespie (2007) warns about high
interest rates, which can deter investments as capital becomes more expensive. Strong currency can
hurt exports because it raises the price in terms of foreign currency. Positive national income growth
on the other hand will increase demand for firms products. GDP per capita is the indicator which
will compare living standards in different countries. Manufacturer is selling value–for–money
scooter, which means he can compete in any country if there are no barriers to entry or other taxes
which will affect already low profit margins. Developed countries will have free markets for scooter
industry with low intervention from the government or other authorities. Higher GPD per capita will
translate to higher

The Implications For Policy Development And Climate Change
High income, well educated and environmental aware individuals also tend to have high transport
CO2 emission lifestyles. Critically discuss, including the implications for policy development and
climate change itself.
Introduction
"An enthusiastic green is likely to be well educated, with high levels of household income... They
are likely to take more flights [and] have a... car with a... larger engine. They... recycle more... use
energy–saving light bulbs – but... have a relatively high carbon footprint", director of marketing at
CACI, a company that carries out surveys on income and environmental attitudes, (Jowit 2008).
Whilst agreeing with the hypothesis, the essay will also argue it is an over–simplification and that
other socio ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For hypothesis
Studies by both Brand and Preston (2009) and Aamaas et al (2013) found high earners to produce
the most CO2 from their travel, with the latter concluding "high income people travel... more and
have a... higher climate impact than low income people". More specifically this study shows the
highest earners to have an impact on climate 250% greater than that of the lowest. The reason being
individuals with large disposable incomes are more able to afford flights, drive more and generally
travel further.
With specific reference to flying and driving, both studies also found high earners to be the largest
emitters of CO2. Brand and Preston (2009) highlight data from the CAA (2005) that shows average
household incomes of people using Stanstead airport to be much higher than the national average.
Further analysis might show this is exacerbated by the types of vehicle wealthier individuals might
drive. For example cars in tax band M (UK's highest emitting / 250g per km +) are almost all luxury
vehicles, with prices ranging from >32K + (Lane, 2014), well beyond the reach of lower income
earners.
With regards to education Lynn and Longhi (2011) found people with "...degree–level qualifications
are more likely... to... buy recycled... products, [and] not purchase... over–packaged items...
However, they are less likely to... switch off lights... [and] use public transport rather than travel by
car." This study also finds highly educated

To What Extent Does Multi-Level Government Increase...
To what extent does multi–level government increase democracy and bring government closer to the
people?
The United Kingdom consists of four countries; England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. As
the UK is a unitary state, the main power is centralised at Westminster. However, since 1997, power
has been devolved to five different areas; the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, the Northern
Ireland Assembly, the Greater London Assembly and elected mayors in a number of cities, such as
London. There are also several levels of local government, such as county and district councils and
unitary authorities.
Devolution is the transfer of power from Westminster to regional bodies, such as the Scottish
Parliament and the Welsh ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This therefore brings power closer to the Scottish people, through the Scottish Parliament, but in
hand it takes power away from the English people. This may be because there is no purely English
devolved body in comparison to the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and Northern Ireland
Assembly. Power is also brought closer to the people as devolved bodies can hold referendums;
however, on the other hand, they are limited on what they can hold referendums about.
On the other hand, devolution had failed to resolve the problem of voter apathy, for example, barely
1 in 4 of the electorate voted in favour of the Welsh Assembly. The use of PR in the devolved
assemblies has weakened the link between elected representatives and their constituents. The
Conservatives argue that devolution has undermined the unity of the UK, and some argue that the
Barnett formula is too generous towards the Scottish. Also, most importantly, it is argued that
devolution raised the problematic West Lothian question.
Devolution has not brought power closer to the people in that regional councils only have limited
power and are 'tokenistic'. The Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly are merely symbols of
national identity, for example. Also, councils have fixed

The Failures Of Market Failure
Market failure, in economic terms, refers to a situation wherein the free market fails to efficiently
allocate the goods and services. Or in other words, during market failure, another conceivable
outcomes (non– Pareto optimal) exist wherein a market participant is found to be made better–off
without making anyone else worse–off (Francis Bator, 1958). The failures in market can be seen as
the scenarios in which the pursuit of pure self–interest of an individual leads to inefficient results as
per the societal point of view and bearing high chances of improvement. Basically, market failures
occur when the market lacks economic efficiency.
Market failures may occur due to a plenty of reasons including asymmetries in information,
externalities, monopoly, time inconsistent preferences, principal agent issues, public goods, or non–
competitive markets etc. Therefore the market failure often requires the intervention of supra–
national institutions and self–regulated governments and organizations in that particular market
(Joseph Stiglitz, 1989). Micro–economists are usually involved in the task of identifying potential
causes of market failure and suggesting appropriate corrective measures. An important role is played
by such an analysis in number of public policy studies and decision making. Historical records show
us that governmental interventions have various impacts on the economy of its country. However,
poorly implemented governmental attempts for correcting market failure

What Is Traffic Congestion?
Introduction
What is traffic congestion?
Traffic congestion is a term whereby congestion is mentioned as "clog", "impede" and "over
utilised"(http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion_report/executive_summary.htm#what_is_congestion).
This term is used to describe a traffic situation is with enormous amount of vehicle on the roadway,
causing the flow of vehicle to be inefficient. In another word, number of traffic is higher than the
supply (capacity) of current highway facilities will cause traffic congestion (Wan Hashim Wan
Ibrahim 2009). According to IBM, its research states that a growth of 20% of the U.S nation
population between 1982 and 2001 leads to a leap of traffic congestion for about 236%. Therefore,
there is no doubt that urbanisation of an area where population density is too high will cause traffic
congestion to occur. As time goes on to present days, this issue arises as one of the obstacles that
brings negative impacts to the urbanized world namely retarding the efficiency of economic
activities and emergency vehicles in operations, waste of time and mental torture while in a traffic
jam, wastage of fuel consumption which leads to pollution, and road rage. As to make a better
world, this issue must be eliminated by implementing ways to manage this problem.
Aim
According to the 30th Australasian Transport Research Forum, it stated that the most frequently
used travel mode for almost every trip purpose is private vehicles. In present world with rapid urban
development,

How The Character And Quality Of Open Space Differ Across...
How does the character and quality of open space vary in different parts of London, and what are
the factors affecting this? London, an area of 1,572 square kilometers, is home to 8.7 million people.
According to Greenspace Information for Greater London (GiGL), up to '39% of Greater London
can be classified as green open space' – 14.2m2 per resident, of which nearly half (17.88% of total
space) is classified as being parks or woodland. In this essay I will be discussing how the character
and quantity of these open spaces differ across two areas, Tower Hamlets (TH) and The City, before
suggesting key factors affecting them. First though – we must define the question, by explaining the
key terms. 'Open Space' can be interpreted in different ways, however I understand it to refer to
green space (parks, woodlands, gardens) but also the open river and canal space, or the open air in
the capital. I interpret 'character' as the type of open space, the size and location in relation to other
land use (commercial, industrial or residential), and overall 'feel' of the space. 'Quality' is interpreted
as the standard of the space (for example how well maintained, features available and overall air
quality). Finally, the variation across the city refers to how the style and standard of these spaces
differ across the 1000mile2 area, comparing similarities, patterns and exceptions across boroughs.
One variation in the character and quality between TH and The City is the

Transportation : A Small Country, Israel 's Primary Mode...
Transportation
A small country, Israel's primary mode of transportation is via automobile, and the country is served
by a modern road network. Congestion has become a particularly bad problem in the Tel Aviv area,
to the point that a government–hired consultancy firm proposed instituting congestion charges for
cars entering the city during the busiest part of the day. This kind of system is similar to that used to
control traffic in London, Singapore, and Stockholm.
Israel Railways, the nation's rail system linking all the major coastal cities, as well as inland cities
such as Jerusalem and Beersheba, is in the process of being upgraded. The planned changes will
better accommodate the system for commuter traffic. High–speed trains, electrification of the
current rail system, and upgrades and expansion of rail stations and adjacent parking areas are some
of the projects either planned or underway. Current projections are for the system to carry 40 million
passengers by 2010, a huge jump, compared with the fewer than 3 million passengers that used the
system in 1990.
Israel's primary air hub is in Ben Gurion International Airport, located near the city of Lod, about 15
km (9 mi) southeast of Tel Aviv. Having operated since 1936, the airport has undergone several
expansions as the amount of air traffic has increased. El–Al, the Israeli former national air carrier,
handles most international flights, while Arkia and Israir run domestic flights to airports in Eilat,
Haifa,

The Economic Impact of Notting Hill Carnival Essay
Economic impact of Notting Hill Carnival
Tutor: Dr. Debbie Sadd
Student: Yu–Ting Chen (44459459)
Unit: Event Principles and Practice
Word Count: 2,096 words
Table of Contents
Table of contents.....................................................................................2
Abstract.................................................................................................3
1. Introduction.........................................................................................3
2. Economic impact..................................................................................4
2.1 Definition of economic impact.......................................................4
2.2 The reason why economic impact is chosen....................................4
2.3 Positive and negative economic impacts..........................................6
3. Impact of employment.............................................................................7
4. Impact of business opportunities...............................................................7
5. Impact of opportunity costs.......................................................................8
6. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If more money circulates within the economy, the larger the multiplier effect will be". Therefore, the
economic impacts are vital to think of in the planning of state, regional and community and
economical development. They are the important factors in marketing and management decisions as
well.
2.2 The reason why economic impact is chosen
Tourism plays a vital role in economic development in most countries around the world. The
industry has not only direct economic impact, but also significant indirect and influential impacts.
There is agreement among experts that the travel and tourism sector is the fastest growing of global
economy. According to the latest UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, international tourism receipts
surpass US$ 1 trillion in 2011, growing about 3.8%up from 2010 (WTO, 2012).
Each year, hundreds of thousands people descend on the streets of Notting Hill, including
performers, DJs, bandleaders, traders, steelpan players and international visitors. The Notting Hill
Carnival is composed of several constituents, through costumes, steel bands, mobile and static
sound systems playing in the street to honour the 'freedom to walk the streets' (ibid). While more
and more visitors crowd into the Notting Hill Carnival (see Table 1), it's not only useful to develop

its societal impact through education and the improvement policy of better racial harmony (ibid),
but also promote its economic

Congestion
Using the data and your economic knowledge, assess which is the best policy that the UK
government could adopt to reduce congestion on the roads (25 marks)
Market failure is where there is a misallocation of resources in the economy, either completely
failing to provide a good or service or providing the wrong quantity. A negative externality, which is
the same as an external cost, occurs when the consumption or production of a good causes costs to a
third party, where the social cost is greater than the private cost.
There are a several reasons why roads have become increasingly congested, including the following:
The real cost of driving has fallen because motor cars, and even petrol, are relatively cheaper than
they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A reduction in quantity will therefore will reduce congestion as there will therefore be less cars on
the road.
Thirdly, the government could adopt a road pricing system by charging for the use of road–space.
Road pricing has been used in Singapore, where electronic detectors are placed on bridges and
drivers are charged for access to the road–space, that is, access to the road network.
One problem with schemes to alter people's behaviour to achieve desired outcomes is that the
reverse can happen, and people behave perversely. For example: speed cameras positioned at
regular intervals on roads may encourage drivers to 'speed up' between cameras, speed bumps on
roads may encourage people to take longer trips to avoid them, hence increasing congestion and
pollution, as the costs of driving in London have increased, the illegal dumping of cars has also

For every problem caused by urbanisation there is an...
Rapid urbanisation has caused a variety of problems, including transport congestion, lack of
sufficient homes and living conditions, sanitary and health care issues, and crime. For all these
problems, city planners have attempted potential solutions, each with varying degrees of success.
Cities including London, Manila and Mumbai have several of the aforementioned problems, and
have each tried their own potential solutions. This essay will discuss how successful these schemes
have been in resolving these issues.
As a result of an increased population inhabiting one area, traffic congestion is often a major issue
resulting from urbanisation. In London, traffic is evidently a problem. As it would be expected from
a capital city home to more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In terms of health, an example of an attempt in Mumbai is the Slum Sanitation Program, started in
1995 by an NGO, who built 330 new communal toilet blocks in the slums; due to health also being
detrimentally affected by exhaust emissions from traffic, dirty water, cramped living spaces
(increasing the spread of disease) and general cleanliness of homes, this has had little impact. Over
all, it is evident that these attempts have not been greatly successful, potentially due to the lack of
money preventing any major plans like complete rejuvenation which would solve the problems.
As cities grow, problems grow with them. Solving these problems has been attempted in various
ways by various people, and have each have had different levels of success. In MEDC London, the
issue of congestion was attacked in a much more structured way, and therefore did make some
impact, although for the moment, minimal. In LEDCs Mumbai and Manila, Governments have
struggled to rectify their problems due to their lack of money, as the scale of their modifications is
too great due to such rapid urbanisation. In conclusion, I agree that more often than not there is an
effective solution for problems caused by urbanisation, but in many cases they are just too big and
too expensive to be

Tackling Environmental Pollution with Green Taxes
Introduction Green taxes were introduced objectively to tackle environment pollutions. According to
(Fullerton, Leicester, & Smith, 2008), taxes on things such as Landfill, industrial energy use (the
climate change levy), aggregate levy, motor fuel differentiation, vehicle exercise duty differentiation
and central London congestion charge had either been introduced or reformed in the past 20 years to
tackle environmental pollution. These taxes are called Green Taxes or Environmental Taxes.
Global warming has brought a big concern on environmental issues in many countries, including
U.K. Different studies have suggested the need for swift and urgent actions to alleviate the possible
costs of climate change. Introducing taxes so called environmental taxes, changes trade permits and
other economic measures might play an important role to achieve cost effective control of
greenhouse gas emissions (Stern, 2007)
Figures from Office for National Statistics (ONS) shows that U.K government collected
£41.4billions from environmental taxes in the year 2010 (Office for National Statistics, 2011), rising
up to 4.8% in comparison to 2009. This implies that environmental tax revenues have increased
exponentially year on year basis, causing doubts to consumers' mind on two aspects. (a) Do
environmental taxes benefit the government or consumers?. (b) Are there alternatives to
environmental taxes?. In answering the two questions, this report will review the literature of
environmental

A Brief Note On Subsidies Policy For Public Transport
An analysis of subsidies policy for public transport in UK
"subsidy means money given as part of the cost of something, to help or encourge it to happen"
(cambridge dictionary, 2015). In transport,..
Main Body
Organisation and Policy
Glaitser et al (2006) stated In Great Britain, Department for Transport responsible to include posts
covering public transport, transport in London, roads and traffic national policy and aviation and
shipping or logistic. They also suggest to public transport there is a 3 tier of government in charge of
that are department for transport, sub–state goverment and local authorities. For rail services, the
authority and accountability exist in Great Britain and sub–state government. While bus service,
sub–state and local government authorities play the role. Subsidy given by the government through
several ways, among others for the bus, a government subsidy to all buses operating with the
distribution of three areas: rural areas, metropolitan and territories except london london. The
subsidy for train through two ways are the operation and maintenance of infrastructure (White,
2009).
Why government do subsidy? goeverden et al (2006) stated subsidy is necessary for public
transport. First, vulnerable groups such as low–income households, those without driver's license,
people with disabilities need to be motivated to avoid the problem of social exclusion. In this case
the subsidy serves as a 'social function'. Second, limit the use of private

Congestion Charge Is An Influential Transport Policy...
Introduction: Road congestion charging is an influential transport policy agenda. As the demand
cars for has tremendously increased within the past century and therefore, roads have witnessed an
astonishing level of congestion. This brought forward the implementation of the congestion charge.
In particular, the issue of congestion charge has received great attention since it was first introduced
in 2003, by the mayor of London. That charge £11.50 daily for traveling in the designated zone
between 07:00–18:00? (TfL, 2008). This paper will deal with significant improvement of the policy,
but will not look at the cost associated with the policy. Congestion charge is beneficial to the
society; it reduces traffic levels in an efficient way to ensure profits are being made from the charge.
Most notably influencing airborne pollutants. However, it is vital to examine this area in order to
access the effectiveness of congestion charge scheme implementation, moreover. Several studies
have shown that the congestion charge has been effective in its implementation (Ishikawa and
Asada, 2007); whilst other studies have proven otherwise (Mahendra, 2010). The question remains,
evaluating London congestion charge scheme policy for the government transport sector. This paper
will argue that there have been significant improvements, since the introduction of the scheme. It
will begin by outlining on how congestion levels have reduced, then go on to provide the revenues
generated from the

Traffic Congestion in London
The Urban Environment: Traffic congestion in cities is a problem throughout the world. Evaluate
the effectiveness of one official initiative undertaken to tackle this issue.
Today traffic congestion has become one of the major issues that exert an influence on towns and
cities in economically developed countries. Chen and Hai (2012,para1) explains that congestion
takes place when the road space is overfilled by car users and speed of the traffic lessens, moreover,
it is regarded as a potential reason for air pollution or even climate change. One possible approach is
considered to be the implementation of road pricing policy, which would contribute to the decrease
of traffic congestion rates, improvement of air ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, it is worth recalling that LCC has achieved the goal to reduce traffic congestion. Another
aspect to observe is the scheme's influence on ambient air pollution and general road condition. It is
undoubtedly true that one of the main positive consequences from congestion charging scheme has
been the enhancements in air quality, reductions in environmental pollution and to cut the use of
carbon–based fuels in central area. One might argue that pollution level have changed slightly or
even have grown in pre – and post–charging scheme period. It is widely believed that the
environment have not been positively affected by the vehicles' reduction in numbers for the reason
that taxes cover only small part of the London. On the other hand, Tonne et al (2008, 622) justify
that NO2 and PM10 concentrations within the central area reduced noticeably in contrast to the
Greater London, where there were small variations in average concentration . On balance, the
overall picture seems to be that the congestion charges has improved air quality and considerably
reduced emissions. To sum up, one possible solution for tackling the issue of traffic congestion has
been assessed, namely The

Discuss the Pros and Cons of Implementing a Nationwide...
Discuss the pros and cons of implementing a nationwide road pricing scheme The introduction of a
nationwide road pricing scheme has been extensively considered in the UK. Early deliberations in
the 'Smeed Report' implemented road pricing in 1962 using a colour coding system. With computing
and telecommunications changes in recent years there is potential for the road pricing scheme,
which was a component of the labour manifesto in 2005 using satellite navigation to track vehicle
activity, to be developed and implemented. The concept of introducing a market for roads through
road pricing has become a highly discussed topic due to the complexity of the operation and how it
could revolutionise the actions of drivers in the future with a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
People in a lower income bracket will be the ones who are hit hardest and have to change their
driving behaviour as the road pricing is independent of income, exhibiting price inelasticity. This
increase in inequality which could be a result of road pricing can be illustrated using the Lorenz
curve which shows the distribution of wealth, with increased inequality leading to a shift away from
the line of equality as shown by the arrow showing a higher proportion of income going to a smaller
proportion of people. There is a correlation between work flexibility and income so people with less
income will have to pay the peak time charges and the Lorenz curve will shift. As the main aim of
the scheme is to reduce congestion people may feel as though they are being 'Priced off the roads.'
The Gini Co–efficient shows distribution between households, it was recorded that following the
London Toll introduction, the co–efficient increased from 0.2778 to 0.2785. Changes in road pricing
have not been perceived well by the public in the UK. The scheme has been viewed as an invasion
of privacy due to the tracking technology. After a referendum in Edinburgh 'the widespread political
opposition was reflected in the vote: 74% of people voted against the plan'. An online petition
against road pricing was signed by 1.8 million people showing the depth of feeling against road
pricing. However, with the highest fuel duty in the world being increased above inflation each year,
UK

To What Extent Can Urban Areas Be Sustainable
Urban sustainability is the idea that an urban area can be organised without excessive reliance on the
surrounding countryside and be able to power itself with renewable sources of energy. The aim of
this is to create the smallest possible environmental footprint and to produce the lowest quantity of
pollution possible, to efficiently use land, compost used materials, recycle it or convert waste–to–
energy, and to make the urban area overall contribution to climate change minimal. Therefore
allowing the next generations and future generations to have the required resources without
compromising them.
It is estimated that over 50% of the world's population now lives in urban areas and that this will
rise to 70% by 2050. Such a change will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Curitiba recycles 2/3 of its household waste this figure is one of the highest in the world. The
recycling plants are made up of recycled material and employ people who find it hard to get jobs for
example immigrants and disabled people, this makes the employees feel valued and it helps to
improve the lives.
Colour co–ordinating teams collect the waste that has been separated in inorganic and organic
waste. It is then sorted and sent out to other recycling plants to process. Cans are recycled at the
fraction of the cost of producing new ones. There are also special teams, which go out and collect
very large items, which would be too difficult and possibly expensive for someone to try and recycle
themselves so would be fly tipped as a result.
The green exchange was introduced in Curitiba in 1990, this scheme was to encourage the poor to
recycle their waste in return for food produce or bus transport tickets. This has proved to be a
valuable service for the poor as they live in areas, which are hard for the recycling team to access.
They deliver their waste to a waste station and in return for their rubbish they can be exchanged for
bus tickets, food, and school–books, this system was a great success and saw Participation among
Curitiba households reached 70% in the 1990s. Curitiba's strategy turned waste into a resource,
thereby unleashing a range of positives. The widespread problem of

Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo
Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo
Since the 1940s, motorization has increased rapidly around the world, particularly private vehicles.
The trend has created both economic and individual benefits. The development resulted in the
prosperity of the metropolis, while regional areas declined steeply in scale. In Japan, the least
number of vehicles per household by prefecture was Tokyo with 0.497(Automobile Inspection
Association, 2009). Nevertheless, there are chronic enormous traffic jams in Tokyo. Congestion
charging systems have been considered because many suburbanites have gathered to work, study
and make a purchase in the city. As a result of the consideration, the new systems have been
practised in many cities, such as Oslo, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1997, likewise, Japan organised the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The treaty (United Nations, 1998) indicates:
It was to establish a legally binding international agreement, whereby all the participating nations
commit themselves to tackling the issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions.
Although Japan's target was a reduction of 6% from 1990 levels by the year 2012, it might be
difficult to achieve the objective, but the definite charging plan might inspire Japan to approach the
aim effectively.
A heated debate about the influence on car businesses has become another argument against the use
of congestion charge. It has been contended that car consumption would experience a sharp decrease
owing to the new device (Environment of Tokyo, 2010). It has been also claimed that the
automobile industry, which has been protected by the Japanese government since World War II and
taken the major role in the economy (University of Tokyo, 2004), would lose the power and might
be difficult to compete with foreign companies. On the positive side, it has been asserted that the
changes could be a large number of opportunities for the Japanese motor vehicle industry because
the new technologies, such as electric cars and hybrid ones, could be developed (Nakamura,2010).
These cars could provide not only cheaper charging costs and repairing fees for drivers but also
reductions in air

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Congestion Charging System
Congestion in cities, especially large cities, become major problem of society. People need to travel
on their job, shops, school, to do other activities important for normal functioning and recreational
activities. There are therefore, among the others, congestion charging systems. Congestion charging
is a system developed on principle that consumers should pay directly for costs they impose, in this
case congestion, in order to use resources efficiently. This system represent daily charge for driving
vehicle in the center of the city, to provide better quality of the canter and to incurage people to use
public transport. With development of car industry and building new roads between the cities, long
distance traveling was available to people. Increasing the level of motorization ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Each of these types combine one or more technologies such as uses digital cameras and optical
character recognition, satellite systems (Global Positioning System – GPS), Global System for
Mobile GSM, vehicles technologies (Vehicle Identification Number –VIN) ect. in order to perform
three basic function. Each system has some advantages and drawbacks such as: modern DSRC has a
recognition accuracy of 99% or greater, while ANPR accuracy is lower and it varies by facility and
conditions (bad weather, dirt). Both of these technologies require roadside infrastructure which is
expensive to install, require maintenance which is also costly, occupies a space and if it's necessary
it is hart or impossible to relocate, where satellites and cellular networks don't require infrastructure.
While some of this systems require one or more types of equipment, ANPR does not require
equipment in vehicle. DSRC systems require a transponders, satellite systems require an antenna,
power source and digital

The London Program Has Cut Congestion
The London program has cut congestion from the original cordon by 20 to 30 percent (70,000 fewer
cars per day), and by 14 percent in the western extension (30,000 fewer cars per day). There has
been a 6 percent increase in bus ridership and a 12 percent increase in cycling journeys into the
western addition during charging hours; and a 66 percent increase in cycling within the charging
zone since it was introduced (Transport for London, 2009). As private vehicle traffic has dropped,
some road space has been dedicated to transit and other purposes. Transport for London (TfL)
announced that construction‐ related delays and changing use of road space contributed to
increasing traffic congestion in the charging zone back to pre‐charging zone levels, but that the
number of vehicles was still significantly lower and that construction‐related delays would have
been worse without the congestion charging zone in place (Mail On‐Line, 2008). Many of these
delays appear to be temporary, although some alterations to roadways to promote alternative forms
of transportation are permanent.
Carbon dioxide emissions dropped 15 to 20 percent, and fine particulates and nitrogen dioxide
dropped 10 percent according to the Central London Congestion Charging Impacts Monitoring
Sixth Annual Report (TfL, 2008). This is especially important because London currently exceeds
European standards for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and fine particulates (PM10). Transportation is the
largest sources of both,

North American and European Airline Industry Essay
North American and European Airline Industry
INTRODUCTION
The Airline industry is one of the world's largest industries generating over $300 billion in revenues
in 2001 alone and additionally has the second highest industrial growth rate, after the computer
industry, with typical growth rates of 3–5% per annum over the last 20 years (Humphreys, 2003; BA
Fact book, 2002).
For the purpose of this assignment, freight/cargo airline activities will not be considered as freight
travel consists of only 2 % of total airline activity (see figure 3.1 and appendix 1) (BA Fact book,
2002,
ICAO, 2003). Furthermore, due to the nature of the airline industry and the Asian market being a lot
smaller and internally focused, we
will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This has had significant implications for an industry which relies on these passengers for
approximately two thirds of its revenue (Economist, 2001). The reduction in business passenger
numbers has resulted not only in adding to the already existing overcapacity problem but also in
increasing competitive pressures, the resultant effect being a persistent downtrend in airfares. In
fact, after adjusting for inflation airline revenues per passenger kilometre are about half the level of
30 years ago (BA Fact Book, 2002). The birth of the low cost carriers and the increasing market
share they have acquired has further exacerbated this downward trend as passengers become more
price sensitive.
1.2 Political Forces facing the airline industry
The airline industry is also very much in the political frontline (see figure 1.1). The implications of
terrorism for the industry are evident from the statistics – 2001 was only the second year in the
history of modern civil aviation in which international air traffic declined (IATA, 2002) and,
although air traffic has since improved, it is nevertheless still below pre–September 11 levels.
Furthermore, the knock on effects it has had in other areas of the industry, most notably the
vertiginous rise in the cost of insurance and security, has further added to the economic woes of the
industry. Since the attacks insurance companies immediately increased insurance premiums and
reduced

Interpretations Of Sustainable Urban Transport Systems Of...
Interpretations of Sustainable Urban Transport systems of different international cities
Introduction
Sustainable development is the current holy grail of developers & planners across the globe. It is a
roadmap to attain sustainability in any resource using activity requiring intra–generational & inter–
generational reproduction, where reserve use & living condition of present & future human
generation is being met without undermining the "integrity, stability & beauty" of natural biotic
systems (Leopold, 1949). After Brundtland Report, the term "Sustainable development" gained
popularity and mainstream use (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainable development preaches that socio–
economic–ecological progresses are concomitantly attainable within ... Show more content on
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(congestion, pollution, overpopulation etc.). Sustainable Urban transport sector was chosen to study
& compare transport planning, policy & implementation of different countries across the globe. It
was found that countries already heavily developed in vehicular mode (private vehicle) is having
hard time shifting modal preference to sustainable urban transport systems (MRT, BRT, NMV); as
this requires huge initial capital investment, enthusiastic public participation & political
statesmanship & sagacity & willingness to face hostile public reaction to change over (ie;
Singapore– modal shift from vehicular to public transport) (MoT, Singapore website, 2014).
Countries like USA also faces huge public opposition (perception of curtailment of freedom) &
legal barrier (4th amendment, US constitution), (Richard, 2009). USA (San Francisco, Portland,
New York, and Milwaukee) has deconstructed freeways (Norquist, 2000); France (Paris) has
converted Georges Pompidou Expressway into Paris–Plage (Paris Beach) (Charles Siege, 2007) and
South Korea (Seoul) has removed Cheonggye freeway to restore Cheonggyecheon river (Natalie,
2013). Achieving the balance between progress and impact is a delicate dance choreographed
through sustainable development planning, policy and pragmatic implementation. How the
described countries are faring will now be scrutinized.
Definition:
Sustainable development is "Development that meets the needs

Geography Synoptic Essay
With reference to examples, assess the degree to which the level of economic development of a
country affects planning and management in urban areas.
The economic development of a country can be defined as the growth of industry, wealth,
employment and the level of urbanisation. The planning and management issues that are linked to
economic development, are those associated with processes such as urbanisation, suburbanisation
and counter–urbanisation of cities. These may include pollution of water, air and noise. Other issues
may be the increase in transport and waste, created by people living, travelling through and working
in urban areas. These problems need solutions, which often leads to planning and carrying out
redevelopment of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite great publicity only 8000 houses were built, which would on average house 40,000 people
(in comparison to the 100,000 living in the favelas.) Improvements have been attempted since, for
example in 2000, when investment was put into Santo Andre. The aim was to alleviate poverty by
providing work for entrepreneurs, community healthcare workers and literacy programmes. So
although this is an LEDC/RIC, it still faces overpopulation problems; it does seem that the planning
and management changes are aiding the over–population problem and improving the overall quality
of life.
In contrast Notting Hill is in the UK, an economically developed country with an average GDP
(ppp) per capita of $35,494 in comparison to $11,719 in Brazil (World Bank 2011). Notting Hil is an
area of London, an example of re–urbanisation; when people move into the city centre or inner city
due to regeneration. Gentrification is what has happened in Notting Hill, as individuals moved into
old housing that was formerly in a state of despair and refurbished and improved it. This changed
the composition of the whole neighbourhood, because the affluent newcomers displaced the low–
income groups that formerly lived there. Often the new comers work in professional or managerial
jobs. A positive outcome of this is that more affluent people have been attracted to the area and
therefore

Privatizing Urban Transportation Can Work With Timely...
The privatizing of urban transportation can work with timely public planning. A lot of the issues to
be considered are due to poor maintenance, slow expansion of streets, urban highways and
excessive congestion in many cities. Public and private partnerships can be used to improve the
timing of investments and ensure adequate maintenance of highways. Because of the lack of
funding and political "red tape" at both the local and federal levels, privatized funding can help with
the development of roadways, create jobs and complete the task at hand. Although privatization
terms and conditions of contracted developers of urban planning can create an inflexed rate in the
use of tolls for many road ways and highways it can reduce the congestion in many cities. This
paper will explore the how poor maintenance, slow expansion of streets and urban highways and
excessive congestion are chronic in many cities. The research will argue claims that public–private
partnerships can be used to improve the timing of new investments, ensure adequate maintenance of
highways and streets and manage congestion with road user charges. It will also elaborate on how
this theory of public and private planning can only work with timely public planning, deft contract
design and enforcement and competent inter jurisdiction coordination as well as show that
Public/Private Partnerships (PPPs) do not relieve the public budget of its financial obligation. The
research will touch on how PPPs are preferred over

Mobile Ipv4 And Ipv6 Problems And Implementation
Mobile IPv4 and IPv6 Problems and Implementation Mobile IPv4 and IPv6 are the future of mobile
communications wirelessly and can help greatly in the infrastructure and combination of mobile
systems and internet. This usage of IP addresses in mobile would increase the need for
implementation of IPv6 as the new standard to replace IPv4 and increase the number of available
addresses. However IP based mobile isn't perfect and has its own host of problems and those will be
discussed as well later as well as possible fixes in short and long term to these problems. The main
need to implement mobile IP is the fact that it can support more users and keep those users closer to
the internet, meaning that the internet is integrated into the system. ... Show more content on
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This can be a problem as more devices connect to and use a network the more data they use and can
cause a network to become congested. A solution to reduce congestion is to use many small wireless
receivers within the range of a large tower to spread out the devices upon smaller more confined
networks when within cities and high density areas. And simply using long range low capacity
towers when in the country side and places where fewer devices will be on a network at any given
time, this is a combination of macro cells and micro cells to ensure network stability. At layer 2
comes the need to differentiate between devices on the network and needs a standard to work in
place usually used at layer 2 in IP based communications over the internet is Ethernet II and uses
MAC addresses differentiating between devices by using a hexadecimal format. This is done by
burning a unique ID into a network card by a manufacturer, however rather than the normal Wi–Fi a
better option for long range communications is WiMAX. The differences in Wi–Fi and WiMAX is
that WiMAX has an effective distance of up to 90km while Wi–Fi only has a range of up to 100m
and data rates on WiMAX is up to 40mbps compared to Wi–Fi with up to 54mbps. Next layer 3 the
Network layer is where the Internet Protocol (IP) will take place and be defined. There are two
options to use here IPv4 or IPv6.

Road Tax Persuasive Essay
There is nothing like the freedom of being in control of your vehicle on the open road and not
having to relying on your spouse's or friends' drivability or lack of concentration behind the wheel.
However, during the morning and evening commutes there are zero open roads, and there are
entirely too many drivers on the road, so all the confidence you may have driving is washed away
by absolute road congestion. What about the back seat drivers that we love to secretly omit when
traveling to our destinations? It's a gracious part of freedom that allows us to choose who rides with
us and who doesn't. Still, because there are millions of drivers that travel on a given route each day,
our road companion decisions are less decisive than we even recognize. ... Show more content on
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PACommutes urges drivers to discover that "Carpooling is a great way to make new friends and
start new professional relationships. To find other commuters you are compatible with, use the
Match & Ride tool" ("Car Pooling Benefits"). Portland, Oregon takes an incentivized approach for
companies, which includes benefits that trickle down to employees:
Federal and Oregon state tax laws make it possible for your business to offer a pre–tax
transportation program to your employees. Because pre–tax deduction reduces the amount of
employees' taxable earnings, it also reduces the amount of FICA and unemployment taxes your
company must pay. Pre–tax deductions can include vanpool fares and transit passes. Your company
may also take a tax credit equal to 35% of the eligible costs for transportation–related programs
such as subsidizing part or all of your employees' vanpool costs ("Carpool Incentives for the
Portland Metro

A Brief Note On The Pollution Control Programme
1.1.1 Extra fuel consumption
Due to traffic jam, extra fuel consumption is a big problem for a developing country like India. The
government is buying this extra amount of fuel with hard cash. This is considered a national loss.
1.1.2 Vehicle operating cost
Vehicle operating cost is directly proportionate to the traffic jam. A vehicle operator applies more
breaks and accelerates again and again. So, the lifetime of vehicle parts and fuel consumption will
be more in road jams. Traffic jam actually increases VOC. Figure 8: Mapping of congestion cost
1.2 Impact on pollution level
According to the report on (Status of the vehicular pollution control programme in India) released in
march 2010 by Central Pollution control Board, Ministry ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Residents following laws with the intention of development of town can reduce traffic jam in
Samalkha town up to great extent. In order to provide training to drivers of motor vehicles, four
Institutes of Driving Training and Traffic Research (IDTRs) are being established in the districts of
the State such as Rohtak, Bahadurgarh, Bhiwani, Kaithal with a total budget of about 100 Crore
Rupees, but few people's approaching to these institutes in state. Table 2 shows charges for training
in these institutes is quite low but still not many people coming to these institutions.
Table 2: represents the charges in above mentioned institutes for drivers' training.
COURSE DURATION CHARGES IN RUPEES
HMV/LMV– commercial 1 day 400
Hazardous 1 day 400
Hazardous 1 day 400
HMV/LMV–commercial 1 day 400
HMV/LMV 1 day 400
Conductor License 1 day 300
Badge–Training 1 day 300
Skill Test Half day 350
Competency test Half day 350
2.2 Strict traffic law implementation
Most people think that traffic jam in Samalkha town can be reduced by restricting heavily loaded
trucks. It can be done by implementing traffic law strictly. If each and every traffic policeman
perform his duty then it will be easy to implement rules.

2.3 Increasing pedestrian facilities
As per the survey results, most of the people like to travel on foot for shopping and other
administrative works in Samalkha

Essay on Millau Viaduct Project Management
The Millau Viaduct is a cable–stayed road bridge which spans the valley of the river Tarn situated
alongside the Township of Millau in Southern France. The viaduct standing over 343 meters tall was
the world's tallest cable–stayed bridge and was proposed as the missing link in the A75 auto route
that connects Paris in the north to Perpignan in the south. The Millau Viaduct was the product of 17
years of ideas, proposals, planning and designs that resulted in shaving 40 miles off the former route
through the region, a boom in local economic development and the completion of the one of the
world's most well managed and constructed projects.
Initiate
Business Case:
The initial objectives of the project are to provide a link in the ... Show more content on
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These teams where given five proposals for the viaduct with five defined project objectives that
were to be followed in each proposal. Refer to Appendix Figure (4) for images of proposed projects.
This approach was designed to gain further evaluation on already proposed designs, instead of
receiving freshly proposed designs. The proposals were submitted and critiqued by an independent
committee setup within SETRA.
Selection of design:
In July of 1996 the party in charge of executing the work composed of Government representatives,
Local officials, Engineers and Director of Roads selected the multiple cable–stayed viaduct as the
most appropriate solution based on the project scope. The viaduct had the lowest cost across all
proposals and also shortest build time. The architectural design was of the highest quality and in
keeping with the local aesthetics. An architect's impression is outlined in Appendix Figure (5).
Technical research was continued by SETRA with main project scope directed at: * Geology *
Foundations * Design of pier and deck * Maintenance, operation * User's behaviour * Building
methods * Construction management * Cost analysis
Project Deliverables:
The decision by the GoF to

Climate Change And Climate Adaptation
One of the most challenging global issue facing today's society is climate change, it is affecting all
regions across the globe, with some areas experiencing extreme weather events and heavy rainfall,
whereas other regions are hit with droughts and heat waves. Climate change can be defined as a
"large–scale, long–term shift in the planet's weather patterns or average temperatures." (metoffice).
Consequently, a range of challenges are occurring to not only human settlements, but more
importantly to the natural environment as well. It is becoming increasingly important for countries
across the globe to attempt to adapt and mitigate from the effects of climate change. Climate
mitigation is "any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the long–term risk and hazards of
climate change to human life, property." (Global–greenhouse–warming.com). It can include
enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases, as well as reducing the sources. Whereas climate
adaptation, is referring to "the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate
variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to
cope with the consequences." (Global–greenhouse–warming.com). Adaptation can include
improving road infrastructure, so it would be able to withstand hotter temperatures, or just simply
change in behaviour shifts such as using less water. These two methods are essential and can be
connected through strategic town planning, and can be used to tackle climate change, through an
array of implementations which will not only prepare the globe, but also reduce the impacts of
climate change.
Urban areas not only have a profound part in contributing to climate change, but these areas have
also become extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as more than half of the world's
population are living in urban areas and global rate of urbanisation is evermore increasing. Cities
can be met with an increase in frequency of storms, flooding, landslides and heat waves. Higher
temperatures also occur more frequently in urban areas than rural or suburban surroundings, due to
the urban heat island effect. This is "an area, such as a city or industrial site, that has consistently

How Urban Environments Has Made More Sustainable And What...
How Have Urban Environments Been Made More Sustainable And What More Needs To Be Done
for the Future?
Introduction
The National Geographic Education define an urban environment as, 'the region surrounding a city.
Urban areas are very developed, meaning there is a density of human structures such as houses,
commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways.(1)' The International Institute for Sustainable
Development define sustainable development as 'development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (2)' In 2014,
approximately 54%(3) of the total global population live in urban environments. The global urban
population has grown significantly from 34% in 1960(3) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
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The provision of affordable mass transit provides residents of urban areas greater accessibility,
which can provide them with more opportunities and services. Furthermore, with the provision of a
successful transport system, it is highly likely for the number of people using personal vehicles to
fall. This fall in the use of cars would mean that less harmful gases such as Carbon Monoxide,
Nitrogen Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide released and so the natural environment would benefit. With a
successful transport system, accessibility is greatly improved, which can be beneficial economically
for a city. People are able to travel to and from work and the transport can also be used for trading
goods and services. However, current mass transit is unsustainable in urban cities due to its reliance
on non–renewable fossil fuels and the pollution it creates has a significant impact on the
environment. Currently, transport is accountable for 20%–25% of world's energy consumption and
carbon dioxide emissions(1) and the current systems mostly run on fossil fuels, which are expected
to run out by 2088 according to ecotricity(2). In order to improve the sustainability of an urban area,
the transport systems, which need to be in place for economic and social reasons, need to become
greener, cleaner and run on renewable energy. Current technology is not currently in place to allow
for this significant change and so gradual changes have been introduced in some of the world cities.
London's

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