2. Definitions
Seizure /Ictus/ Fits
From a Latin word that means ‘to take possession of ‘
Paroxysmal event due to abnormal excessive, hypersynchronous
discharges from an aggregate of CNS neurons.
Epilepsy
o Clinical phenomenon rather than a single identity.
o Recurrent seizures due to chronic underlying process.
3. Definitions
A convulsion is a medical condition where body muscles
contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in an
uncontrolled shaking of the body.
Because a convulsion is often a symptom of epileptic
seizures, the term convulsion is sometimes used as a synonym
for seizure.
However, not all epileptic seizures lead to convulsions, and
not all convulsions are caused by epileptic seizures.
4. Epidemiology
Epilepsy knows no geographical, racial, or social boundaries.
About 50 million people in world have Epilepsy.
It occurs in men and women and can begin at any age, but it is
most frequently diagnosed in infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
age.
Prevalence:
o Developed countries- 0.5% (0.4% - 1%) Developing countries-
five times higher
o Incidence: After infancy annual incidence- is 20-70/100000 in
developed countries. Developing countries- Incidence is double.
(100/100000)
o The lifetime risk of having a single seizure: About 5%.
6. Epilepsy Syndromes And Other Special Forms
Epilepsy syndromes are disorders in which epilepsy is a
predominant feature, and there is sufficient evidence
(e.g., through clinical, EEG, radiologic, or genetic
observations) to suggest a common underlying
mechanism.
7. Epilepsy Syndrome
Juvenile Myoclonic epilepsy
Lennox Gastaut syndrome
Mesial Temporal Lobe epilepsy
Infantile spasms / West’s syndrome
Landau-Kleffner syndrome (infantile acquired aphasia)
Other special forms
• Catamenial epilepsy
• Reflex epilepsy
• eg: eating epilepsy, hot water epilepsy
• Gelastic epilepsy
• Diencephalic or autonomic
8. Etiology
In about 70% of people with
epilepsy, the cause is not known
In 30%, most common causes are:
Inherited
o genetic
Acquired :
o Trauma
o Neurosurgery
o Inflammatory
o Metabolic
o Infections
o Tumor
o Toxic disorders
o Drugs
Congenital:
o inborn error of metabolism.
Withdrawal of drugs
o Alcohol
o Benzodiazepine
o Barbiturates
o Other Anti-Epileptics
9. Psychotropics and Seizure
o highest risk of seizures(0.5%)
clomipramine 0.5%(tertiary amine TCA )
bupropion (0.4%, up to 2.2% with doses higher than 450 mg per day)
maprotiline (0.4%) (tetracyclic)
•
•
Other TCAs:
imipramine
Intermediate in risk
SSRI:- fluoxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, citalopram, and paroxetine
NSRI :- venlafaxine
Least risk – monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
http://www.epilepsy.com/information/professionals/diagno sis-treatment/drugs-
their-contribution- seizures/antidepressants
10. Psychotropics and Seizure
Antipsychotics
Highest risk:
o clozapine
o loxapine
o chlorpromazine
Intermediate ( less than 1.0–1.2%)
o fluphenazine
o thioridazine
o perphenazine
o Trifluoperazine
Least seizure-induction
o haloperidol
o molindone
o pimozide
The antipsychotics of choice on the basis both of epileptogenesis and the
side effect profiles are atypical agents:
o Risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine
11. Triggers
Missed medication (#1 reason)
Stress, anxiety
Hormonal changes, Menses
Dehydration
Lack of sleep, extreme fatigue
Photosensitivity
Illicit Drug, and alcohol use
Certain Medications
Fever in Some Children
12. Risks
Groups at Increased Risk for Epilepsy
o About 1% of the general population develops epilepsy
o The risk is higher in people with certain medical conditions:
Mental retardation
Cerebral palsy
Alzheimer’s disease
Stroke
Autism
13. Pathophysiology
Glutamate and GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid):
o the brain's major "workhorse" neurotransmitters that regulate action
potential traffic.
o GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that stops action potentials.
o Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, starts action potentials or
keeps them going.
o Both work together to control many processes, including the brain's
overall level of excitation.
14.
15. What is Seizure?
An unpredictable, uncontrolled, abnormal, and
excessive paroxysmal synchronization imbalance of
the excitatory and inhibitory forces within the CNS
network of cortical neurons in the cerebral cortex.
Repeated sub-threshold of a neuron generates action
potentials leading to seizures
It has been suggested that chronic epileptic discharges
may lead to secondary epileptogenesis.
16. Clinical Presentation
Partial Seizures
Simple Partial Seizures:
o Consciousness is fully preserved
o Motor symptoms Involves motor strip, Manifested by
abnormal movement of an extremity,
o Jacksonian motor seizure: progression to adjacent muscle
groups
o Todds palsy: transient paralysis
o Adversive seizure: Forced deviation of the eyes and turning
head to the opposite side.
17. SPS
Somatosensory symptoms Involves sensory strip, temporal(hearing and
smell) or occipital(visual) lobe
Autonomic symptoms involve the temporal lobe (tachycardia, pallor,
flushing, sweating, and Piloerection.
Psychic manifestation
o Dysphasic- when cortical speech area is affected (left perisylvian)
o Dysmnestic- disturbance of memory (mesobasal temporal right)
o Cognitive symptoms- dreamy state (mesobasal temporal and
temporal neocortex)
o Affective symptoms- fear, depression, anger, irritability, elation,
erotic thoughts (mesobasal temporal and temporal neocortex)
o Illusion of size, structured hallucination (mesobasal temporal and
temporal neocortex)
18. Complex Partial Seizure
Complex partial seizures (= psychomotor seizures)
o Initial subjective feeling (aura)
o loss of consciousness
o abnormal behavior (perioral and hand automatisms)
o Majority originate in the Temporal lobe (60%)
o but also originate another lobe – particularly the Frontal(30%).
•
Discriminating features
o Consciousness is altered
o Stereotyped
o Focal spikes in interictal EEG
19. CPS
Consistent Features
o Approximately 60-180 seconds duration
o Paroxysmal
o Post-ictal confusion
Variable Features
o Presence of aura Automatisms
o May secondarily generalize to a tonic-clonic seizure
o Associated with a focal structural lesion
o May elevate prolactin level
May be confused with
o Drunkenness or drug use
o willful belligerence
o aggressiveness
20. Generalised Seizure
o Gtcs
o Absences
o Myoclonic seizures
o Clonic seizures
o Tonic seizures
o Atonic seizures
Discriminating features
o Initial tonic phase followed by clonic activity involving all
extremities
Consistent Features Loss of consciousness
o Typically 60-second duration
o Post-ictal period associated with confusion and drowsiness Variable
Features Tongue biting or injury Urinary incontinence Nonspecific
prodrome post-ictal paralysis
21. Absence Seizure
Discriminating features
o Very brief duration (5-15 seconds)
and 100 – 200 time/day mat
o Family H/O of typical absence
seizures
o Response to ethosuximide and
valproate
Consistent Features
o EEG-3 cycles/ sec of generalized
spike and wave(typical)
o No aura
o Impaired consciousness
o No post-ictal state
o Variable Features
o Automatisms
o Change in body tone
o Precipitation hyperventilation
Atypical absence seizures
o Longer duration of loss of
consciousness
o Less abrupt onset and cessation
o More obvious focal signs
o Less responsive to drugs
22.
23. Atypical Seizures
Reflex epilepsy
o Hot water epilepsy: a person gets a seizure whenever
he/she pours hot water on the head.
o Initially it is reported more from South India, especially
from Bangalore.
Eating epilepsy: Seizures are usually precipitated while a
person starts eating food. The masticatory and oro-
mandibular movements might trigger the seizure.
Watching TV can precipitate seizures in a vulnerable
individual.
o This is akin to the photostimulation procedure seen in
EEG recording.
Hyperventilation can also precipitate seizures
24. Differential Diagnosis
o Syncope
Vasovagal syncope
Cardiac arrhythmia
Valvular heart disease
Cardiac failure
Orthostatic hypotension
o Psychological disorders
Psychogenic seizure
Hyperventilation
Panic attack
o Metabolic disturbances
Alcoholic blackouts
Delirium tremens
Hypoglycemia
Hypoxia
o Psychoactive drugs (e.g., hallucinogens)
o Migraine
Confusional migraine
Basilar migraine
o Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Basilar artery TIA
o Sleep disorders
Narcolepsy/cataplexy
Benign sleep myoclonus
o Movement disorders
Tics
Nonepileptic myoclonus
Paroxysmal choreoathetosis
Special considerations in children
o Breath-holding spells
o Migraine with recurrent abdominal pain and
cyclic vomiting
o Benign paroxysmal vertigo – Apnea – Night
terrors – Sleepwalking
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30. Investigations
The concern of the clinician is that epilepsy may be symptomatic of a treatable cerebral lesion.
Routine investigation:
• Hematology, biochemistry (electrolytes, urea, and calcium)
• chest X-ray
• electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Neuroimaging (CT/MRI) should be performed in all persons aged 25 or more presenting with
first seizure and in those pts. with focal epilepsy irrespective of age.
• Specialized neurophysiological investigations: Sleep-deprived EEG, video-EEG monitoring.
• Advanced investigations (in pts. with intractable focal epilepsy where surgery is considered):
Neuropsychology, Semi-invasive or invasive EEG recordings
• MR Spectroscopy
• Positron emission tomography (PET)
• ictal Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
31. EEG in epilepsy
A normal single EEG does not exclude the diagnosis of epilepsy.
If a normal awake EEG is obtained in an individual with the
clinical suspicion of seizures, one should repeat the EEG
capturing sleep because many epileptic abnormalities appear
only in sleep
Interictal findings in the EEG are invaluable aids for classifying
seizures and epilepsy syndromes
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33.
34. Management
Treatment Goals in Epilepsy
• Help person with epilepsy lead full and productive life
• Eliminate seizures without producing side effects
• Tailor treatment to needs of individuals/special populations : Women,
Children, Elderly, Hepatic or renal failure and other diseases
What if not treated?
• Seizures can be potentially life threatening with brain failure, heart and lung
failure, trauma, accidents
• Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP)
• Even subtle seizures can cause small damage in brain
• Long Term problems: fall in IQ, depression, suicide, Social Problems,
Quality of Life
36. • Single Unprovoked Seizures
o Common affecting 4% of the population by age 80
o 30%-40% of patients with a first seizure will have a second
unprovoked seizure ( epilepsy)
o Risk factors for seizure recurrence include a history of
neurologic insult, focal lesions on MRI, epileptiform EEG, and
family history of epilepsy
o Adult patients with these risk factors have a 60%-70% of
recurrence
37. First Aid
o Stay calm and track time
o Protect head, remove glasses, loosen tight
neckwear
o Move anything hard or sharp out of the way
o Turn person on one side, position mouth to
ground
o Check for epilepsy or seizure disorder ID
o Understand that verbal instructions may not be
obeyed
o Stay until person is fully aware and help reorient
them
o Call ambulance if seizure lasts more than 5
minutes or if it is unknown whether the person
has had prior seizures
38. • Safety Issues for Patients with Epilepsy
o Cant Drive for about a year after the last seizure
o Climbing altitudes
o Swimming/ Bathing alone
o Operating heavy machinery or weapons that can be dangerous
o Cooking, hot water
o Taking care of babies
o Bone Health
39. Antiepileptic Drug Therapy
AED therapy is not necessary if a first seizure is
provoked by factors that resolve
AED therapy may be indicated if there is a permanent
injury to the brain (stroke , tumor)
In general AED therapy is started if there is a high risk of
recurrent seizures
40. Guidelines forAnticonvulsant Therapy
o Start with one of the first line drugs
o Start with low dose: Gradually increase to effective dose or until side effects.
o Check compliance If first drug fails due to side effects or continue seizures,
start second line drugs whilst gradually withdrawing first.
o Try Three AED singly before using combinations
o Beware about drug interactions
o Do not use more than two drugs in combination at any one time
o If above fails consider occult structural or metabolic lesion and whether
seizures are truly epileptic.
42. Second Generation AEDs
o With the exception of Felbamate second generation AED’S have
advantages over first generation agents.
o Generally lower side effect rates
o Little or no need for serum monitoring
o Once or twice daily dosing
o Fewer drug interactions
o There is no significant difference in efficacy with the second
generation agents
o Higher cost associated with the new agents
o Monotherapy is well established for Lamotrigine and Oxcarbazepine
o The other agents are undergoing and many have completed
monotherapy trials
43. • AED In General
o The most important factor in determining the success of drug therapy
is the duration of the epilepsy
o The patient needs to know that AED treatment is a commitment and
non-compliance can be dangerous
• Pregnancy Considerations
o Consider withdrawing of AED’S if the patient is a good candidate
o Use monotherapy where appropriate
o Folate 1-4 mg per day in all women on AED
o The risk of fetal malformations is increased in pregnant women on
AED
o Seizures during pregnancy can induce miscarriage
o Seizures during pregnancy can be deleterious to the mother or fetus
o The possibility of prenatal diagnosis of malformations can be
considered with AFP levels and ultrasonography
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46. • Withdrawal of AED
o After complete control of seizures for 3-5 years
o withdrawal of Anti Epileptic drugs may be considered
o But in the case of a special professional group (car driver, machine man, etc)
withdraw the AED after keen follow-up.
o 20% of pts will suffer a further sz within 2 yrs.
o AED should be tapered during the stopping of medications.
o Slow reduction by increments over at least 6 months.
o If the patient is taking two AEDs one drug should be slowly withdrawn before
the second is tapered.
o The risk of teratogenicity is well known (~5%), especially with valproates, but
withdrawing drug therapy in pregnancy is riskier than continuation.
o Epileptic females must be aware of this problem and thorough family planning
should be recommended.
o Over 90% of pregnant women with epilepsy will deliver a normal child.
47. • Epilepsy Surgery
o Factors influencing decision
o Likelihood seizures are due to epilepsy
o Likelihood surgery will help
o Ability to identify focus of seizures
o Other treatments attempted, and seizures
couldn’t be treated with 2-3 medications
o Benefits vs risks
o Surgical treatment:
o Removal of epileptic focus (eg:mesial
temporal sclerosis)
o Anterior Temporal Lobectomy
o Corpus callostomy
o Subpial transection
o
48. o Vagus Nerve Stimulation
o Device is implanted to control seizures
o by delivering electrical stimulation to
the vagus nerve in the neck, which
relays impulses to widespread areas of
the brain
o Used to treat partial seizures when
medication does not work
49. o Ketogenic Diet
o Based on finding that starvation -- which burns
fat for energy -- has an antiepileptic effect
o Used primarily to treat severe childhood
epilepsy, has been effective in some adults &
adolescents
o High fat, low carbohydrate and protein intake
o Usually started in hospital
o Requires strong family commitment
50. • Other Treatment Approaches
o Behavioral therapy
o Biofeedback
o Relaxation
o Positive reinforcement
o Cognitive therapy
o Aromatherapy
51. References
o Harrison’s principles of internal medicine , 17th edition
o Organic psychiatry William Alwyn Lishman, 3rd edition.
o Ictal and postictalpsychiatric disturbances, Michael R. Trimble Institute of Neurology,
University College, London.
o CTP 10TH EDITION
he diencephalon has been implicated as the critical structure whose disruption leads to these paroxysmal autonomic abnormalities, and therefore many investigators have termed the clinical manifestations “diencephalic seizures” or “diencephalic epilepsy.”