3. “ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE,
WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”
4. PERCEPTION
“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying
the process through which we interpret and organize
sensory information to produce our conscious
experience of objects and object relationship.”
“ Perception is the process of receiving information
about and making sense of the world around us. It
involves deciding which information to notice, how to
categorize this information and how to interpret it
within the framework of existing knowledge.
5. PERCEPTION
“ A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment ”.
7. THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
1. Sensation
An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
The process a person
uses to eliminate some of
the stimuli that have been
sensed and to retain
others for further
processing.
3. Organization
The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for
“storage.”
4. Interpretation
The stage of the
perceptual process at
which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
8. SELECTIVE ATTENTION
Characteristics of the object
size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty
Perceptual context
Characteristics of the perceiver
attitudes
perceptual defense
expectations -- condition us to expect events
9. Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Perception
Factors in the Target
• Motion
• Novelty
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work Setting
• Social Setting
24. PERCEPTUAL GROUPING
Our tendency to group several individual stimuli
into a meaningful and recognizable pattern.
It is very basic in nature and largely it seems to
be inborn.
Some factors underlying grouping are
-continuity -closure
-proximity -similarity
25.
26.
27.
28.
29. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL? WE
LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION TO DECIDE:
DISTINCTIVENESS : Is this person’s performance different
on other tasks and in other situations?
CONSISTENCY : Over time, is there a change in behavior or
results on this task by this person?
CONSENSUS : Do others perform or behave similarly when in
a similar position?
“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental
causes)
“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal causes)
30. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is
internally or externally caused.
observation Attribution of cause
Consistency
Consensus
Distictinctiveness
Individual
behavior
Internal
External
Internal
External
Internal
External
H
L
H
L
H
L
H –high L- Low
Interpretation
31. External
Attribution
31
Distinctiveness
Does this person
behave in
this manner
in other situation
Yes
High
Consistency
No
Low
Consistency
No
Low
Consensus
Yes
High
Consensus
YES
Low
Distinctiveness
NO
High
Distinctiveness
Consensus
Do other person
Behave in the
Same manner?
Consistency
Does this person
behave
in this same
manner at other
times ?
Internal
Attribution
32. PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS
STEREOTYPES : Based on appearance
HALO (HORN) EFFECTS : One outstanding characteristic noted
CONTRAST EFFECT : Ordering
RECENCY EFFECT : Limited recall
PROJECTION : “Similar to me” Error
SKEWING ERRORS : Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY : People respond the way you
“expected” they would
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS) : Filtering, selection,
33. ATTRIBUTION ERRORS
THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
the cause of poor performance (by others) is due to personal
factors (lazy…didn’t try very hard)
SELF-SERVING BIAS
the cause of poor performance (by myself) is due to
situational factors (poor support), not because of a lack of
effort
35. Known to Self Unknown to Self
Known
to Others
Unknown
to Others
Open
Area Blind
Area
Unknown
Area
Hidden
Area
KNOW YOURSELF (JOHARI WINDOW)
Open
Area
Blind
Area
Hidden
Area
Unknown
Area
Disclosure
Feedback
36. DEFINING PERSONALITY
Relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent
internal states that explain a person's behavioural
tendencies
Sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others and environment
38. Outgoing, talkative
Courteous, empathic
Caring, dependable
Poised, secure
Sensitive, flexible
BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
39. Courtesy of Thompson Doyle Hennessey & Everest
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
Extroversion versus
introversion
Sensing versus intuition
Thinking versus feeling
Judging versus
perceiving
40. LOCUS OF CONTROL AND SELF-
MONITORING
Locus of control
Internals believe in their effort and ability
Externals believe events are mainly due to external
causes
Self-monitoring personality
Sensitivity to situational cues, and ability to adapt your
behaviour to that situation
43. PERSONALITY TRAITS
Traits are relatively stable and consistent
personal characteristics
Assumptions for Trait theory:
Traits are-
Common but vary in absolute amounts
Relatively stable
Can be inferred by measuring his/her
behavioral indicators
44. TRAIT THEORY
Trait personality theories suggest that a
person can be described on the basis of
some number of personality traits
Allport identified some 4,500 traits
Cattel used factor analysis to identify 30-35
basic traits
Problems with trait theory include:
Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop
Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting
traits
Allport
47. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to
explain personality on the basis of unconscious mental
forces
Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of
our mental states
Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple structures,
some of which are unconscious
Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety;
our personality develops defense mechanisms to protect
against anxiety
48. FREUDIAN THEORY
Levels of
consciousness
Conscious
What we’re aware
of
Preconscious
Memories etc. that
can be recalled
Unconscious
Wishes, feelings,
impulses that lies
beyond
awareness
Structures of Personality
Id
Operates according to
the “pleasure principle”
Ego
Operates according to
the “reality” principle
Superego
Contains values and
ideals
49. DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Defense mechanisms refer to unconscious
mental processes that protect the conscious
person from developing anxiety
Sublimation: person channels energy from
unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable
accomplishments
Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable
impulses to others
Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into
the unconscious
50. DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable
reasons
Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects
of a painful experience by focusing on abstract
thoughts, words, or ideas
Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge
unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by
exaggerating the opposite state
Regression: Responding to a threatening situation
in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of
development
Displacement: Substituting a less threatening
object for the original object of impulse
51. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
It emphasizes on how an individual behaves or acts
in a given situation.
It holds the view that the specific characteristics of
a situation determine how an individual will behave
in such situation.
53. SELF THEORY
We have needs for:
Self-consistency (absence of conflict between
self-perceptions
Congruence (consistency between self-
perceptions and experience)
Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
People with low self-esteem generally have
poor congruence between their self-concepts
and life experiences.
54. HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS OR SHAPES?
Some findings:
Freud’s four stages
Erikson’s eight life stages
Argyris Immaturity to maturity stages
55. FREUD’S FOUR STAGES
The Oral stage- Lasts for the first year
The Anal stage- Two to three years
The phallic stage- At the age of four years
The latency stage- B/w age of six to seven years
The genital stage-During adolescences & adulthood
56. FREUD: CRITICISMS AND CRITIQUES
He studied very few people so not
representative sample
Process of psychoanalysis interviewing-
exhibit preconceived notions and biases
His measures/methods were untreatable
Definitions don’t lend themselves to
experimentation
One’s personality is fixed and unchanging
57. ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE STAGES
Infancy- first year
Early childhood- Two and three years
Play age-Four and Five years
School age-Six to twelve years
Adolescence-Teenage period
Young adulthood- During Twenties
Old(sunset) age- Adult
58. ARGYRIS IMMATURITY TO MATURITY STAGES
From:
Passivity to activity
Dependence to Independence
Selective behavior
Shallow interest to deep interest
Short term perspective to long perspective
Subordinate position to superordinate position
Lack of self awareness to self awreness and control
60. ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS
Projective Tests
used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT
tests)
How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects
his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli
61. ASSESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS --
RORSCHACH
Rorschach Inkblot Test
the most widely used projective test
a set of 10 inkblots designed by
Hermann Rorschach
Rorschach
70. AM I A TYPE-A?
IDENTIFY THE NUMBER ON THE SCALE THAT BEST CHARACTERIZES YOUR BEHAVIOR FOR EACH
TRAIT.
Casual about appointments Never late
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Not competitive Very competitive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Never feel rushed Always feel rushed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Take things one at a time Try to do many
things at once
3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slow doing things Fast (eating, walking, etc.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Express feelings "Sit on" feelings
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Many interests Few interests
outside work
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
71. RESULTS
A total of 120 or more indicates that you are a hard-core Type A.
Scores below 90 indicate that you are a hard-core Type B.
The following gives you more specifics:
120 or more points = A+ personality type
106-119 = A
100-105 = A
90-99 = B+
Less than 90 = B
If you score in the "A" categories, you need to be aware of your
tendency to focus on quantity over quality. You may do better
in jobs that are routine and rely on speed rather than creativity
for success. In addition, Type As often experience moderate to
high levels of stress.
